Physio Fall Final Review ANSWERS PDF

## Physio Fall Final review ANSWERS ### Anatomy & Physiology Semester Exam Review 1. **Differentiate between anatomy and physiology** - Anatomy: study of structure; physiology: study of function; structure determines function. 2. **List and explain the function necessary for maintaining life...

## Physio Fall Final review ANSWERS ### Anatomy & Physiology Semester Exam Review 1. **Differentiate between anatomy and physiology** - Anatomy: study of structure; physiology: study of function; structure determines function. 2. **List and explain the function necessary for maintaining life (characteristics of life)** - Responsiveness, conductivity, growth, respiration, digestion, absorption, secretion, excretion, circulation, reproduction 3. **List and describe the levels of organization within the body** - Subatomic particles → atom → molecule → macromolecule → organelle → cell → tissue → organ → organ system → organism. 4. **List the three basic components of every feedback control system** - Sensor (receptor), integrator (control center), effector 5. **Explain the mechanisms of action (overall goal) of negative and positive feedback control systems** - Negative: to correct, stop, inhibit a change; positive: stimulates a change. 6. **Compare and contrast the following: superior/inferior, posterior/anterior, proximal/distal, lateral/medial. Be able to use these terms to describe parts of the body.** - Superior: towards the head - Inferior: towards the feet - Posterior: back of the body - Anterior: front of the body - Proximal: towards the core of the body (referring to appendages) - Distal: away from the core (referring to appendages) - Lateral: away from the midline - Medial: towards the midline 7. **Name and describe the 3 planes used to divide the body.** - Sagittal: right & left halves - Transverse: superior and inferior halves - Frontal or coronal: anterior and posterior halves 8. **Differentiate between ionic and covalent bonds.** - Ionic: electrons are transferred - Covalent: electrons are shared 9. **Explain the importance of water within the human body. What percentage of the body is water?** - Makes up 70% of the human body. 10. **Distinguish between each of the 4 classes of organic molecules in terms of structure and function.** - **Carbohydrates:** - Monomer: monosaccharide - Function: energy for cellular activities - **Proteins:** - Monomer: amino acid - Function: defense system (antibodies), receptor sites, structural support (skin, tendons, nails), enzymes. communication (insulin is a protein hormone) - **Lipids:** - Structure: glycerol & 3 fatty acid tails - Function: concentrated energy source - **Nucleic Acids:** - Monomer: nucleotide (sugar, phosphate group, nitrogen base) - Function: store genetic information (DNA), transfer genetic information (RNA) 11. **Differentiate between acids and bases.** - **Acid:** any substance that releases H+ when in solution ("proton donor"); lowers pH - **Base:** any substance that increases the OH- concentration when dissociated in solution ("proton acceptor"); increases pH 12. **Discuss the structure and function of the following: endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton, cell fibers, centrosome, centrioles, cell extensions and nucleus.** - **Endoplasmic reticulum:** protein synthesis and intracellular transport - **Ribosomes:** site of protein synthesis (cell's "protein factory") - **Golgi apparatus:** "processing and packaging plant"; exports proteins made in rough ER - **Mitochondria:** "power plant"; ATP is synthesized - **Lysosomes:** "digestive bags"; rid cell of wastes - **Peroxisomes:** detoxifying function; important to liver and kidneys - **Cytoskeleton:** cell fibers, centrioles, centrosome - **Microfilaments:** "cellular muscles" - **Intermediate filaments:** main components of the supporting framework in many cells - **Microtubules:** cell "engine" - help with movement within cell and of the cell itself - **Centrosome:** "microtubule-organization center"; important in cell division b/c helps move chromosomes around the cell - **Centrioles:** cylindrical structures within the centrosome; role in cell division - **Cell extension:** - **Microvilli**: increase surface area; increases absorption (small intestine) - **Cilia**: transport fluid across cell surface (ex: respiratory tract, reproductive tract) - **Flagella**: aids in locomotion (ex: sperm cells) - **Nucleus:: Cell's "brain"; contains DNA; site of transcription** 13. **Differentiate between embedded and peripheral proteins (structure and function).** - **Embedded:** penetrate the entire plasma membrane; transport mechanism; act as channels or gates - **Peripheral:** identification markers (immune system); receptor sites 14. **Compare and contrast the processes of diffusion, dialysis, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and filtration.