Exam 1 Review PDF

EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. This is a list of concepts that you need to make sure you know inside and out for the next exam. Remember, these are NOT the exact questions that will be on the exam but are...

EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. This is a list of concepts that you need to make sure you know inside and out for the next exam. Remember, these are NOT the exact questions that will be on the exam but are good representations. Good luck on your exam! Chapter 1 – The Human Body: An Orientation What is anatomy? Study of structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. What are subtypes of anatomy? Be sure you know what each subtype means. Gross or macroscopic anatomy, regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, surface anatomy, microscopic anatomy like cytology and histology, developmental anatomy like embryology. Some specialized types of anatomy are used for medicine and scientific research are pathological anatomy and radiographic anatomy. What is physiology? Study of function of the body. What are subtypes of physiology? Be sure you know what each subtype means. Renal physiology, neurophysiology, cardiovascular physiology. What does complementarity of structure and function mean? The function depends on the structure. For example, the sharp edges of the incisors make them ideal for cutting like scissors. What are the levels of structural organization? Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and organismal. What are examples of chemical organization? Atoms and molecules are part of the lowest level of structural organization. What is the cell and what are examples of cellular organization? Cells are the smallest unit of living things, so examples include epithelial cells, connective cells, muscle cells, nervous cells. What is the tissue and what are examples of tissues? Group of cells and materials that work together to perform a particular function; major types of tissue include epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous; this is a group of cells and the materials around them that work together to perform a particular function. What is the organ level and what are examples of organs? Group of tissues and the materials that work together to perform a particular function; it contains two or more types of tissue that perform a common function. Examples include organs like the heart, lungs, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. What are examples of organ systems? Group of organs that perform a common function; they contain several organs that work together to perform a common function like the endocrine system or lymphatic system. What are examples of the organismal level? It is the most complex organizational level and sum of all structural levels working together. An example would be humans. What are the different necessary life functions and examples of each? Maintaining boundaries separates the internal environment from the external environment like the cell membrane (ECF from the ICF) or skin. Movement like activities promoted by the muscular system – this would also include contractility. Responsiveness or irritability which is the ability to sense changes in the environment and respond to them. Digestion is the breakdown of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules so that they can be absorbed into the blood. Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions that occur within the body like anabolism (synthesizing more complex cellular structures from simpler substances) and catabolism (breaking down substances into simpler building blocks). Excretion is the process of removing wastes. Reproduction occurs on both the cellular and organismal level. Growth is the increase in size due to an increase in the number of cells. All organ systems interact with each other to make up the organism. What are the survival needs of the body and what are their purposes? Nutrients (carbs, lipids, proteins) are used for energy and cell building, oxygen which is needed to 1  EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. break down nutrients, water which is the single most abundant chemical substance in the body, normal body temperature is needed to maintain the correct speed of metabolic reactions, and appropriate atmospheric pressure is the necessary for proper breathing and gas exchange. Be sure that you know the function of each organ system and the major organs in those systems): Integumentary – contain the skin to form the external body covering, protect deeper tissues from injury, synthesizes vitamin D and houses cutaneous receptors and sweat and oil glands, Skeletal – protects and supports body organs, provides framework the muscles use to cause movement, blood cells are formed within bones (process of hematopoiesis), bones store minerals, Muscular – manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression; maintains posture and produces heat, Nervous – releases nerve impulses that control muscles, glands, etc.; contains brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves. Endocrine – contains glands that secrete hormones which regulate life processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells; contains following glands: pineal, pituitary, thyroid, thymus, adrenal pancreas, testis, ovary. Cardiovascular – contains heart and blood vessels; blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.; contains heart and blood vessels. Lymphatic/Immune – picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic system; houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity; the immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body; contains thymus, lymphatic vessels, thoracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes, red bone marrow. Respiratory – keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of air sacs of the lungs; contains nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs. Digestive – breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestive foodstuffs are eliminated as feces; contains oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Urinary – eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body; regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood; contains kidney, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra. Reproductive – overall function is production of offspring; testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract; ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones, the remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn. What is homeostasis? Body’s ability to maintain a dynamic state of equilibrium (for example, maintaining the volume and composition of body fluids), condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment. Homeostasis is controlled by feedback systems. What are the main parts of the feedback system? Stimulus sensed by receptor ® afferent pathway/input ® control center ® efferent pathway/output ® effector produces response. The two types of feedback systems are positive and negative. Which one is most common in the body? Negative feedback. What is the purpose of negative feedback and what are some examples? Prevent sudden