Enlightenment, Revolution, Nationalism PDF

Enlightenment a Enlightenment thinkers challenged the idea of divine right of kings; believed in government by the consent of the governed b Locke- people are born with natural rights to life, liberty and property. The government must protect these rights...

Enlightenment a Enlightenment thinkers challenged the idea of divine right of kings; believed in government by the consent of the governed b Locke- people are born with natural rights to life, liberty and property. The government must protect these rights or they can be overthrown c. Rousseau - social contract - people give some of their freedom voluntarily in return for government protection d. Montesquieu - government should have three branches – executive, legislative, and judicial – to create a balance of power and prevent tyranny e. Mary Wollstonecraft – argued that women were not inferior, they were poorly educated, advocated for equal education and equal rights for women f. William Wilberforce – introduced anti-slavery motions in Parliament g. Enlightened despots wished to follow the most advanced ideas of their time, but ruled with absolute power 1 “If man in the state of nature is free, if he is absolute lord of his own person and possessions, why will he give up his freedom? Why will he put himself under the control of any person or institution? The obvious answer is that rights in the state of nature are constantly exposed to the attack of others. Since every man is equal and since most men do not concern themselves with equity and justice, the enjoyment of rights in the state of nature is unsafe and insecure. Hence each man joins in society with others to preserve his life, liberty, and property.”— John Locke, Two Treatises of Government “When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person, or in the same body of magistrates [government officials], there can be no liberty; because apprehensions [fears] may arise, lest the same monarch or senate should enact tyrannical laws to execute them in a tyrannical manner....” — Baron de Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws Pardon my frankness, but I must observe, that you treated [the subject of women's rights] in too cursory a manner [...] Contending for the rights of woman [...] if she be not prepared by education to become the companion of man, she will stop the progress of knowledge and virtue;...If children are to be educated to understand the true principle of patriotism, their mother must be a patriot; and the love of mankind[...] But if women are to be excluded, without having a voice, from a participation of the natural rights of mankind, prove first, to ward off the charge of injustice and inconsistency, that they want reason, else this flaw in your NEW CONSTITUTION will ever show that man must, in some shape, act like a tyrant, and tyranny [...] will ever undermine morality [...] I wish, sir, to set some investigations of this kind afloat in France; and should they lead to a confirmation of my principles when your constitution is revised, the Rights of Woman may be respected, if it be fully proved that reason calls for this respect, and loudly demands JUSTICE for one-half of the human race. ― Mary Wollstonecraft Letter to M. Talleyrand-Périgord Late Bishop of Autun 2 French Revolution A. Causes 1. Financial a. government severely in debt due to cost of building and maintaining Versailles, wars fought by Louis XIV, money lent to American colonists – almost all incoming funds are needed to pay debts b. series of droughts in 1780’s left peasants starving 2. Political causes a France divided into three estates: First Estate - clergy- didn’t pay taxes Second Estate – nobility - didn’t pay taxes Third Estate - remaining 97% of the population including: peasants, workers and upper middle class of educated bourgeoisie. They paid almost all taxes, but had NO POLITICAL REPRESENTATION and became increasingly resentful 3. Enlightenment ideas led bourgeoisie to demand change 4. American Revolution provided inspiration B. Stages of the Revolution 1. National Assembly- created constitution, Parisians stormed the Bastille, an important symbol of the tyranny of the monarchy 2. Reign of Terror a. Committee for Public Safety headed by Danton, Marat and Robespierre killed everyone suspected of being an enemy of the people.b. Nobles became émigrés – moved to England 3. Directory a. Reign of terror ended with the killing of its own leaders b. 5 man Directory was set up to rule France, incompetent 4. Napoleon a. Brilliant general who appointed himself dictator of France and eventually emperor. b. He conquered Europe with the exception of Russia (scorched earth policy) and England c. spread Napoleonic Code which continued the aims of the French 3  Revolution d. Created a Legion of Honor to honor any citizen, regardless of rank, for service to his country e. Established a National Bank to stabilize the economy f. Offered jobs regardless of social class g.. issued the Concordat restoring the Catholic Church as the official religion of France, but offering religious freedom to others C. Results of the French Revolution 1. Political Changes a Middle class gained more power b Nobles lost special privileges c. Feudal obligations were abolished d. Nobles had to pay taxes 2. Social Changes a. More social mobility b. Titles abolished c. Many nobles emigrated to England. 