** - **All PASSIVE transport** do NOT require energy** occur DOWN a concentration gradient** - **Diffusion:** tendency of small particles to spread out within a given space - **Dialysis:** selectively permeable membrane separates small and large particles - **Facilitated diffusion:** diffusion across a membrane with the help of a carrier protein (also called carrier-mediated passive transport) - **Osmosis:** diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane - **Filtration:** passive of water and permeable solutes through a membrane by the force of hydrostatic pressure 15. **Contrast isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic solutions. Explain how they affect osmosis.** - **Refers to SOLUTE concentrations** water will diffusion to area of HIGH solute concentration b/c there is a LOWER water concentration** - **Isotonic:** ECF = ICF; no net movement of water - **Hypotonic:** ECF < ICF; water diffuses into the cell; cell swells (remember hypo) - **Hypertonic:** ECF > ICF; water diffuses out of the cell; cell shrinks 16. **Name and explain the 3 types of active transport discussed in class.** - **REQUIRE energy (ATP)** occur AGAINST a concentration gradient ("uphill")** - **Sodium-potassium pump:** transports Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell; 3Na+ for 2K+ - **Endocytosis:** brings large molecules into the cell - **Exocytosis:** large molecules exit the cell 17. **Differentiate between the purines and pyrimidines.** - **Purines:** adenine & guanine - **Pyrimidines:** cytosine & thymine 18. **How do the base pairs differ in RNA?** - Uracil replaces thymine (uracil binds with adenine) 19. **Explain the processes of transcription and translation.** - **Transcription:** - DNA "unzips" - RNA nucleotides attach themselves to the exposed bases along one side of the DNA molecule - RNA polymerase binds RNA nucleotides - Results in messenger RNA (mRNA) ("transcript of the gene") - mRNA pulls away from the DNA template - non-coding portions (introns) are removed - exons are spliced back together - mRNA travels to cytoplasm via the nuclear pores - **Translation:** - Ribosomal subunits attach to one end of the mRNA - Transfer RNA (tRNA) bring specific amino acids to the ribosomal site (based on each mRNA codon) - Amino acids are joined together by polypeptide bonds - Many polypeptide chains result in a protein 20. **What is the overall goal of mitosis?** - Production of TWO IDENTICAL daughter cells 21. **What are the phases of mitosis? What is occurring in each phase?** - (PMAT) - **Prophase:** chromosomes shorten & thicken; nuclear envelope breaks down; spindle fiber formation - **Metaphase:** chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell; spindle fibers attach at centromere - **Anaphase:** spindle fibers pull sister chromatids away/apart from each other - **Telophase:** cleavage furrow forms; nuclear envelope reappears 22. **What is the overall goal of meiosis? What is it referred to as "reduction division"?** - 2 haploid gametes; reduces the number of chromosomes from 46 to 23 23. **List the 4 tissue types in the human body.** - Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous 24. **Describe the function of each tissue type (general terms)** - **Epithelial:** protection (covers body surfaces), sensory, secretion (glandular epithelium), absorption (gut; respiratory tract - exchange of O2 and CO2), excretion - **Connective:** support, connection, transport, protection - **Muscle:** move body, specialized for contraction - **Nervous:** provides communication; coordinates body's functions 25. **Name the 3 primary germ layers and state which tissue types develop from each layer.** - **Ectoderm** - nervous, epitherlial - **Mesoderm** - muscle, epithelial, connective - **Endoderm** - epithelial 26. **Explain and apply the classification methods used to classify membranous epithelial tissues.** - **Cell Shape:** - **Squamous:** flat, plate-like - **Cuboidal:** cube-shaped; larger cytoplasm - **Columnar:** narrow and cylinder-shaped - **Pseudostratified:** single-layered; all cells touch the basement membrane but may not extend to the top of the membrane - **Layers of Cells:** - **Simple:** single layer - **Stratified:** cells are layered on top of one another - **Transitional:** cell shape & layers differ 27. **Differentiate between endocrine and exocrine glands** - **Exocrine glands:** - Discharge/secrete into ducts - Ex: salivary glands - **Endocrine glands:** - "ductless glands" - Secrete hormones directly into blood or interstitial fluid - Ex: pituitary and thyroid glands 28. **Explain and apply the structural and functional classification methods for classifying exocrine glands** - **Structural:** - **Shape:** tubular or alveolar (sac-like) - **Complexity:** simple (one duct) or compound (multiple ducts) - **Functional:** - **Apocrine** - Collect secretory products at apex (tip) - Apex of cell pinches off - Cell repairs itself & repeats process - Ex: milk-producing mammary glands - **Holocrine** - Collect secretory product inside the cell - Rupture to release (self-destructs) - Ex: sebaceous glands (oil glands) - **Merocrine** - Discharge through plasma membrane - This type applies to most exocrine glands - Ex: salivary glands 29. **Describe the structure and function of the 4 types of connective tissues (remember the subtypes! - study your flow chart!)