severe changes within the body; the response of the feedback system reverses the direction of the original stimulus. Examples include the regulation of body temperature, blood pressure, heart rate, and regulations of blood glucose levels. What two organ systems are commonly involved with negative feedback systems? Nervous and the endocrine systems. What is the most common result of positive feedback? Usually responsible for homeostatic 2  EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. imbalances. Are there any examples of positive feedback that are normal? Pregnancy and blood clotting, the response of the feedback system tends to increase `or exaggerates the original stimulus. What is correct anatomical position? Standing erect with feet flat on the floor and hands turned palms forward. Be sure that you can properly use the language of anatomy to relate different parts of the body. It is important that you can properly use directional terms (and know that they mean), regional terms, and body planes and sections. Here are some examples of questions you should be able to answer: o The nose is to the mouth. (superior) o The thoracic cavity is to the abdominopelvic cavity. (superior) o The muscles are to the skin. (deep) o The shoulder is to the elbow. (proximal) o The hip is to the pubis. (lateral) o The heart is to the lungs. (medial) o The diaphragm is to the heart. (inferior) o The ankle is to the knee. (distal) Regional terms – know the regional terms and be able to relate them together using directional terms (i.e. the nasal region is medial to the buccal region). All the regional terms are listed in the chapter 1 slides. Describe the four different types of body planes and sections. What is the sagittal or parasagittal plane? Use an example. A vertical plane that divides the body into a right and left sections (divided equally would be midsagittal or median). A parasagittal plane would be lateral to the midsagittal plane. The urinary bladder is divided in right and left sections by a midsagittal plane. A parasagittal plane would separate the right eye from the right ear. What is the frontal or coronal plane? Use an example. Divides the body into anterior and posterior sections. The ventral cavity and dorsal cavity are separated by a frontal or coronal plane. What is the transverse or cross section? Use an example. Divides the body into superior and inferior sections. The thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity are separated by a transverse or cross section. What is the oblique plane? Use an example. An oblique plane is a diagonal plane that separates body parts at an angle. For example, the external and internal obliques run along an oblique plane. All planes are perpendicular to each other except for the oblique plane. Body planes and sections (important for medical imaging such as x rays, CT scans, PET scans, ultrasounds, and MRIs). Know the body cavities and their contents. What is the dorsal cavity and what does it contain? Posterior cavity which contains nervous system within the cranial cavity (brain) and vertebral or spinal cavity (spinal cord). What is the ventral cavity and what does it contain? Anterior cavity which contains two major subdivisions. What are the subdivisions and that do they contain? The thoracic cavity is subdivided into pleural cavities (lungs), medial mediastinum which contains pericardial cavity (heart). The abdominopelvic cavity contains the abdominal cavity contains stomach, small intestines and large intestines, spleen, liver and other organs; pelvic cavity contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs (uterus, ovaries, vagina, uterine tubes, testes, vas deferens, epididymis, seminal vesicles, penis) and the rectum. The diaphragm muscle separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity. What kind of membranes are in the ventral body cavity? Walls of the ventral body and outer surfaces of the organs it contains are covered by thin, double layered membranes (serosa) that reduces the friction between the membranes and 3  EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. organs. Serous fluid is secreted from these membranes. What is the example of the serous membrane that surrounds the heart? Serous membrane surrounding the heart include the parietal pericardium which is the outer layer and the visceral pericardium which is the inner layer. What is the example of the serous membrane that surrounds the lungs? Serous membrane surrounding the lungs include the parietal pleura which is the outer layer and the visceral pleura which is the inner layer. What is the example of the serous membrane that surrounds the abdominal organs? Serous membrane surrounding the abdominal organs include the parietal peritoneum which is the outer layer and the visceral peritoneum which is the inner membrane. Be able to name the abdominopelvic regions and name the different organs found in each region. Name the abdominopelvic regions and list the organs found in each region. Be sure to know how each region is related to other regions (no diagrams but you should know things like right lumbar region is lateral to the umbilical region). Right hypochondriac region – liver and gallbladder, epigastric region – stomach, liver, left hypochondriac region – stomach, spleen, right lumbar region – large intestine, umbilical region – small intestine, left lumbar region – large intestine, right iliac region – cecum (first part of large intestine), appendix, hypogastric – small intestine, sigmoid colon (part of large intestine), rectum, urinary bladder, left iliac region – sigmoid colon (part of large intestine). Be able to name the abdominopelvic quadrants and name the different organs found in each quadrant. Be sure to know how each quadrant is related to other quadrants (no diagrams but you should know things like right upper quadrant is superior to the right lower quadrant). Right upper quadrant – liver, gallbladder, stomach, large and small intestine, left upper quadrant – liver, stomach, spleen, large and small intestine, right lower quadrant – large intestine including cecum and appendix, small intestine, urinary bladder, and left lower quadrant large intestine including small intestine, small intestine, urinary bladder. What are the other body cavities and what do they contain? Oral and digestive – oral cavity called the mouth, contains the teeth and tongue. This cavity is part of and continuous with the cavity of the digestive organs, which opens to the body exterior to the anus. Nasal – located within and posterior to the nose, part of the respiratory system passages. Orbital – located in the skull, house the eyes and present them in an anterior position. Middle ear cavities – lie just medial to the eardrums. These cavities contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the hearing receptors in the inner ears. Synovial cavities – joint cavities that contain lubricating fluid. Chapter 2 – Chemistry Comes Alive What is matter? Anything that occupies space and mass What is energy? Capacity to do work. What is potential energy and kinetic energy and examples of each? Potential energy is stored energy or inactive energy; an example would be energy stored in chemical