Psychology Exam 2 Review PDF

Gray= Questions Pink=Subject Development: refers to the changes and growth that occur throughout a person's life, encompassing physical, cognitive, emotional, and social aspects. Nature/nurture defined; Mulcaster, Galton’s, current views Nature: The genetic and hereditary factors that inf...

Gray= Questions Pink=Subject Development: refers to the changes and growth that occur throughout a person's life, encompassing physical, cognitive, emotional, and social aspects. Nature/nurture defined; Mulcaster, Galton’s, current views Nature: The genetic and hereditary factors that influence who we are. Nurture: The environmental influences that shape our development. Mulcaster: Emphasized the interaction of nature and nurture, suggesting that both genetics and environment are crucial. Galton’s View: Known for promoting the idea of hereditary genius, emphasizing nature. Current Views: Acknowledge that both nature and nurture interact dynamically in shaping individuals. Schizophrenia and depression---symptoms, causal/risk factors, diathesis-stress model, types of depression, and the biopsychosocial approach Symptoms: Schizophrenia: Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, and impaired functioning. Depression: Persistent sadness, loss of interest, fatigue, and feelings of worthlessness. Causal/Risk Factors: Genetic predisposition, environmental stressors, trauma, and neurochemical imbalances. Diathesis-Stress Model: Suggests that a predisposition (diathesis) interacts with stress to trigger mental illness. Types of Depression: Major depressive disorder, persistent depressive disorder, bipolar disorder (manic-depressive). Biopsychosocial Approach: Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding mental health. The 3 “major issues” in developmental research 1. Nature vs. Nurture: The debate on the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors. 2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity: Whether development is a gradual process or occurs in distinct stages. 3. Stability vs. Change: The extent to which our traits persist or change over time. The importance of good nutrition, and early handling/stimulation, prenatally and for newborns - Nutrition: Essential for fetal development and later cognitive and physical growth. - Handling/Stimulation: Early physical and sensory experiences are vital for brain development and emotional security. Cultural differences in raising babies; some pressures for American parents, and lower-income parents - Cultural Variations: Parenting styles vary widely; some cultures emphasize independence, while others prioritize community and interdependence. - Pressures for American Parents: Often face societal expectations for achievement and individualism. - Lower-Income Parents: May face additional stressors such as financial instability, impacting parenting practices. Cognitive development in infants and children --- Piaget’s 4 stages, schemas, assimilation and accommodation, criticisms, Vygotsky’s views focusing on culture and the importance of adult interaction - Piaget’s 4 Stages: - Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Learning through senses and actions. - Preoperational (2-7 years): Development of language and symbolic thinking. - Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Logical thinking about concrete events. - Formal Operational (12+ years): Abstract and hypothetical thinking.  - Schemas: Frameworks for understanding the world. - Assimilation and Accommodation: - Assimilation: Integrating new experiences into existing schemas. - Accommodation: Changing schemas to fit new experiences. - Criticisms: Some argue Piaget underestimated children's abilities and the role of social interaction. - Vygotsky’s Views: Emphasized the importance of culture and social interaction in cognitive development. Social development in infants and children --- what attachment is, Ainsworth’s types of attachment, and how it may vary by culture (individualistic versus collectivist), why attachment exists, sources of support/conflict or children and adolescents. - Attachment: The emotional bond between a child and caregiver. - Ainsworth’s Types of Attachment: - Secure: Healthy balance of attachment and independence. - Insecure-avoidant: Minimal emotional response to caregivers. - Insecure-resistant: Ambivalent and anxious behavior toward caregivers. - Cultural Variations: Attachment styles can differ in collectivist cultures (emphasizing community) versus individualistic cultures (emphasizing independence). - Why Attachment Exists: Provides security and promotes survival. - Sources of Support/Conflict: Family dynamics, peer relationships, and societal influences shape development. Harlow’s work on attachment in rhesus monkeys Harlow’s experiments demonstrated the importance of comfort and emotional security in attachment, showing that infant monkeys preferred soft, comforting "mothers" over wire "mothers" that provided food. Kohlberg’s theories on moral development Kohlberg proposed stages of moral reasoning: - Pre-conventional: Focus on obedience and self-interest. - Conventional: Emphasis on social approval and law. - Post-conventional: Principles of justice and rights. Emerging Adulthood – – what characterizes it as a distinct/separate stage of development Characterized by exploration and transition, typically occurring between ages 18-25, featuring identity exploration, instability, and a focus on self. Erikson’s theories on psychosocial development, particularly the two stages pertaining to your age group Erikson identified eight stages of development. Relevant for young adults are: - Intimacy vs. Isolation: Forming intimate relationships. - Identity vs. Role Confusion: Developing a sense of self and personal values. Adolescence --- risk-taking, characteristic thought processes; overall a positive period of development - Risk-Taking: Common during adolescence due to brain development and social influences. - Characteristic Thought Processes: Often involves idealism and introspection.  - Positive Development: While it can be a turbulent time, it also offers opportunities for growth, identity formation, and social skills development. Consciousness Definitions of consciousness, attention, and cocktail party phenomenon - Definitions of Consciousness: Consciousness is the state of being aware of and able to think and perceive one’s surroundings, thoughts, and feelings. It encompasses everything from alertness to self-awareness. - Attention: The process of focusing cognitive resources on specific stimuli while ignoring others. It's crucial for navigating our environment and processing information. - Cocktail Party Phenomenon: The ability to focus one’s auditory attention on a particular stimulus (like a conversation) while filtering out a range of other stimuli, akin to listening to one voice at a noisy party. Consciousness from a Freudian perspective Id, ego, superego - Id: The primal, instinctual part of the mind that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification. (“I want”) - Ego: The rational part that mediates between the id and reality, operating on the reality principle. (“decision maker”) - Superego: The moral conscience that internalizes societal norms and values. (“internalized ideals”) Unconscious, preconscious, conscious; the Iceberg Model; supportive and skeptical views relating to Freudian slips, dream analysis, and Rorschach tests - Unconscious: Contains thoughts, memories, and desires not currently in awareness but influencing behavior. - Preconscious: Holds thoughts that can easily be brought into awareness. - Conscious: The thoughts and feelings we are currently aware of. Iceberg Model: Freud likened the mind to an iceberg, where the larger unconscious part is hidden beneath the surface, while the a small visible part represents consciousness. Supportive and Skeptical Views:  Freudian Slips: Mistakes in speech believed to reveal unconscious thoughts or feelings. (skeptical view: mistakes are not meaningful),(supportive view: if you mess up you meant it subconsciously) Dream Analysis: The idea that dreams are manifestations of unconscious desires and conflicts.( supportive view: dreams always have meaning/message - freud supports) ( skeptical view: no meaning are just interesting. No reliable pattern.) Rorschach Tests: Projective tests meant to uncover unconscious thoughts through interpretation of ambiguous stimuli. (Supportive: Analyzing people’s response to different responses) (skeptical view: there is better tech for that) Sleep Why we sleep Sleep is essential for physical health, cognitive functioning, and emotional regulation. It aids in memory consolidation, tissue repair, and overall restoration. Circadian rhythms Biological processes that follow a roughly 24-hour cycle, regulating sleep-wake patterns, hormone release, and other bodily Functions. EEG activity; amplitude and frequency Amplitude and Frequency: EEG measures brain waves, which vary in frequency (speed of waves) and amplitude (height of waves) during different sleep stages. The stages of sleep --- what happens during each, when each occurs (the sleep cycle) NREM Stage 1: Light sleep, transition between wakefulness and sleep (5-10 minutes). NREM Stage 2: Moderate sleep; heart rate slows and body temperature drops (20 minutes). NREM Stage 3: Deep sleep, crucial for physical recovery (30 minutes). REM Sleep: Associated with vivid dreaming, brain activity resembles wakefulness; important for cognitive functions (occurs after abo 90 minutes of sleep). Changes in sleep as we age Sleep patterns shift, often resulting in lighter sleep and increased awakenings. Detrimental effects of sleep deprivation; effects of alcohol on sleep - Impairments in cognitive functioning, mood disturbances, weakened immune response, and increased risk of chronic conditions. - Alcohol may initially promote sleep but disrupts sleep cycles, leading to poorer sleep quality. Dreaming --- psychodynamic (Freud, Jung), cognitive (day residue), and physiological perspectives - Psychodynamic: Freud viewed dreams as expressions of unconscious desires; Jung emphasized collective unconscious. - Cognitive: Day residue refers to elements from daily experiences appearing in dreams. - Physiological: Dreams may reflect brain activity during sleep without necessarily holding deeper meaning. Major sleep disorders, as discussed in Table 3.2 - Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.  - Sleep Apnea: Breathing interruptions during sleep. - Narcolepsy: Excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden sleep attacks. - Parasomnias: Abnormal behaviors during sleep, like sleepwalking or night terrors. Hypnosis: A state of focused attention and heightened suggestibility, often accompanied by deep relaxation. Definition, debate on whether it’s an ‘altered state’ Some argue hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness, while others view it as a heightened state of focus and suggestibility Misconceptions about hypnosis Common myths include that hypnotized individuals are unconscious or can be forced to do things against their will. How hypnosis can be used for therapeutic purposes Hypnosis can aid in pain management, anxiety reduction, and behavioral changes (e.g., smoking cessation). Psychoactive drugs Opioids in the US, and why they are overused; fentanyl Opioids, including prescription pain relievers and fentanyl, are overused due to pain management practices leading to addictio and overdose crisis. 3 general drug effects, 3 general categories - Stimulants: Increase alertness and energy (e.g., caffeine). - Depressants: Decrease activity in the nervous system (e.g., alcohol). - Hallucinogens: Alter perception and consciousness (e.g., LSD). The mesolimbic pathway A key brain pathway involved in reward and pleasure, often implicated in addiction. - Specific examples --- marijuana, LSD, and Adderall; what are the effects of each, and neurotransmitters involved; and are there potential dangers or risk of addiction for each Marijuana: Effects include relaxation and altered sensory perception; primarily affects cannabinoid receptors. Not physically Addictive, but people can become dependent on it. LSD (acid): Hallucinogenic effects that alter perception and mood; influences serotonin receptors; potential for psychological Distress. Adderall: Increases focus and attention; affects dopamine and norepinephrine; risk of addiction if misused. Can some hallucinogenic drugs be therapeutic? Can they influence creativity? Some studies suggest potential benefits for conditions like PTSD and depression, and they may foster creativity. Tolerance and withdrawal --- definitions, what happens in the brain (for methamphetamine abusers, specifically) - Tolerance: The brain becomes accustomed to a drug, requiring more for the same effect.  - Withdrawal: Symptoms that occur when reducing or stopping drug use; can include cravings, anxiety, and physical symptoms. In methamphetamine abusers, changes in dopamine pathways can lead to severe cravings and mood disturbances. Substance abuse disorder A condition characterized by an individual's inability to control their use of substances despite negative consequences, often leading to significant impairment or distress. Memory: Memory is the cognitive process that involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information. It is crucial for learning, decision-making, and shaping our identities. The Information Processing Model... Sensory Memory/Registers, Short-term (Working) Memory, and Long-term memory (if we don’t get to this in class, it will not be on the exam) The Information Processing Model This model compares human memory to computer processing, suggesting that information is processed through three main stages: - Sensory Memory/Registers: - Definition: The initial stage of memory that holds incoming sensory information for a very brief period (milliseconds to a few seconds). - Types: - Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory (e.g., a brief image of what you just saw). - Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory (e.g., remembering the last few words of a conversation). - Short-term (Working) Memory: - Definition: A temporary storage system that holds information for a short duration (about 20-30 seconds) and has a limited capacity (often cited as 7±2 items). - Working Memory: A more active version of short-term memory, involving manipulation and processing of information (e.g., solving a math problem in your head). - Long-term Memory: - Definition: A more permanent storage system that can hold vast amounts of information for extended periods, from minutes to a lifetime. - Types: - Explicit (Declarative) Memory: Facts and events that can be consciously recalled (e.g., birthdays). - Implicit (Non-declarative) Memory: Skills and conditioned responses that are not consciously recalled (e.g., riding a bike). Frailty, limitations of memory... Flashbulb memories, memory as a reconstructive process, inaccuracies in eyewitness testimony (work by Neisser, Loftus, Kassin, 60 Minutes report) Frailty and Limitations of Memory Memory is not infallible; it can be influenced by various factors: Flashbulb Memories: Vivid, detailed memories of significant events (e.g., where you were during a major news event). Although they feel accurate, they can still be distorted over time. Memory as a Reconstructive Process: Memory retrieval is not a perfect playback; it involves reconstructing past experiences based on stored information and current knowledge or beliefs, leading to potential inaccuracies. Inaccuracies in Eyewitness Testimony Research has shown that eyewitness accounts can be unreliable: Elizabeth Loftus: Conducted pioneering studies on the malleability of memory, showing how leading questions can alter a person’s recollection of an event (e.g., changing the wording of a question can influence how someone remembers a car accident). Neisser: Studied the accuracy of memory, particularly regarding the Challenger disaster, revealing that people’s memories were often inconsistent when recalling the event. Kassin: Explored the implications of memory errors in legal settings, emphasizing the impact of misinformation on eyewitness testimony. 60 Minutes Report: Highlighted real-life cases of wrongful convictions based on flawed eyewitness testimonies, emphasizing the need for caution in relying on memory as evidence in court.