** **connective tissue is the most abundant tissue in the body** - **Fibrous:** - **Loose (areolar)** - Stretchable - most abundant connective tissue in the body - Connects adjacent structures - Ex: btwn other tissues and organs - Ex: superficial fascia - **Adipose** - Contains mainly fat cells - Supportive/protection pads around kidneys & other body structures - Storage deposit for excess food - Insulating material, conserves body heat - **Reticular** - 3D web of reticular fibers - Forms the framework of the spleen, lymph nodes & bone marrow - Meshwork filters harmful substances out of the blood - **Dense** - **Regular** - Fibers arranged in parallel rows - Ex: tendons; ligaments - **Irregular** - Fibers intertwine; sustain stress from any direction - **Bone** - **Cartilage:** - **Hyaline:** - Most common - Covers ends of long bones (where joints articulate) - Found in supporting rings of respiratory tubes - **Fibrocartilage:** - Strongest, most durable - Intervertebral disks - Menisci in knee joint - **Elastic** - Fine elastic fibers - High degree of flexibility - External ear - **Blood:** - **Matrix = plasma** - **Formed elements = blood cells** - **Function** → transport respiratory gases (O2, CO2), nutrients, wastes 30. **List the structural characteristics of skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle tissue.** - **Skeletal:** voluntary, striations, multi-nucleated, long, tread-like cells, bundles of microfilaments - **Cardiac:** striated, involuntary, intercalated disks (where plasma membranes meet up), branching - **Smooth:** non-striated, involuntary, spindle-shaped cells, uninucleated 31. **List where the 3 types of muscle tissue can be found in the body:** - **Skeletal muscles** (attached to bone) - **Cardiac**-heart - **Smooth lines walls of hollow organs** (stomach, intestines, blood vessels) 32. **What are the 3 main parts of a neuron? Explain the function of these 3 parts.** - **Soma:** cell body; hold nucleus - **Dendrites:** carry signals towards soma - **Axon:** carry signals away from soma 33. **Which two tissue types have the greatest capacity for repair?** - Epithelial and connective 34. **How does connective tissue repair differ from epithelial tissue repair?** 35. **Describe muscle tissue repair:** - Damaged muscle tissue is replaced by connective tissue; results in some or all loss of normal function 36. **Differentiate between benign and malignant tumors.** - **Benign Tumors:** - Do not spread to other tissues - Slow growth - Encapsulated - Usually not lethal unless interfere w/ organs - **Malignant tumors (cancer):** - Not encapsulated - Spreads (metastasizes) - Cancer cells spread via blood or lymphatic system - Rapid growth/spread to nearby tissue 37. **Complete the table relating to body membranes (you may need to refer to your textbook):** | Membrane | Tissue Type | Common Locations | Function(s) | |---|---|---|---| | Mucous | epithelial | Line body surfaces open to exterior Ex: respiratory, digestive, urinary & reproductive tracts | Mucous which coats cells provides protection, lubrication for food & trap for contaminates in respiratory tract | | Serous | epithelial | Single membrane covering two surfaces: *Parietal membrane - lines walls of body cavities *Visceral membrane covers surface of organs | Secrete thin, watery substance to prevent rubbing | | Cutaneous | epithelial | Cover body surfaces exposed to external environment (skin) | protection | | Synovial | connective | Lines spaces btwn bones & joints | *Secrete thick, colorless, lubricating fluid (synovial fluid) *Fluid helps reduce friction btwn bone surfaces | 38. **What does integument mean? What are appendages? What are the skin's appendages?** - Integument = skin - Appendages: attachments (hair, nails, skin glands) 39. **List and describe the 7 functions of the skin.** - Protection from infection, dehydration, chemical/mechanical damage, ultraviolet radiation - Sensation - sensory receptors w/in skin - Movement w/o injury - elastic fibers allow movement & growth - Excretion - excretion of sweat; skin regulates volume & composition of sweat - Endocrine function (vitamin D) - First steps of vitamin D production occurs in the skin when exposed to ultraviolet light - Immunity - langerhan cells in skin help trigger immune response - Temperature regulation - - Vasoconstriction → prevents heat loss warm blood circulating deeper within the body - Vasodilation increases heat loss → increases skin's blood supply → heat lost to the external environment 40. **Differentiate between thick and thin skin. (Remember these terms only apply to the epidermis).** - **Thin skin** - covers most of body surface - **Thick skin** palms of hands, soles of feet, finger tips - All 5 layers of epidermis present - Raised dermal papillae (fingerprints or footprints) - No hair is present in thick skin 41. **What are the two main layers of skin? Briefly describe the characteristics of these two layers. Which layer is vascular? Avascular?