bond (electrons are transferred in ionic bonds and electrons are shared in covalent bonds). Kinetic energy is active energy; an example is energy released when chemical bonds are broken like an ionic compound being broken down into ions. Energy can be converted from potential to kinetic energy. What is chemical energy and what are examples of it? Chemical energy occurs when chemical bonds are rearranged, and potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. An example of this would be in ATP contains chemical energy in the form of potential energy, 4  EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. when the chemical bond in ATP when it is broken chemical energy that is released in the form of kinetic energy – this chemical energy that is released will be used to do cellular work. Chemical energy is found in the food that we eat – when the bonds are broken within the nutrients (i.e. glucose bonds) this chemical energy is converted to the kinetic form. What is electrical energy and what are examples of it? Energy that results from the movement of particles, ions move across the cell membranes to generate nerve impulses. What is mechanical energy and what are examples of it? Energy directly involved in moving matter (provided by contraction of muscles) What are radiant energy and what are examples of it? Light energy like the light entering eyeball to stimulate retinas. What are elements and what are some examples? Elements are unique substances that cannot be broken into simpler substances by chemical methods. Potassium (K), oxygen (O), iron (Fe), hydrogen (H) are some examples of elements. Which elements make up 96% of the elements in the human body? 96% of the body are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen. Be sure to study Table 2.1. You’ll need to know these elements, their symbols and the main uses of these elements in the human body) What subatomic particles are located within an atom? The 3 subatomic particles in the atom are the proton (positively charged), neutrons (neutral charge) and electron (negative charge). What is found in the nucleus of the atom? The nucleus of the atom is 99% of the weight of the atom and it contains ONLY protons and neutrons. What is found surrounding the nucleus? Electrons surrounding the nucleus as a cloud. These electrons can also be thought of as orbiting around the nucleus of the atom as energy levels. What is the atomic number? Number of protons. What is the atomic mass? Whole number of protons and neutrons, represents the mass of the nucleus, it can be figured out by rounding the atomic weight which is the decimal on the periodic table. What is the atomic weight? Decimal number that represents the average of all known isotopes. What is an isotope? Atom with a different number of neutrons, used mainly for medical imaging or biological research. What are mixtures? Substances composed of two or more components physically intermixed. What are the 3 different types of mixtures and what are some examples of these mixtures? Solutions are homogenous mixtures that look the same throughout. In this case, a solute (present in smaller amounts) is dissolved in solvents (present in greater amounts, universal solvent in water). A colloid is an emulsion or heterogeneous mixture when solute particles are larger than in a solution and will scatter light; solute particles scatter light (examples are Jell-O and cytoplasm – the organelles are the large solute particles, and the solution is the cytosol surrounding the organelles). Suspensions are heterogeneous mixtures with solute particles that are very large and settle out; when mixed layers separate (examples are plasma and blood; mud and water) Be able to interpret some basic information from the periodic table. How many electrons fill each energy level? 2 in the first energy level, 8 in the second energy level and 8 in the third energy level. What is the name for the outermost energy level and what is the significance about it? It is called the valence shell, and it holds up to 8 electrons. If the outermost energy level is less than 8 then the atom in unstable. REMEMBER: the outermost energy level of electrons corresponds to the valence electrons. What is an ion? Charge atoms (or group of atoms) that are also called electrolytes because they can transfer an electric current (called electrolytes). What is a cation and how is it formed? Positively charged ion that forms from losing electrons. What 5  EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. is an anion and how is it formed? Negatively charged ion that forms from gaining electrons. Know how many valence electrons are found in different groups and how many valence electrons they need to meet the law of octets (reach stability). How many valence electrons do atoms in Group 1 have? What charge do they have when they lose those electrons? Group 1 has 1 valence electron, lose 1 electron to have a charge of +1. How many valence electrons do atoms in Group 1 have? What charge do they have when they lose electrons? Group 2 have 2 valence electrons, loses 2 electrons to have a charge of +2. How many valence electrons do atoms in Group 3 have? What charge do they have when they lose those electrons? Group 13 has 3 valence electrons, lose 3 electrons to have a charge of +3. How many valence electrons do atoms in Group 14 have? What charge do they have when they share those electrons? Group 14 have 4 valence electrons, cannot lose or gain 4 electrons so instead they share electrons with other atoms. How many valence electrons do atoms in Group 15 have? What charge do they have when they gain electrons? Group 15 have 5 valence electrons, gain 3 electrons to have a charge of -3. How many valence electrons do atoms in Group 16 have? What charge do they have when they gain electrons? Group 16 have 6 valence electrons, gain 2 electrons to have a charge of -2. How many valence electrons do atoms in Group 17 have? How many valence electrons do atoms in Group 17 have? Group 17 have 7 valence electrons, gain 1 electron to have a charge of -1. How many valence electrons do atoms in Group 18 have? What charge do they have when they gain electrons? Group 18 have 8 valence electrons, do not need to gain or lose electrons because they are already stable What are the 3 different types of chemical bonds? Be able to differentiate between them. Ionic bonds – electrons are transferred to the most electronegative atom, form salts. Covalent bonds – shares electrons, form organic compounds and contain carbon. Hydrogen bonds – weakest bonds (sometimes referred to as attractions) that are between water molecules. Hydrogen bonds also allow water to surround membranes and large molecules like proteins, carbohydrates. Hydrogen bonds also are within nucleotides in DNA (2 hydrogen bonds between adenine and thymine and 3 hydrogen bonds between cytosine and guanine) What are the two types of covalent bonds? Polar covalent – unequal sharing of electrons between atoms and nonpolar covalent – equally shares electrons between atoms. Describe a chemical reaction. Reactants combine to be converted to a product (formed substances). The reactants are on the left side of the equation and the products are on the