Social Studies 20-1 Notes PDF

Social Studies 20-1 Topics ​ French Revolution ​ Canadian nationalism French Revolution (July 14, 1789) 2024-08-29 - Chronology of Europe the “Big Picture” American Revolution 1776 ​ Reactionary revolution (discontent with colonial rule) ​ French supported the Americans Pre-revolution...

Social Studies 20-1 Topics ​ French Revolution ​ Canadian nationalism French Revolution (July 14, 1789) 2024-08-29 - Chronology of Europe the “Big Picture” American Revolution 1776 ​ Reactionary revolution (discontent with colonial rule) ​ French supported the Americans Pre-revolution France ​ Feudal and patriarchal society ​ Catholicism was dominant religion French Revolution 1789 ​ Highly divisive ​ Radical revolution ​ Elements of social engineering ​ Redefining French national identity ​ Pertinent to our “modern” society ​ Part of modern history Liberalism ​ Rid of all opposition against your idea ​ Nationalism later gives way to liberal democratic ideas Europe the “Big Picture” (Europe General Timeline) Collapse of the Roman Empire 400 AD ​ Empire lasted for ~1000 years ​ Gradual decline ​ Was very prosperous ​ Decadence Middle Ages 400-1400 -- Start of Feudalism period ​ “Dark ages” ​ Followed by the Enlightenment period ​ People were poor materially ​ Most people did not live past 5 ​ Average lifespan was 40 Beginning of Islam 600  ​ Also an empire (religious wars, caliphates, Ottoman, etc.) ​ Also a slow deterioration, around the end WW1 ○​ Ottoman empire dissipates into many different states (e.g. Turkey) Black Death 1347-1351 ​ 75 million death toll ​ Positively resulted in serfs (slaves bought with the land) becoming more powerful ​ Serfdom throughout the world was normative ​ Began to erode nobility of the Church (had lots of moral authority) Feudalism ​ A true patriarchy ​ Feudal societies were male dominated ​ Entrenched inequality ​ Higher positions occupied by men Renaissance 1300-1600 ​ Predates Scientific Revolution ​ Influenced by Roman Empire, Humanism, arts ​ Art becomes real (coming into proportion) as they started to measure ​ Analyze and measure nature and depict in a more realistic way in order to understand nature Protestant Reformation 1517-1648 ​ Driven by Martin Luther, a German Catholic ​ Questioned and criticized Church (i.e. practice on indulgences) ​ Encouraged people to read and consult Scripture ​ Different interpretations arose, instead of achieving unification ​ Leads to… 30 Year War 1618-1648 ​ 6 to 10 million died ​ People vs. the Church ​ The sovereign determines the predominate religion ​ Gave monarchs more power, as they were able to distance themselves from the Pope ​ Britain is in same ways a Theocracy Peace of Westphalia 1648 ​ Beginning of modern international relations and idea of Sovereignty ​ Also beginning of national autonomy ​ Before: diversity of religions ​ Now: a diversity of nations The Enlightenment 1600-1700 -- End of Feudalism period ​ Different philosophers across Europe began to think or challenge about how to organize community and government ​ Fundamentally challenged the Catholic Church and supported individual autonomy ​ Ideas predate the revolution, which is the application of the ideas ​ Encompases American Revolution 1776 and French Revolution 1789 ​ Both revolutions are influenced by Enlightenment ideas 2024-09-04 Why is change so gradual? ​ People who drive change are the educated minority ○​ French Revolution started from the top ​ Difficult for ideas to spread and lack of technology ○​ Vast majority of people were illiterate ○​ Literacy only in clergy or aristocracy ○​ Blasphemy laws restricted freedom of expression ​ Widespread lawlessness due to lack of enforcement Religion ​ Binded different countries together ​ Allowed families to grow to create larger communities ​ Provided moral direction Why does society change? Pre-modern vs. modern vs. postmodern Pre-modern (religion) ​ Catholic Church confers authority to sovereigns ​ Religion unifies feudal communities Modern (reason) ​ Beginning of the Enlightenment ​ Does not eradicate faith (deemphasis) ​ Reason and logic is a new binding agent rather than religion ○​ Basis of building institutions and governments ​ Martin Luther encouraged people to read and interpret Scripture themselves ○​ More people began to read and an new ideas emerged ○​ Gutenberg invents printing press in 1440 that spreads throughout Europe ​ A return to Greek and Roman ages in someway ​ American and French revolutions heavily influenced by Enlightenment ideas, which challenge pre-modern society ○​ Ideas predate implementation Postmodern (identity) ​ Begins with Romantic Movement in early 1800s ​ Reason is not human anymore ​ Identity