3. Nationalism – identifying with a nation with common culture and history, wanting to be ruled by one’s nation, not by foreigners a. French felt increased pride due to Napoleon b. Other countries of Europe reacted to Napoleon by feeling increased nationalism c. As rulers came and went, people replaced loyalty to rulers with loyalty to their homeland 4. Congress of Vienna, under the leadership of Metternich, tried to restore the Old Regime. The countries of Europe concentrated on maintaining a balance of power through a system of alliances 4 5 6 7 Date Ruling government Changes 1789-1791 National Assembly Constitutional monarchy established Feudalism abolished Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen adopted 1791-1792 Legislative Assembly Constitutional monarchy undermined Mob forced king to flee to the safety of the Legislative Assembly War declared against Austria and Prussia 1792-1795 Committee for Public France declared a Safety Republic (Sept. 1792) Radicals (Jacobins) overcame moderates (Girondins) Terror used to execute “enemies of the regime;” 20-40,000 lose their lives 1795- 1799 Directory Five directors ruled as executive Coups d’état attempted by radical and conservative forces Napoleon overthrew the government in a coup d’état (Nov. 1799 1800- 1814 Napoleon Declared himself emperor in 1804 8  Redid tax structure Writing in his diary in January 1790, Adrien Duquesnoy, a delegate to the Estates General and a future deputy to the National Convention, reflected on what the French Revolution had achieved: “January 16th 1790 …Putting aside priests, nobility, magistrates and financiers, it is clear that all the rest of the kingdom reaps infinite benefits from the revolution. And indeed, amongst those citizens whom I have just listed there are a great number who should judge it advantageous to them, because in truth it is. Thus the clergy of second degree and almost all provincial noblemen, who were recently oppressed by bishops and court nobles, should consider themselves fortunate to be relieved of this aristocracy. Moreover, anyone who can for an instant put aside all private interest, cannot but bless this revolution. When one thinks of the great abuses of all kinds which burdened this poor kingdom, it seems obvious that only an upheaval of such intensity could achieve such an end. In any case, one thing is certain — it would be difficult for things to be worse than they were under the former regime. I often hear people around me asking a very strange question: they enquire, ‘What has the assembly been doing for the last six months?’ I only know of one 9 reply to this question: ‘Look, and observe: clergy and nobility abolished, provincial privileges gone, ecclesiastical property nationalised. Could you have achieved so much in ten years?'” 1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good. 2. The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible [in law] rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. 3. The principle of all sovereignty [supreme power or authority] rests essentially in the nation. No body and no individual may exercise authority which does not emanate expressly from the nation. 6. Law is the expression of the general will. Every citizen has a right to participate personally, or through his representative, in its foundation. It must be the same for all, whether it protects or punishes. All citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally eligible to all dignities and to all public positions and occupations, according to their abilities, and without distinction except that of their virtues and talents. 9. As all persons are held innocent until they shall have been declared guilty... 11. The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law. 13. A common contribution is essential for the maintenance of the public forces and for the cost of administration. This should be equitably distributed among all the citizens in proportion to their means. 16. A society in which the observance of the law is not assured, nor the separation of powers defined, has no constitution at all. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen French Revolution: 1793 …Individuals are not at issue here; we are concerned with the homeland and principles. I tell you plainly: it is impossible, in this state of affairs, for the Committee to save the state; and if anyone disagrees, I will remind you just how treacherous and extensive is the scheme for bringing us down and dissolving us; how the foreigners and internal enemies have agents paid to execute it; I will remind you that faction is not dead; that it is conspiring from the depths of its dungeons; that the serpents of the Marais have not yet all been crushed.… I know we cannot flatter ourselves that we have attained perfection; but holding up a Republic surrounded by enemies, fortifying reason in favour of liberty, destroying prejudice and nullifying individual efforts against the public 10 interest, demand moral and physical strengths that nature has perhaps denied to those who denounce us and those we are fighting.… excerpt from a speech given on September 25, 1793 by Maximilien Robespierre to the National Convention justifying measures taken by the Committee of Public Safety. …When he entered the Committee [of Public Safety], Maximilien [Robespierre] persuaded the other members to accept new procedures, to reorganize the clerical staff and to hold weekly meetings with the other Committee [of General Security]. The press, which, from intimate knowledge, the leader regarded as dangerous, was to be temporarily deprived of its freedom. Only when true democracy had been established would it be possible to allow journalists to have their say again! In all such decisions, the will and interests of the majority of citizens of France were both the pretext [alleged reason] and the inspiration. In other words: the government was to remain revolutionary until peace had been restored and all enemies put to flight.