right of the equation. What are the 3 basic types of chemical reactions? Dehydration synthesis, hydrolysis or decomposition, and exchange or displacement reactions. What is a dehydration synthesis reaction and what is an example? (A+B ® to AB), water will be removed so that monomers are added to each other to form polymers of each organic compound (i.e. carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins). An example would be when 2 amino acids combine to produce a dipeptide. What is a hydrolysis or decomposition reaction and what is an example? (AB ® A+B), water will be added so that polymers are broken down into monomers of each organic compound (i.e. carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins). An example would be when water is added to a disaccharide to produce 2 individual monosaccharides. What is an exchange or displacement reaction and what is an example? (AB + C ® AC + B, AB + CD ® to AD + CB), involves both synthesis and decomposition and an example occurs when ATP reacts with glucose and transfers its end phosphate group to glucose to form glucose-phosphate. 6  EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. What type of chemical reactions release energy? Exergonic reactions. What type of chemical reactions absorb energy? Endergonic reactions What factors can increase the rate of chemical reactions? Increased by temperature, increased concentration of reactants, decreased particle size, Increased by biological catalysts (enzymes) Enzymes are incredibly important in the human body and without them chemical reactions would occur to slowly and we could not survive. Be sure that you know several characteristics about enzymes. What type of organic molecule makes up enzymes? All enzymes are proteins and are functional proteins. What is the main function of enzymes? They act as biological catalysts that lower the activation energy of a chemical reaction, thus increasing the rate or speed of the chemical reaction. They can speed up a chemical reaction to a rate of 1 million times greater than without an enzyme. Do enzymes have to be made again for additional chemical reactions? No, they are reuseable so the same enzyme can be used over and over. How are enzymes named? They are usually named. They are named for the substate that they interact with and usually end with -ase. What percentage of the body is water? 60-80% of our body. How does water provide a high heat capacity? Water absorbs and releases large amounts of energy before changing temperature (prevents a fever from developing). How does water provide a high heat of vaporization? Water changes from a liquid to a gas and allows water to evaporate from our body (allows our body to cool when sweating). What are the polar solvent properties of water? Water acts as a universal solvent; polar properties allow negative end of water molecule to orient itself to positive end of solute. If a solute dissolves in water, then it is hydrophilic (water loving) and if it doesn’t dissolve in water, then it is hydrophobic (water hating). How does water form hydration layers? Water can form shielding layers around larger molecules like proteins. What role does water play in the reactivity of chemical reactions? Water is either added to a chemical reaction as a reactant of taken away. If it is added to reaction, hydrolysis or decomposition occurs and the water can break a larger molecule down into building blocks (e.g. dipeptide can be broken down into 2 amino acids). If water is taken away from a chemical reaction, it is called dehydration synthesis, and the water can be removed to add 2 building blocks together to make a larger molecule (e.g. glucose and fructose can combine to make sucrose). How does water play a role in cushioning? Water can cushion certain organs (e.g. cerebrospinal fluid, CSF can surround and cushion the brain and spinal cord). What is the range of the pH scale? The pH scale range goes from 0-14. What is the pH of our blood? The physiological pH of our blood ranges from 7.35-7.45 so it is usually in the middle at 7.4. What is the acid portion of the scale and what ion is dominating? The acid part of the pH scale is 0-6.99 refers to the acid portion of the scale; there are more hydrogen (H+ ions) present which indicates the presences of an acid. What is the definition of an acid and what are some examples? A substance that donates or gives off a H+, examples of acids include HCl, lemon juice, vinegar. Acids have more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions. How does an acid interact with a base? Acids (especially stronger ones) will bind to bases which contain OH- ions. This will tie up or neutralize bases. What pH is neutral? 7.00 What is the base portion of the pH scale? 7.01-14 refers to the basic portion of the scale; there more hydroxide (OH- ions). What is the definition of a base and what are some examples? A base is a substance that accepts a H+ and examples would be sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or lye. Bases have more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions. How does a base interact with an acid? Bases (especially stronger ones) will bind to 7  EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. H+ ions, thus neutralizing the acid. What happens during a neutralization reaction? An acid and a base combine to produces a salt and water. What is the purpose of a buffer system? To resist abrupt and large swings in pH; a buffer system releases H+ ions if the pH rises and binds H+ ions if the pH falls. Where in this body do these buffer systems occur? Within the blood, lungs, and kidney. Why is denaturation dangerous in the body? It can cause proteins to unravel and lose their shape and function, it can disrupt hydrogen bonds that hold molecules together, it can damage molecules because pH or heat is outside of the normal range, it can disrupt the active binding sites of enzymes. What is an inorganic compound and what are some examples? A compound that doesn’t contain carbon like water, salt and many acids and bases. There are a few exceptions like carbon dioxide (CO2). What is the most abundant inorganic compound? Water. What are organic compounds and what are some examples? An organic compound contains carbon and is usually covalently bonded. The 4 groups of organic molecules in the human body are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. You should know polymers and monomers of each, so you should be studying the organic molecules organization chart in the Chapter 2 lecture slides. What are some important examples of carbohydrates? Glycogen, lactose, glucose (be sure to study table for other examples). What are some important examples of lipids? Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids (be sure to study table for other examples). What are some important examples of proteins? Enzymes, hormones, antibodies (be sure to study table for other examples). What are some important examples of nucleic acids? ATP, DNA, RNA (be sure to study table for other examples). What are the basic building blocks of organic compounds are what are examples from each of the 4 groups? They are called monomers and building blocks of carbohydrates are monosaccharides; building blocks of lipids are glycerol and fatty acids; building blocks of proteins are amino acids and building blocks of nucleic acids are nucleotides. Know examples of each type of organic molecule from the organic molecule chart. These are some examples of questions: What type of carbohydrate is stored in the liver and muscle as a polysaccharide? Glycogen. Which monosaccharide provides important fuel to produces ATP? Glucose. What monosaccharide is in DNA? Deoxyribose. What monosaccharide is in RNA? Ribose. What are the main elements in carbohydrates? C, H, and O. What some examples of disaccharides? Lactose, maltose, sucrose. What type of lipid makes up the plasma membranes of cells? Phospholipids. What part of the phospholipid faces the water? The polar part of the phospholipid faces water and is facing the external ECF or the internal ICF (cytosol). What part of the phospholipid faces away from the water? The nonpolar part of the phospholipid faces away from the water contains the 2 fatty acid tails and is in the internal part of the phospholipid membrane. What type of lipid is used to create hormones? Cholesterol. What type of lipid is used to store long term energy for the cell? Triglycerides. What monomers make up triglycerides? 1 glycerol attached to 3 fatty acids. What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats? Saturated fats are bad for you and contain many hydrogens attached to the carbon chain and no double bonds; monounsaturated fats are better for you and have fewer hydrogens attached to the carbon chain and the 1 double bond; polyunsaturated fats are the best for you and have several double bonds. Once amino acids are synthesized in the ribosome, how do they fold to produce large complex polypeptides? The primary sequence (unfolded) is simply a sequence of amino acids forming the polypeptide chain. The secondary structure is folded into an alpha helix or a beta bleated sheet. The 8  EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. tertiary structure is folded more to make up globular proteins and a quaternary structure is two or more polypeptide tertiary structures folded on themselves (examples would be enzymes and hemoglobin). What is the function of DNA? It makes up or genes (blueprint for life) and provides instructions for protein synthesis. What is a gene? It is a segment of a chromosome that is eventually responsible for coding for production of a specific polypeptide (protein). What is the function of RNA? Acts as a messenger to transfer information for protein synthesis. What are the 3 kinds of RNA? mRNA, tRNA, rRNA. ATP is an example of a nucleic acid. What is it responsible for? It acts as the energy currency of the cell and can be used to transfer energy for cell function. What nucleotides does DNA have? Adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine. What nucleotides does RNA have? Adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil. Chapter 3 – Cell What are the three main parts of the cell? Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. What is the major fluid inside the cell and what chemicals does it contain? Intracellular fluid (ICF) that is rich in potassium (K+) and amino acids. What is the major fluid outside of the cell and what chemicals does it contain? Extracellular fluid (ECF) surrounds tissues in blood vessels and outside of cells and it is rich in sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-); patients receive saline solution (0.9% NaCl) as soon as IVs are started in the hospital. What is interstitial fluid (IF)? Part of the ECF that fills the narrow spaces between cells and tissues; very important because can directly impact the proper functioning of cells. What is the makeup of the plasma membrane? It is a phospholipid bilayer with cholesterol that surrounds the cell and sugar groups and proteins throughout. What term describes how the plasma membrane allows some chemicals to easily pass through while preventing other chemicals not to pass? Selective permeability. What are the functions of glycoproteins sticking out of the plasma membrane? Participates in cell signaling. How does the plasma membrane generate a resting membrane potential? It allows ions to enter and exit the cell (Na+ and K+ channels). There are more Na+ ions in the ECF and more K+ ions inside the cell. Resting membrane potential means that the intracellular fluid side of the membrane is positive, and the extracellular fluid side of the membrane is negative. How do Na+/K+ pumps play a role in moving ions back and forth? Since Na+ ions enter the cell and K+ ions exit the cell during action potentials, the Na+/K+ pumps these 3 Na+ ions back into the ECF and 2 K+ into the ICF. What are the functions of integral proteins in the plasma membrane? They are used as channels or transporters; these integral proteins extend throughout the entire membrane touching both the intracellular fluid and the extracellular fluid. What are the functions of the peripheral proteins on the ECF surface of the plasma membrane? They bind with hormones and neurotransmitters on the external surface of the plasma membrane. What are the 3 types of cell junctions? Tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. What are tight junctions are where are they found in the body? Impermeable junctions that keep substances on the proper side of cells, found in areas of the body where cells need to be “tightly” held together, found between epithelial cells lining intestines; they are relatively impermeable junctions between cells that act like a zipper and help keep substances on the proper side of the cells (like the ones between cells in the digestive tract that keep digestive juices in the digestive tract). What are the desmosomes and where are they found in the body? Anchor 9  EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. adjacent cells together like rivets to resist their separation during contractile activities, found in areas of the body where there is a lot of stress like the cardiac muscle and between the epithelial cells of the skin; anchors adjacent cells like a rivet and resists their separation during contractile activities. What are gap junctions and where are they found in the body? Allows passage of chemical substances, used for communication of ions between cells like cardiac muscle cells. What is the difference between passive types of membrane transport and active membrane transport? Passive transport requires no ATP required and is the movement of molecules from high to low concentration. Active transport requires ATP and the movement of molecules from low to high concentration. What are the 4 examples of passive membrane transport? Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and filtration. What is simple diffusion and where does it occur in the body? Movement of lipid soluble particles or small gases (O2 and CO2 across the lung membrane), gases travel down their concentration gradient. What affects the rate of simple diffusion? Rate of diffusion affected by concentration gradient of chemical diffusion, mass of the diffusing chemical, distance that the chemical has to diffuse. What is facilitated diffusion and what is an example of it? It is a type of diffusion where there is a helper molecule (facilitator) that assists movement from high concentration to low concentration. A specific example would be if glucose binds to a specific carrier protein on one side of the membrane and then there will be a conformational change in the carrier protein that allows the solute to move to the other side. What is osmosis? Movement of water from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. What is tonicity? Measure of a solutions’ ability to change volume of cells by altering their water content of a solution. What is a hypertonic solution? Contains more non-diffusible particles so that cells would lose water to shrink or crenate. What happens when a RBC is put into a hypertonic solution? RBCs shrink or crenate when placed in a hypertonic solution. What is a hypotonic solution? Contains less non-diffusible particles so that cells would gain water to swell and may eventually lyse or burst. What happens when a red blood cell RBC is put into a hypotonic solution? A RBC will lyse or burst when placed in a hypotonic solution. What is an isotonic solution? Contains equal amounts of non-diffusible particles so that cells don’t change volume. What happens when a red blood cell (RBC) is put into an isotonic solution? A RBC will remain at homeostasis and will neither crenate or lyse. A 0.9% NaCl solution is given to patients because it is isotonic to the cells in the human body. What is filtration and where in the body does it occur? Water and solutes forced through a membrane by high pressure (e.g. water forced through membranes in the kidney and in blood capillaries) What is primary active transport and where does it occur? It requires ATP to move a solute against its concentration gradient; an example would be the solute pumping like the Na+/K+ pump which uses ATP. What is secondary active transport and what is an example? Uses energy stored in a concentration gradient (from primary active transport) to move other substances across the membrane against their concentration gradients; An example of this would be the movement of glucose of H+ against its concentration gradient (energy used for this process is from a primary active transport pump like the Na+/K+ pump). What is a symporter and an antiporter? In a symporter, two substances will cross the membrane in the same direction and in an antiporter, two substances will cross the membrane in opposite directions. 10  EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. What is another type of active transport that moves large amounts of particles into or out of the cell? Vesicular transport is a form of active transport whereby vesicles are formed around many molecules (these vesicles can move into the cell, across the cell, or out of the cell). What is endocytosis? It uses vesicles that form at the plasma membrane to take up extracellular substances and import them into the cell. What is phagocytosis and pinocytosis? Phagocytosis is cell-eating where solids are brought into the cell and pinocytosis is cell-drinking where liquids are brought into the cell. What is receptor-mediated endocytosis? Receptors in the plasma membrane identify where a vesicle is to be formed and only specific molecules (like LDL receptors and LDL molecules) are ingested into the cell. What is exocytosis and what is an example? Uses vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane to secrete materials out of the cell into the extracellular fluid and an example is neurotransmitters secreted from neurons via this method. What are the parts of the second messenger signaling that begins at the receptor of the plasma membrane and continues into the cell? 1. Ligand (first messenger), 2. Receptor, 3. G proteins, 4. Enzyme like adenylate cyclase, 5. second messenger like cAMP. What is the function of the nucleus and what does it contain? Control center of the cell contains genes (segments of DNA that carry the instructions for one polypeptide chain). What type of membrane surrounds the nucleus and what is the chemical makeup of this membrane? Nuclear envelope: phospholipid bilayer that surrounds nucleus, membrane protects the nucleus. What is chromatin and what are chromosomes? Chromatin is non-condensed DNA in the nucleus. Chromosomes are condensed long molecules of DNA that contains genes. How many chromosomes are in the nucleus of a human cell? The nucleus has 46 total chromosomes and 23 pairs. What are nucleoli and what do they contain? Structures within the nucleus that contains ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which is the structural material for ribosomes. What is cytoplasm and what does it contain? Contents within the plasma membrane except for the nucleus. It contains cytosol and organelles. What is the cytosol and what is the function of cytosol? It is a viscous colloid fluid that is the location of chemical reactions and is mostly water. What is the function of organelles? Membrane bound structures that perform special functions in cell like cellular growth, maintenance and reproduction. Be sure to know the names and functions of the organelles. These are some examples of questions: What is the mitochondrion and what does it contain? Organelle with 2 membranes; the inner mitochondrial membrane has structures called cristae which is where energy (ATP) production occurs. What is the function of the mitochondria? It is the “powerhouse” of the cell because it produces ATP and is the main site for cellular respiration. How is the mitochondrion like the nucleus? Like the nucleus, it also contains DNA and RNA. What is the function of the ribosome and what does it contain? It contains ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and is the site where a polypeptide chain is created; its main function is protein synthesis. If a cell doesn’t have ribosomes, what won’t it be able to produce? Proteins. What is a network of membrane-enclosed sacs and tubules that extends from the nuclear membrane throughout the cytoplasm? Endoplasmic reticulum. What is the function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum? Contains ribosomes which synthesize proteins. What is the function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum? Synthesizes hormone, lipids and other substances needed by the cell. Where does the protein go after being synthesized at the ribosome? Golgi apparatus. What it the Golgi apparatus and what is its function? Membrane-enclosed organelle that modifies and packages compounds from the 11  EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. endoplasmic reticulum and secretes them from the cells and send these substances to the plasma membrane. What is the function of peroxisomes? Detoxify alcohol, formaldehyde, and free radicals. What is the function of lysosomes? Contain digestive enzymes that will destroy and break down molecules, recycles worn-out organelles and destroys most molecules, also destroys bacteria and can cause cell suicide. Where are lysosomes made? Made in the Golgi apparatus. What is the cytoskeleton? Maintains structure of the cell. What does the cytoskeleton contain? Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. What is the function of microtubules? Involved in cell movement or changes in cell shape, one of the main proteins is actin, forms cleavage furrow during telophase of mitosis. What is the function of intermediate filaments? Provide mechanical strength to cells and tissues, form a network in the cytoplasm that extends from the nucleus to the plasma membrane. What is the function of microtubules? Shape the cell and facilitate movement of the cellular organelles, make up centrioles (forms the poles of mitotic spindle in cell division, consists of microtubules arranged to form a hollow tube). What is the function of cilia? Propels substances across the cell surface. What is the function of flagella? Propels the cell, only in the male sperm so propel sperm to an egg for fertilization. What is the function of microvilli? Extensions of the plasma membrane, increase surface area for absorption. What is the cell cycle? Life cycle of cell divided into interphase and mitosis. What occurs during interphase? During this phase of cell division, organelles duplicate, and centrioles replicate, DNA replication takes place during this phase. What occurs during mitosis? Function is to produce new cells. What happens during prophase? Chromatin fibers condense and shorten into chromosomes that are visible under the microscope, nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrate. What happens during metaphase? Phase of cell division when chromosome line up in the middle of the dividing cell. What happens during anaphase? Phase of cell division when chromosomes are pulled to the poles. What happens during telophase? 2 new daughter cells form, cleavage furrow has formed. What happens during cytokinesis? Division of cytoplasm that occurs at the end telophase. What is transcription? Making an mRNA sequence from a single strand of DNA. What is translation? Synthesizing a protein sequence from an mRNA template. What is the function of mRNA? Since it’s a copy of the DNA sequence, it serves as template that is transcribed in the nucleus. Remember, RNA has uracil instead of thymine so a “GTA” DNA triplet would be copied to an mRNA sequence that has “CAU”. What is the function of tRNA? tRNA acts as the “interpreter molecules” that recognize specific amino acids and nucleotide base sequences. How does DNA pair up with its corresponding nucleotide? Guanine pairs up with cytosine and adenine pairs up with thymine. What is a triplet? 3 nucleotides in the DNA sequence that serves as the blueprint for transcription. What are codons? 3 nucleotides on corresponding mRNA sequence. What is an anticodon? 3 nucleotides on tRNA that correspond to amino acid. If the base triplet sequence is TAG, what would the codon mRNA sequence be? AUC. (remember there is no thymine in RNA; thymine is replaced in RNA with uracil). If the mRNA codon is AUC, what would the tRNA anticodon be? UAG. Chapter 4 – Tissue: The Living Fabric What are the 4 main types of tissues in the body? Epithelium, connective, muscle and nervous. 12  EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. Where is epithelial tissue located? Covering of body surfaces, lining of body cavities and hollow organs, forms glands. Are epithelial cells tightly packed together or spread out? Tightly packed to prevent chemicals from passing between cells. Are there capillaries found in epithelial tissue? No, since there are no blood vessels within tissue, then they are avascular. no blood supply. For chemicals to reach the blood they must diffuse through the epithelial cells and into the connective tissue. Are there nerves in epithelial tissue? Yes, nerves are innervating the epithelial cells so nerves can be stimulated. What is the polarity of the epithelial cell? There is an apical surface and a basal surface; the apical surface is exposed to the body exterior or the cavity of an internal organ. What is the basement membrane? Thin extracellular layer, consisting of the basal and reticular lamina, thick anchors epithelial cells to underlying connective tissue. What are the specialized contacts of epithelial cells? They fit closely together to form continuous sheets. What type of junctions are found between epithelial cells? Tight junctions and desmosomes bind adjacent cells together at many points. What are microvilli? Fingerlike extensions that increase surface area on the apical surface of the epithelial cells. How do epithelial cells regenerate? The deepest layer of the epithelium will be constantly dividing to replace the more superficial layers. What are the 2 characteristics used to classify epithelia? Number of layers and shape of cells. There are 4 types of epithelia to know with 1 layer. What are they? Simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, and pseudostratified. Where is simple squamous epithelium located and what is its function? Found lining serous membranes, lining the heart, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels, and forms the air sacs of the lungs, function is diffusion. Where is simple cuboidal epithelium located and what is its function? Found in kidney tubules, outer layer of the ovaries, function is absorption and secretion. Where is simple columnar epithelium and what is its function? Found in digestive tract and contains microvilli which can increase surface area for absorption of nutrients, small bronchi, uterine tubes, function is absorption, secretion of mucus. Where is pseudostratified columnar epithelium and what is its function? Found in the trachea, secretes mucus (Goblet cells) and propels mucus by ciliary action. Why is pseudostratified columnar only 1 layer? It appears to have 2 or 3 layers of cells, but all cells are in contact with the basement membrane. There 4 types of epithelia to know with multiple layers. What are they? Keratinized stratified squamous, nonkeratinized stratified squamous, stratified columnar, and transitional. Where is keratinized stratified squamous epithelium and what is its function? Forms the epidermis of the skin, contains tough protein keratin that prevents water loss, main function is protection of underlying tissues from abrasion. Where is nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium and what is its functions? Forms moist linings of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina, deepest layer is constantly dividing to replace superficial layers if damaged. Where is stratified columnar epithelium and what is its function? Basal layer is columnar but apical layer may appear cuboidal in shape, found most in multicellular exocrine glands. Where is transitional epithelium and what is its function? Found in areas of the body where stretching occurs such as the ureters and urinary bladder. Which types of glands have ducts? Exocrine glands. What is the function of endocrine glands? Ductless glands that produce hormones or chemicals directly into the blood or extracellular fluid. What is the function of exocrine glands? Glands with ducts that secretes substances onto the surface of the body or onto the apical surface of the digestive tract (which will be excreted from the body). What are the 2 13  EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. types of exocrine glands? Unicellular and multicellular exocrine glands. What unicellular gland produces lubricating mucus and