and the importance of emotions and feelings French Revolution ​ Ideas about giving choice and autonomy ​ Revolutionaries imposed it on French people  ​ They destroyed institutions and people who were inconsistent with their visions in the name of liberalism and democracy Glorious Revolution (England) ​ Decreased monarchs’ power ​ Their ability to tax at their will was revoked and needed parliament’s agreement ​ Parliament eventually came to represent the people Feudal Society in France ​ Elements that resemble democratic government (e.g. Pope was elected by cardinals) ​ Little social mobility ​ Everything in society is based on title Three Estates ​ First Estate - Clergy (religious order) (does not necessarily see eye to eye) ○​ Pope ○​ Cardinals ○​ Bishops ○​ Parish priests (interacted with poor elements of society, conflicted with higher members often) ​ Second Estate - nobility, aristocracy, and monarchs (could ascend into Clergy) ○​ Nobles of the sword ○​ Nobles of the robe (higher administrators; bureaucrats) ○​ Nobles of the bell (local administration) ○​ Anoblis (purchased their title) ○​ Hobereaux (lost their wealth) ​ Third Estate - everyone else ○​ Bourgeoisie (selfmade, professionals, entrepreneurs, having skill sets but no title) ○​ Peasants (vast majority of people were tenant farmers and tilled the land) Most of serfdom was gone (serfs were bought with the land) ○​ City workers (crafts people; budding proletarian) 2024-09-09 Characteristics of Feudalism ​ Massive inequality in land and wealth distribution ​ Social hierarchy is rigid as status is inherited ​ Lineage was more important than ability for a prestigious position in society ​ Loyalty to superiors was strong and most people remained in their local birth-region (less than 15 miles away) ​ Economy was dominantly agrarian as majority of people worked on land ​ Religion was the main driving force of community and required absolute faith in Church doctrine without justification ​ Certain laws were codified and universal in France although there were variations in them across regions ​ Most people were subject to local customs and laws (different regions had differences in laws) Feudalism in France ​ People did not have rights to land and it could be confiscated ​ Nobles had large estates of land and paid the tenants to work it, but did not own all of it ○​ Clergy constituted 0.5% of the population and owned 10% of the best land (location, fertility, etc.) ○​ Aristocracy constituted 1.5% of the population and owned 25% of the land ○​ The remaining 98% of the population owned 65% of the remaining land Inequality in Society ​ Many laws are explicitly developed to effect inequality ​ For example, taxes were not compulsory for first and second estates but many would still pay for better relations with the state ○​ Taille - property taxes levied on common people before revolution ○​ Corvee - labor for public causes ○​ Vingtieme - 5% tax of annual income ○​ Franc-fief - Inheritance tax ​ Le droit du meilleur catel (feudal relief) taxes paid to the lord by the heir of a feudal tenant, entitling him to inherit the lord’s fief (estate-in-land) Primogeniture ​ Firstborn son would inherit estates and wealth from parents ​ Right of succession belonged to eldest child (based on age) ​ Common in society as most people were poor and could not accumulate substantial wealth to be passed on ​ Instead, inheritance was given towards one person rather than dispersing the wealth would to be more effective for overall accumulation The Government and the Church  ​ Support of the Church validated government's authority instead of government being chosen by electorate ​ Upper echelons of society genuinely believed that they were helping ​ Third Estate was complicit and tolerated their poor living conditions as they were entertained by the idea of heaven and eternal bliss (propaganda) The Degradation of Feudalism (Pre-Revolution) ​ Undermined feudalism in France ​ Protestant Reformation ○​ Allowed for more critical thinking and free expression, challenging the authority of the Church ○​ People began gaining literacy to read the Bible, interpreting Church doctrine and forming their own view (loss of narrative control by the Church) ○​ Invention of Gutenberg’s printing press was a factor of the arise of free-thought ​ Black Death ○​ Caused higher demand for serfs, leading to increased wages ○​ This suggested possibility for ascension to higher position and challenged the system (change in social norms) ​ The Enlightenment ○​ Philosophers proposed new ideas for governance and people began to envision a different system and think about its merits ​ Scientific Revolution ○​ Questioned the model of the