** - **Epidermis:** - Avascular - Outer, thinner layer - 5 layers - Thick & thin (see #40) - 3 cell types (see #42) - **Dermis:** - Vascular - "true skin" - Thicker than epidermis - Protective function against mechanical injury - Storage area for water and electrolytes - Contains somatic sensory receptors (nerves & nerve endings) - Process information such as: pain, pressure, touch, temperature - Muscle fibers, hair follicles, sweat & sebaceous glands, blood vessels 42. **List and describe the 3 cell types of the epidermis.** - **Keratinocytes:** synthesize keratin - **Melanocytes:** synthesize melanin (brown pigment - gives skin color) - Melanin: protects deeper layers from ultraviolet light - **Langerhan cells (immune cells)** - Provide defense mechanism for the body 43. **List and describe the 5 strata of the epidermis. Which layers are found only in thick skin? Where does keratinization begin? Which layer does mitosis take place in?** - **Stratum corneum (horny layer)** - Most superficial - Shingle-like (squamous) dead cells - **Stratum lucidum (clear layer)** - Only in thick skin - **Stratum Granulosum (granular layer)** - Keratinization begins here - **Stratum spinosum (spiny layer)** - 8-10 layers of irregular shaped cells - **Stratum basale (base layer)** - Single layer of columnar cells - Mitosis occurs here 44. **How are "goose bumps" produced?** - Contraction of the arrector pili muscles 45. **What causes us to have distinct fingerprints and footprints?** - Dermal papillae - bumps that project into epidermis - Creates distinct ridges on epidermal surface of fingers & toes (finger/footprints) - unique for every person - in papillary layer of dermis 46. **How does the vascular supply within the dermis play a role in the regulation of body temperature?** - Vasocontriction: prevents heat loss → warm blood circulating deeper within the body - Vasodilation: increases heat loss → increases skin's blood supply → heat lost to the external environment - Negative feedback mechanism 47. **What is the significance of cleavage lines?** - If a surgeon cuts along a cleavage line there will be less incidence of a scar; cutting perpendicular to the cleavage line will cause increased stress on the incision which increases healing time and increases visibility/incidence of a scar 48. **How do the quantity of melanocytes and the amount of melanin produced differ in people of different skin colors?** - Quantity of melanocytes is constant among all races; amount of melanin produced differs 49. **Describe the two "rules" for estimating the body surface area affected by a burn.** - "Rule of palms" - the size of the patient's palm is approximately 1% of their body surface - "Rule of nines" - Body surface divided into 11 areas (anterior and posterior) of 9% (see figure in book) - Perineum (genital area) accounts for 1% 50. **Describe the structure of hair (fig 6-10)** 51. **Describe the function of sebaceous glands. Why are teenagers going through puberty more prone to acne?** - Secrete oil for skin & hair - Activated at puberty (stimulated by sex hormones) - Explains why teenagers are prone to acne 52. **List and describe the 5 function of bones.** - Support: Shape, alignment, positioning of body parts - Protection: Protects organs - Movement: Bones and joints act as levers; Muscles attached to bones produce movement of joints - Mineral storage: Calcium and phosphorous; Homeostasis of blood calcium levels - Hematopoiesis: Blood cell formation 53. **What are the 2 types of skeletal tissue? Give a brief description of each type.** - **Compact bone:** - Dense or solid appearance - **Cancellous or spongy bone:** - Open spaces filled with needle-like bone structures 54. **List and describe the parts of a long bone.** - **Diaphysis:** - Shaft of the bone - Hollow, compact bone - **Epiphyses:** - Ends of the long bones - Points of muscle attachment - Stability to joints - Spongy bone filled with red marrow - **Epiphyseal plate:** area between diaphysis and epihyses ("growth plate") - **Articular cartilage:** - Hyaline cartilage that covers joint surfaces - **Periosteum:** - Dense, white fibrous membrane that covers bone (excepts joint surfaces) - Tendon fibers interlace with these fibers creating a firm attachment - **Medullary (marrow) cavity:** - Hollow space in diaphysis of long bones - Filled with yellow marrow (CT rich in fat) - **Endosteum:** - Epithelial membrane that lines the medullary cavity 55. **Bones can be classified into 4 groups based on their structure. List the four groups; give a brief description of each group and examples of each group.** - **Long bones:** - typically longer than wide - Have shaft w/ heads at both ends - contains mostly compact bone - Ex: femur, humerus, ulna, radius - **Short bones:** - Cube or box-shaped - Mostly spongy bone - Ex: carpals & tarsals - **Flat bones:** - Thin, flattened - Usually curved surface - Thin layer of compact bone covering spongy bone