… The Law of Suspects This law, passed on 17 September 1793 [by Robespierre and the National Convention], authorized the creation of revolutionary tribunals to try those suspected of treason against the Republic and to punish those convicted with death. This legislation in effect made the penal justice system into the enforcement arm of the revolutionary government, which would now set as its primary responsibility not only the maintenance of public order but also the much more difficult and controversial task of identifying internal enemies of the Republic—such as “profiteers” who violated the Maximum [decree to fix prices]—and then removing them from the citizenry, where they might subvert [sabotage] the general will.… 11 12 Revolutions of Latin America a. Creoles in Latin America resented Spanish policy of mercantilism and their own lack of political power b. Enlightenment ideas and revolutions in US and France provided inspiration for political change c. Napoleon’s conquest of Spain created chaos in the mother country d.. Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin (nationalists) led revolutions in Latin America e. In Haiti, vast majority of African slaves was ruled by minority of French, and endured brutal conditions on sugar plantations. Toussant L’ouverture led slaves in Haiti to overthrow French f. Father Hidalgo gathered Mexican peasants; Creoles took over g. Countries of Latin America gained independence, but not democratic governments; military dictators known as caudillos ruled. Reliance on cash crops made economic development difficult Americans today, and perhaps to a greater extent than ever before, who live within the Spanish system occupy a position in society no better than that of serfs destined for labor, or at best they have no more status than that of mere consumers. Yet even this status is surrounded with galling restrictions, such as being forbidden to grow European crops, or to store products which are royal monopolies, or to establish factories of a type the Peninsula itself does not possess. To this add the exclusive trading privileges, even in articles of prime necessity, and the barriers between American provinces, designed to prevent all exchange of trade, traffic, and understanding. In short, do you wish to know what our future held? — Simply the cultivation of the fields of indigo, grain, coffee, sugar cane, cacao, and cotton; cattle raising on the broad plains; hunting wild game in the jungles; digging in the earth to mine its gold–but even these limitations could never satisfy the greed of Spain. So negative was our existence that I can find nothing comparable in any other civilized society, examine as I may the entire history of time and the politics of all nations. Is it not an outrage and a violation of human rights to expect a land so splendidly endowed, so vast, rich, and populous, to remain merely passive? As I have just explained, we were cut off and, as it were, removed from the world in relation to the science of government and administration of the state. We were never viceroys or governors, save in the rarest of instances; seldom archbishops and bishops; diplomats never; as military men, only subordinates; as nobles, without royal privileges. In brief, we were neither magistrates nor financiers and seldom merchants–all in flagrant contradiction to our institutions. Simon Bolivar Letter From Jamaica Unification of Italy A. Chief obstacle to unification of Italy was the Pope who feared loss of power B. Nationalists Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi led movement for unification C.. Unified Italy was weak due in part to differences between industrialized North and rural South Unification of Germany A. Many small German states had been in a loose confederation known as the Holy Roman Empire, which was destroyed by Napoleon, and replaced by a German Confederation B. Many favored unification for economic reasons. Chief obstacle to unification was rivalry between Prussia and Austria C. Bismarck known as Iron Chancellor 1. Provoked war with Austria to eliminate their opposition, with France to promote German unity against a common enemy 2. Believed in realpolitik a. Granted rights to workers to avoid their joining the Socialists D. Bismarck embarked on a kulturkampf against Catholic Church E. Bismarck rapidly industrialized and modernized Germany, altering the balance of power in Europe 1 1 and leading to WWI We had to avoid wounding Austria too severely; we had to avoid leaving behind any unnecessary bitterness of feeling or desire for revenge; we sought rather to reserve the possibility of becoming friends again with our adversary of the moment, and in any case to regard the Austrian state as a piece on the European chessboard and the renewal of friendly relations with her as a move open to us. If Austria was severely injured, she would become the ally of France and of every other opponent of ours; she would even sacrifice her anti-Russian interests for the sake of revenge on Prussia… Otto von Bismarck “Give the workingman the right to work as long as he is healthy, assure him care when he is sick, and maintenance when he is old…then the socialists will sing their siren songs in vain, and the workingmen will cease to throng to their banner”