universe and defied Church doctrine ○​ People started to doubt the Church in other aspects Minor Factors Leading to Revolution ​ Dire financial situation ​ Voting rights within the Estates General (representative assembly of three Estates) Necker ​ Finance Minister of France ​ Supported American Revolution monetarily ​ Lack of system to repay national debts hindered his effort to raise funds ​ Concealed debts by publishing fake accounts appearing to balance debt by excluding large payments such as American financing ​ Caused future successors to suffer in addressing this debt Calonne ​ Proposed uniform tax across the kingdom to be administered by provincial assemblies of nobles and other elites to salvage dire situation ​ Suggested direct taxes for everybody based on landholding and encouraged economic growth by unrestricting trade to stimulate economy ​ Eventually dismissed and replaced by Brienne, a critic of him in the Assembly of Notables Brienne ​ Served as the president of the Assembly of Notables ​ Had to deal with problems from previous ministers ​ Resisted package of reforms put forward by Calonne ​ His strategies were similar to Calonne’s but he still had trouble solving the problems ​ After magistrates combated despotism, Brienne sought reconciliation and agreed to prolong existing taxation policies and drop reforms ​ Attempted a coup against Paris Parlement and set out the May Edicts, removing the Parlements by instating a new plenary court to register laws, with a reorganization of the judicial system Necker ​ Determined not to raise taxes during the American Revolution and kept the nation afloat by taking out foreign loans ​ Necker was loved by the people but was eventually dismissed by the Crown, as his policies and reforms favored the people over the privileged classes ​ Louis XVI recalled Necker to office in August of 1788 ​ Wanted the King to double third Estate’s voting power Revolution ​ June 17 - deputies of the Third Estate declared themselves as the National Assembly ​ June 20 - they vow to not dissolve until they establish a new constitution ​ July 14 - the people storm the Bastille and revolt Copernicus ​ Lifespan dates: ○​ Prominent mathematician and astronomer during the Renaissance ○​ Born in February, 1473 and died in May, 1543 ​ Key intellectual contribution: ○​ Proposed heliocentric model that suggested that Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, not the other way around ○​ His model was based off mathematical calculations ○​ Condemned by the Church because of how heretical his ideas were ​ How it undermined the feudal system ○​ His ideas challenged the Church’s judgment, which was divinely inspired from God ○​ The Church was the top of the feudal hierarchy ○​ He explored nature through science, instead of blindly accepting the Church’s doctrines ○​ People could be encouraged to question other things and doubt the Church ○​ If the Church lost its authority and the peoples’ confidence, feudal society would inevitably erode 2024-09-11 Quiz - Enlightenment Contributions (Emerging Ideas Handout) Long Term Factors ​ Protestant Reformation (1500s) ​ The Enlightenment ​ American Revolution ​ Black Death (14th c.) ​ Scientific Revolution (1550) ​ Glorious Revolution (1689) Short Term Factors (more immediate) ​ Necker ○​ Series of wars incurred enormous debt ○​ Publishes compte rendu in 1781 (public finances, budget report), which appears balanced but conceals true debts ○​ Successful but deceptive (well connected with wealthy people) ​ Calonne ○​ Called for fiscal reforms, most notably, taille for all (property tax levied on 2nd Estate) and free trade ○​ Convinces king to create Assembly of Notables (highest ranking aristocracy in France) to endorse his reform ideas, but Assembly did not support it either ○​ Louis is under pressure and dismisses Calonne ​ Brienne ○​ Faces same problem and attempts to pass reforms through Assembly of Notables and Parlements ○​ Closes the Paris Parlement and rioting occurs ○​ Calls for the Estates General to meet in 1792 but advanced to 1789 because dire situation (has not met since 1614) ​ Necker ○​ Decision to vote by head or vote by order causes issues Circumstances in Feudal France ​ War was most expensive of spendings in feudal society (monarchs fought other monarchs for land) ​ No social welfare (e.g. healthcare, education, other modern developments) ​ Church provided most of the social services (taking care of elderly and impoverished) ​ Productive capacity is determined by the output of each citizen, determines the economy ​ Increased productivity allows monarchs to increase taxation and wage wars ​ War was as a common feature of feudalism and led to debt ​ Monarchy ​ Poor leadership in governance leads to ripples in society  ​ Monarchs wanted their relatives to sit on other thrones (less fighting) Thirteen Parlements carried out monarch’s orders by registering and administering laws ​ Not all Parlements are equal (feudalism is unequal) ​ Paris Parlement was the most extensive Wars of Monarchs of France Louis XIV (1643-1715) ​ One of the most famous French monarchs ​ Founded New France and expanded France’s natural boundaries (Pyrenees, Alps, Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, English Channel, Rhine River) ​ Built the Palace of Versailles in 1682 (later becomes an important meeting site for diplomats) ​ Height of Absolutism ​ War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714) Louis XV (1715-1774) ​ War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) ​ Seven Years War sets up American grievances against the British (1756-1763) Louis XVI (1774-1791) ​ Last absolute monarch ​ Participated in American War of Independence ○​ French sided with colonists against Britain (shared enemy, but this was not conductive for long-term relations) ○​ By supporting them, French Revolution followed many of the same trends of American Revolution Between 1701-1783, France was at war for 36 years and incurred lots of debt as a result 1. Key Problem ​ France has a large national debt and is in a dire financial crisis ○​ National bankruptcy causes state unable to provide services (extensive impact) ​ Taxation must be increased to solve this problem ○​ First and Second Estates do not want to give up their privilege for tax exemption ​ Third Estate was underrepresented and wanted justice 2. Why can’t they find a solution? ​ Either status quo is maintained and Third Estate is unhappy or Third Estate representation is increased and upper classes are unhappy ​ Widespread opposition against new taxation policies causes reforms to be futile French Revolution starts at the top as the nobility reject the taxation policies Most revolutions are led by educated elites and do not typically start with illiterate downtrodden masses French economy vs. French finances ​ Economy - productive capacity of the people (to become wealthier, produce more in the same amount of time, known as surplus which can be sold) ○​ If economy is strong (surplus), government can tax and improve community ​ Finances - spending habits of the government (monarchy), relating to revenue (in: taxes, money borrowed) and expenses (out: war, construction, etc.) In ancient society, it was very difficult to generate wealth so communities enslaved other communities How do we pay debt if our capacity to generate wealth is affected ​ Sustainability can inhibit growth by reducing energy consumption 2024-09-16 - Enlightened Philosophes Copernicus Galileo (1564-1642) ​ Innovates the telescope and gathers evidence to prove Copernicus’ theory ​ Encourages people to reason and discover things on their own (faith to reason) ​ Church forced him to rescind his statements and recant his position Isaac Newton (1643-1726) ​ Contributed to science and laws of nature by discovering gravity (impacted army cannons) ​ Empowered reason over tradition Hobbes (1588-1679) ​ Invented social contract theory whereby citizens would cede some rights in exchange for protection (defended absolutism) ​ How people can live in peace and avoid the danger by obeying a sovereign ​ Power should not be divided between Church and state, but combined to avoid conflict so that religious authority is political authority ​ He did not give enough recognition to the Church in creating this hierarchical system; he based it off of reason (Leviathan) ​ Theocracy Locke (1632-1704) ​ Most influential political philosopher in the development of American constitution ​ Representative government, division of power, property rights, freedom of expression, equal treatment under law, blank state of mind ​ Humans had natural rights (life, liberty, property) ​ Allows for people to express themselves and opens the Church to criticism Rousseau (1712-1778) ​ Maximilien Robespierre was fond of and inspired by Rousseau ​ Idea of General Will suggests that the majority should be represented and heard ​ Introduces elections and hierarchical structure of feudalism 2024-09-18 Voltaire (1694-1778) ​ Advocated for separation of power between Church and Crown ​ Defended freedom of speech and challenges feudal authority Adam Smith (1723-1790) ​ Proposed laissez-faire economics (free market) and free exchange of trade ​ Encourages individual pursuit of wealth instead of complete control by state Montesquieu (1689-1755) ​ Division of government’s power into branches (executive, legislative, judicial) ○​ Executive