where does this mucus go? Goblet cells secrete mucus, a slimy glycoprotein used for lubricating surfaces, onto the respiratory or intestinal tracts (found in simple columnar epithelium or pseudostratified columnar epithelium). What are multicellular exocrine glands? Structurally more complex with a duct and a secretory unit. Name the 3 types of epithelial membranes. Cutaneous, mucous, and serous. What is the function of the cutaneous membranes? Dry membrane that includes keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. What is the function of the mucous membrane, or mucosae? Wet membrane that lines all body cavities that open to the outside of the body, such as hollow organs of the digestive, respiratory, and urogenital tracts. What is the function of the serous membrane, or serosae? Double layered, moist membranes found in closed ventral body cavities surrounding the heart, lungs and peritoneum (visceral membrane lines the organ and the parietal membrane lines the body wall). Serous fluid is produced by these serous membranes. Serous fluid minimizes friction between opposing surfaces. What is the name of the serosa surrounding the heart? Visceral pericardium and parietal pericardium. What is the name of the serosa surrounding the lungs? Visceral pleura and parietal pleura. What is the name of the serosa surrounding the peritoneum? Visceral peritoneum and parietal peritoneum. What type of tissue is the most widely diverse type of tissue found in the body? Connective. What are the main components of connective tissue? Ground substance, fibers and cells. What is found in the ground substance? Cells and fibers embedded in it and functions as a sieve for nutrient diffusion, used for support and as a medium for chemical reactions. What is the area surrounding the cells called? Extracellular matrix. What is found in the extracellular matrix? Ground substance and fibers. What fibers are present in the extracellular matrix? Collagen fibers, elastic fibers and reticular fibers. Which of these fibers is the strongest? Collagen. What types of cells are present in connective tissue? Fibroblast, chondroblasts, osteoblasts and hematopoietic stem cells. What is the function of fibroblasts? Produce collagen fibers which repair damage to tissue. What is the function of chondroblasts? Cartilage cell that is not fully mature, transforms into a chondrocyte when mature. What is an osteoblast? Bone cell that is not fully matured, transforms into an osteocyte when mature. What is a hematopoietic stem cell? A cell that can develop into various blood cells. Does connective tissue have a blood supply? Some types of vascular and some types are avascular. How does it compare to epithelial tissue? Epithelial tissue is avascular but connective tissue could be avascular (cartilage) or vascular (blood). Does the matrix vary across different types of connective tissue? Some types have a very hard matrix (bone), and some types have a liquid matrix (blood). Where are mature connective tissues derived from? Embryonic tissue called mesenchyme. What is the makeup of loose connective tissue? Lots of space between fibers. What are the 3 types of loose connective tissue? Areolar, adipose, and reticular. Where is loose areolar connective tissue located and what types of fibers does it have? Under epithelia of the body, packages organs and surrounds capillaries; contains all 3 fiber types (collagen, elastic and reticular fibers). Where is loose adipose connective tissue and what it its function? Under skin in subcutaneous tissue, located around kidneys and eyeballs and within abdomen and in breasts; its functions include fuel reserve, insulation, and cushioning. Where is loose reticular connective tissue located? Found in lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, bone marrow and spleen). 14  EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE (CHAPTERS 1-4) There are no diagrams on the lecture exams. Diagrams will be on your lab exams. What is the makeup of dense connective tissue? It has very little space between fibers, it is poorly vascularized, and there is a strong attachment between structures. What are the 3 types of dense connective tissue? Regular, irregular, and elastic. Where is dense regular connective tissue located and what are their functions? Regular and it is in tendons, ligaments, and aponeuroses. Tendons are attachments of muscles to bones, ligaments are attachments of bones to bones, and aponeuroses are flat tendon. Where is dense irregular connective tissue? It can be found in fibrous capsules of organs and of joints, dermis of the skin and submucosa of digestive tract. Where is dense elastic connective tissue? It can be found in the walls of large arteries, within certain ligaments associated with the vertebral column, and within the walls of the bronchial tubes. What is the makeup and characteristics of cartilage? It is avascular so is very difficult to repair; it also has a semi-fluid, firm extracellular matrix. What are the 3 types of cartilage? Hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage. Where is hyaline cartilage found? Makes up the embryonic skeleton and remains in the body in certain areas. Where is elastic cartilage found? In the epiglottis. Where is fibrocartilage found and what are its unique characteristics? Intervertebral discs, menisci and it is mainly for support within the skeletal system and it’s full of collagen fibers. What are the characteristics of bone? Hard, calcified matrix containing many collagen fibers. What are bone cells called and where do they reside? Osteocytes lie in lacunae. Is bone vascular and what are the functions of bone tissue? It is very well vascularized, and its functions include calcium and phosphate storage. What types of cells are found in blood tissue? Erythrocytes (RBCs) and leukocytes (WBCs). What is the fluid matrix present in blood? Plasma. What is the name for connective tissue membranes and where are they found in the body? Synovial membranes and they are in joint cavities. What are the main characteristics of muscle tissue? It has contractile fibers and is well vascularized. What are the 3 types of muscle tissue? Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Where is skeletal muscle found and what are its important characteristics? Skeletal muscles are attached to the skeleton where they contract for purposes of locomotion, facial expression, movement of joints, maintaining posture and contracting to generate heat; skeletal muscle is striated and multinucleated. Where is smooth muscle found and what are its important characteristics? Smooth muscle is found in viscera like the digestive organs (stomach, intestines), respiratory tract, blood vessels, urinary tract (ureters and urinary bladder), uterus; smooth muscle is nonstriated and has 1 nucleus. Where is cardiac muscle found and what are its important characteristics? Cardiac muscle is found in the heart; cardiac muscle is striated and has 1-2 nuclei. Where is nervous tissue found and what are its main characteristics? It is found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves; it is electrical tissue that transmits signals. What are the 3 parts of a neuron? Dendrites, cell body and axon. 15