Exam 2 Review PDF

[Chapter 4\ ]What are chromosomes, DNA, and genes? DNA: building blocks of chromosomes. Chromosomes: thread-like structures, in the cell that carry genetic info. Made up of DNA. genes: the parts of dna that manifest the development of physical and psychological info Understand heritability- what it...

[Chapter 4\ ]What are chromosomes, DNA, and genes? DNA: building blocks of chromosomes. Chromosomes: thread-like structures, in the cell that carry genetic info. Made up of DNA. genes: the parts of dna that manifest the development of physical and psychological info Understand heritability- what it is, and what it is not. A statistical measure that indicates the proportion of variation in a particular trait within a population that can be attributed to genetic differences\ What is behavioral genetics? A field of study that analyzes the interplay between nature and nurture.to evaluate differences between people.\ What is the logic behind adoption studies (i.e., how do they help us understand nature and nurture interaction?)pretty much if you have 2 copies of the same person raised in different environments, will nature or nurture shine through more in who they are?\ What is the logic behind twin studies (i.e., how do they help us understand the nature and nurture interaction?the study of how the environment can trigger or block genetic expression. ( michael felps)\ What are monozygotic and dizygotic twins? Monozygotic twins are identical twins, from the same egg, and dizygotic twins and fraternal twins can be different genders or the same.\ What are three ways in which genes and environment interact? Passive, reactive and active Understand how epigenetics suggests that genes are switched on and off.\ What is survival adaptation and how might it look in humans?Changes in an organism's traits that improve its ability to survive environmental challenges. What is sexual selection theory and how might it look in humans? To evolution of characteristics not because of survival adaptation but because of matting advantage\ Understand the differences between collectivism and individualism? individualism : independent sense of "ME" collectivism greater sense of "US"s. collectivism: a social viewpoint when your social identity is more centered in the group than the individual (i.e. focus on family and society's good rather than your own)\ How are sex and gender similar and different? Which definition does the proclamation on the family refer to? Sex is assigned at birth based on physical characteristics, gender: cultural expectation of what it means to be a specific sex In The Family: A Proclamation to the World, gender is defined as "biological sex at birth."\ What is intersex? A person that is born with a combination male and female biological traits\ What is sexual orientation? The direction of one\'s sexual attraction\ What is sexual identity?is an individual's conception of themselves in who they choose to love How does social learning theory explain differences in gender expression across cultures?"Social learning theory assumes that we acquire our identity in childhood, by observing and imitating others' gender-linked behaviors and by being rewarded or punished for acting in certain ways" [Chapter 5\ ]What are the three big issues in developmental psychology? Describe them and give examples. 1. Nature and nurture, 2. Continuity and stages 3. Stability and change\ What is the course of prenatal development and how do teratogens affect that development?Approximately 10 days after conception, the zygote (fertilized egg) attaches to the Mother's uterine wall. Cell division rapidly occurs and forms two parts The inner cells become the embryo (the baby) The outer cells become the placenta The placenta acts as a shield against harmful substances Teratogens are the harmful substances that slip through the placenta such as certain chemicals and virus. E.g. Alcohol\ How does the idea of habituation allow us to examine what infants know?Habituation: Once baby gets familiar with object/event, they look at it less\ What is Piaget\'s Stage Theory of Development?Sensorimotor Stage (birth -- 2 yrs.) Preoperational Stage (2 yrs. -- 7 yrs.) Concrete-operational Stage (7 yrs. -- 12 yrs.) Formal-operational Stage (12 yrs. --\ For each stage of Piaget's Theory, what are general characteristics, skills, and deficits of children?\ What are schemas?Concepts or mental molds into which we pour our experiences\ What did Vygotsky propose as an alternate way of understanding cognitive development?proposed that learning is social and precedes development\ What did Harlow\'s monkeys teach us about attachment? Food is not enough for normal social development, bodily contact is the most important.\ What are the main attachment styles? How are they examined using the Strange-situation test, and how do different attachment styles predict different outcomes for children?Secure attachment - babies with this attachment style can explore their environment freely when their caregiver is there with them, they show distress when the caregiver leaves Insecure attachment - the baby clings to the caregiver. These caregivers only help the baby when they need it, but ignore them otherwise.\ What are the different parenting styles and how are they different?permissive, neglective, authoritative, authoritarian.\ What areas of the brain are developing during adolescence?frontal cortex\ How did Kohlberg measure moral reasoning?\ What were his stages? Be able to provide examples of each stage.\ How does self-discipline and self-regulation relate to moral action and how does the Marshmallow test examine it?\ How does memory change as we age?Recognizing new information doesn't change so much as we age, but the ability to recall information does. prospective memory tends to decline with age, as well as remembering habitual and time-based tasks.\ Review social development (i.e., adulthood\'s commitments) love 5 to 1 ratio of positive interactions and work gives us a sense of purpose [Chapter 7\ ]What is learning, generally? Process through which new and relatively long-lasting changes are acquired through experience\ Specifically, what is associative learning? Out minds connecting events that occur together\ What is classical conditioning?associative learning through two stimuli with each other\ What are the major components of learning in classical conditioning? (i.e., US, UR, CS, CR, etc.) **US**: unconditioned stimuli, **UR**:unconditioned response (automatic behavioral response to US). **NS**:neutral stimulus **CS:** conditioned stimulus. **CR:** conditioned response\ What are the major processes in classical conditioning? Give examples. Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination.\ Can you identify the components of classical conditioning using novel examples?\ What is operant conditioning? Process by which the consequences of an operant response changes the likelihood of that response occurring in the future.\ What are the major components of learning in operant conditioning? (e.g., reinforcer vs. punisher, positive vs. negative)**Renforcer:** change that occurs after an operant response that [increases] the frequency of the response in the future.(the behavior was reinforced) **Punishments:** change that occurs after an operant response that [decreases] the frequency of the response in the future. (the behavior was punished) **Positive:** something is presented ( the arrival of something or the presents of something) **Negative:** something is taken away (the removal of something or the absence of something)\ Can you identify the components of operant conditioning in novel examples?\ Whether an example is describing reinforcement or punishment? Positive vs. negative?\ What are the different schedules of partial reinforcement? (Ratio vs. interval; Variable vs. fixed)\ Which are most effective? Can you give examples?\ What are the biological constraints on classical and operant conditioning?\ Learning by observation: what was the bobo doll experiment? [Chapter 8\ ]What are the three ways to measure memory retention? Give/identify examples.\ What are the components of the information-processing model of memory and the three-stage model of memory? How are they similar/different?\ What is sensory memory and what role does attention play in it?\ What is working memory and what role does rehearsal play in it?\ What are examples of automatic encoding?\ What is rehearsal?\ How does rehearsal affect retention?\ What are the three types of effortful encoding? Define and give examples.\ How do distributed practice and depth of processing affect encoding?\ What is the difference between explicit and implicit long-term memory?\ What are subcomponents of each? Give examples.\ How does the spider web analogy help explain how memories and information is stored in the brain?\ What is priming?\ What are context effects?\ What are the differences between retrograde and anterograde amnesia? (What kinds of memory are affected / preserved in each?)\ What are examples of encoding failure?\ What are the two types of interference? How are they different from each other?