implements law ○​ Legislative creates law ○​ Judicial interprets and applies law ​ Either absolute power (feudalism) or division of power ​ Believed certain forms of government are better suited for different regions, depending on geography and climate ○​ Despotism, republic, democracy, etc. ​ Allows for different governments for different communities (diversity) Diderot (1713-1784) ​ Editor of Encyclopedie ​ Encouraged critical thinking and rationalism ​ Believed laws should be based on natural rights ​ Provides people with access to knowledge and different ideologies so they can form their own conclusions about feudalism Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) ​ Supported women’s rights and equality (natural rights belongs to everyone) ​ Feudalism was patriarchal ​ Encourages all people to participate in society 2024-09-23 Louis XIV (1638-1715) ​ Built Versailles ​ French Revolution designs society in a way that conforms to our human nature ​ The elevated will be reduced and the base will be embraced Louis XVI (1774-1791) ​ Last absolute monarch of France ​ His wife was Marie Antoinette The Attack of the Bastille (July 14, 1789) ​ Symbol of monarchical oppression ​ Revolutionaries intentionally attack symbols or institutions they despise ​ Tore down brick by brick The Meeting of the Estates-General ​ Monarch’s absolute authority is eroding and people question his legitimacy ​ Necker is compelled to show the finances and publishes the Compte Rendu au Roi (1781), which allows for criticism against the King’s spendings ​ A series of disastrous harvests took place in short succession led to food rots taking place in different parts of France (1789) ​ The Cahiers ​ Met in Versailles on May 5, 1789, and dilemma concerned Vote by Head vs. Vote by Order ○​ First and Second Estate can combine their votes to outweigh the Third Estate’s vote ○​ 300 members to represent each Estate ○​ King doubled the Third Estate’s representation but did not indicate which method of voting 2024-09-26 National Assembly ​ Created by Third Estate on June 17, 1789 ​ Clergy voted to join on June 19 Estates General and the National Assembly ​ Monarch’s mystique derived from rare speech (speaking removes the veil of competence and untouchability) and distance from others (unachievable figure) ​ Louis held Seance Royale on June 23 to retain his authority (was the meeting place for third Estate) ​ Third Estate congregated and established the Tennis Court Oath on June 20 ​ Necker advised king to proceed with Seance Royale and hope to dissipate defiance and declared that Estates-General continue to meet without Third Estate ​ Abolished lettres de cachet (automatic warrants for arrest by king), remove internal trade barriers, and corvee and gabelle ​ Concessions encouraged the revolution by actualizing the dissenters’ goals, spurring a cycle of rebellion into order to enact further reforms through compromise ​ Compromises were too late and 151 Clergy members joined the National Assembly on June 24, and 47 nobles in June 25 ​ Louis reversed his decision of June 23 on June 27 and accepted vote by head ​ He deployed French guards into Paris and military presence progressively heightened ​ Louis dismissed Necker on July 11 (indicated Louis would crush the National Assembly) ​ Large scale demonstration on July 12, with looting and arming, buildup of barricades on July 13 ​ Royal troops (gardes francaises) aligned with Parisians (seized lots of weaponry from les invalides on July 14) ​ The mob (sans-culottes) marched to the Bastille for ammunition with defected soldiers ​ Head of governor of Bastille (Marquis de Launay) was piked and paraded ​ Paris Commune and National Guard were established on July 15 2024-10-02 Causes and Effects of Louis XVI’s Decisions ​ American Revolution weakened Britain and reinforced France’s power ○​ Revenge for Seven-Years War ○​ Hoped to seize some sugar islands in Caribbean ○​ American Revolution ideals propagated to France (revolution became feasible) ​ Publishing the compte rendu seals their trust to foreign powers in order to borrow more money ○​ Exposed spending habits ​ Doubling the representation of Third Estate misleads them to think vote by head will be used ○​ Poor decisions showed monarch’s incompetence ​ Deployed troops in Paris to restore order and suppress insurrection ○​ People are agitated and ideologues twist perception of the king into an oppressor willing to use force ○​ Mob gains momentum and use violence The Declaration of Rights to Man ​ Canadian Bill of Rights (statute), Canadian Charter (constitution) ​ There have been many constitutions in France Sans-Culotte ​ Dominant group involved in the Attack of the Bastille ​ Mostly artisans, city workers, etc. (the common) ​ Symbolic of revolution in Paris and represented what it means to be French ​ Replace feudal icons (Louis XIV painting) Revolution Spreads to Provinces ​ Many mini-municipal revolutions take place and towns also set up own militias ○​ Some were more violent (Bordeaux, Lyon) or orderly (Dijon, Pamiers) ​ Riots against taxes, feudal dues, and the tithe ​ The Great Fear (July 20 to August 6) - terrifies aristocracy ​ Peasants attack manor houses (after sans-culotte) ​ No administrative capacity anymore and France becomes chaotic (who has authority - king, parlements, assembly, etc.) Great Fear leads to many political and economic reforms August Decrees (August 5-11, 1789) ​ Series of political reforms to deduce the permeating violence in France, where the nobility made major political concessions ○​ Tithes were abolished ○​ Financial and tax privileges were abolished  ○​ Citizens were taxed equally ○​ Special privileges were abolished (e.g. tax exemptions) ○​ All citizens were eligible for all offices (e.g. ecclesiastical, civil, or military) (moves toward meritocracy) Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (August 26, 1789) ​ National Assembly create the Declaration prior to establishing Constitution of 1791 ​ Outlines peoples’ rights to preface everything to come (future laws and government) Nationalization of Church Land (November 2, 1789) ​ Assignat - bonds backed by the sale of Church land ​ Surveyors measure the perimeter of Church land for identification ​ Subdivided into saleable plots of land ○​ A piece of paper marked the legal title to the land (they were called bonds) ○​ National Assembly gained more wealth as bonds were sold (also win support from those who buy it) ​ Alienates Catholics (majority of people) who can have sympathy for Church or aristocracy 2024-10-07 Consequences of the Great Fear ​ 1st and 2nd Estate members decide to concede privileges (August Decrees and Declaration of Rights) ​ Nationalize Church land (expropriate) ○​ The National Assembly now has financial capacity to govern (hire administrators, army, etc.) ○​ Receives support from purchasers ○​ Alienates Catholics 2024-10-09 Fish Women ​ Concerned with bread price ​ Gruff and unrefined ​ Symbolize feminism by engaging in the revolution ​ Not a part of National Assembly ○​ Assembly mainly consisted of educated Third Estate members, some nobles, and clergy (parish priests) The Reaction of the Monarchy ​ Louis refused to officially support the August Decrees and the Declaration of Rights ​ Raised questions about his power ○​ Decided that Louis had suspensive veto (4 years), not applying to financial laws (executive vs. legislative powers are being defined) ​ His non-cooperation led to another journee (spontaneous movement of reprisal) March of the Fist Women to Versailles ​ On October 5, a crowd of women storm the Hotel de Ville (Paris Commune) ​ Sans-culotte attacked a symbol, fish women attacked the person ​ About 7,000 women accompanies by 20,000 National Guards ​ Coerce him to release grain storage to Paris and endorse August Decrees and Declaration ​ Shows that women can engage politically ​ Title is changed from “King of France and Navarre” to “Louis, by the grace of God and the constitutional law of the State, King of the French” ​ The events of this time are referred to as the October Days Unification and Democratization of France ​ Levels of governing that have division of power ​ Social services Key Reforms and Accomplishments of the National Assembly ​ Political reorganization and geographic organization (Montesquieu) ○​ 83 Departments (similar to a province) ○​ 547 Districts (similar to a region/country) ○​ 43,360 Communes which were further divided into cantons (municipal electoral districts) ​ Voting criteria were created ○​ Deputies to Legislative Assembly (taxes = 54 days of labor) ○​ Electors (taxes = 10 days of labor) ○​ “Active citizens” (taxes = 3 days of labor) 61% of men could vote ○​ “Passive citizens” could not vote ○​ Same system as electoral college voting in United States  ○​ Senators in Canada must have a certain income/property (look at nun case) ​ Taxation and Finances ○​ Most indirect taxes were abolished ○​ Church land was nationalized (November 1789) ○​ Land tax was introduced - applicable to all ○​ Tax on commercial profits were introduced (corporate taxes) ​ Economic Reforms ○​ Free trade in grain (August 1789) ○​ Internal tariffs were abolished (October 1790) ○​ Metric system was introduced ○​ Guilds were abolished (moving to meritocracy) ​ The Legal System ○​ Unified national legal code was developed ○​ Each Department had a criminal court trials were public and decided by jury ​ The Church 1.​ Civil Constitution of the Clergy (July 1790) ​ Within each Department was a single diocese - number of bishops was reduced from 135 to 83 ​ Bishops and priests were to be elected and paid by the state ​ Asked to take an oath of loyalty to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (November 1790) 2.​ Result: The Catholic Church became split and many more began to question the actions of the state towards the Church (Refractory/Non-juring Priests) ​ The Constitution of 1791 (September 3, 1791) ○​ Created a constitutional monarchy ○​ Defined the powers of a new legislative assembly (745 members) and the King ○​ Declaration of the Rights and Man and the Citizen was attached to the Constitution 2024-10-16 Ideologues reduce cultures into single stereotypes and generalize ​ Identity politics - attacks on others based on their culture and beliefs Review Assembly of Notables and Rejection of Tax Reforms by Paris Parlement ​ Second Estate aristocrats undermined the king and retained tax exemptions Creation of the National Assembly ​ Third Estate bourgeoisie wanted king to compromise ​ Louis met with Assembly Tennis Court Oath ​ National Assembly, some clergy members, and some nobility Attack on the Bastille ​ Sans-culotte stole weapons and formed a militia ​ Proved the legitimacy of the movement Great Fear ​ Act of peasants terrified aristocrats, who enacted August Decrees ​ Church land was seized and there were several other reforms March of Fish Women to Versailles ​ Working class women and National Guard Post-October Days Events Progression of Governments ​ Third Estate forms National Assembly, which creates a constitution and organizes election ​ Robespierre believed that revolution should allow everybody to have position and vote should be impartial ○​ He was very idealistic and genuinely wanted to improve France ○​ Believed that progressive reform is needed to rid of all feudal remnants ​ Factions form in Legislative Assembly evident by seating arrangements and began left-right party politics ​ Spectrum from liberal democratic republic to feudal monarchy (constitutional monarchy in center) ​ Massive overhauls of constitution promoted lawlessness ○​ Prime environment for radicals to rule by force instead of law Radicalization of Revolution ​ Three key events before the constitution hindered the legislative assembly ​ King’s Flight to Varennes (June 20, 1791) ○​ Hoped to find Austria’s Hapsburg family and recapture France ○​ Other countries supported Louis since they were afraid of revolution in own country ○​ When he was found, he claimed escape was in mortal fear (partially true), but was charged with treason and the concept of constitutional monarchy was undermined (king opposed the government) ​ Champs de Mars Massacre (July 17, 1791) ○​ People congregated at a park to draw a petition on whether to form republic ○​ National Guard opened fire on them, but was created to protect the people, suggesting disunity of army and Third Estate Since many different taxes were abolished, the National Assembly confiscated church land as a new source of revenue to administer their laws and help pay off the national debt France had incurred by selling the confiscated lands through bonds called assignats. The political effects were significant. This alienated the Church and Catholicism, promoting secular ideals and spreading anticlerical sentiment. It also fuelled the conflict between the state and religious authorities. There were also benefits to the assembly, as they gained more support from those who bought the land. 2024-10-17 Three key events prior to the creation of the Constitution of 1791 (Sept. 3) made the long-term success of the newly created Legislative Assembly less likely. (Look at page above) ​ The King’s Flight to Varennes (June 20, 1791) ​ The Champs de Mars massacre (July 17, 1791) ​ The Declaration of Pillnitz (August 27, 1791) and Brunswick Manifesto (August 1, 1792) Austria and Prussia indicated that force would be used in order to restore the powers of the crown. The first meeting of the new Legislative Assembly took place on October 1, 1791. Only ¼ of active citizens participated in elections. Self-denying ordinance meant the most experienced political leaders weren’t part of the Legislative Assembly. The key problem was that Louis had demonstrated his unwillingness to rule as a constitutional monarch (flight to Varness). As a result, the call for a republic grew louder. About 50,000 congregated in the Champs de Mars to sign a petition calling for a French republic. The National Guard, led by Lafayette, was called out to subdue the crowd. The National Guard opened fire killing about 50 unarmed people. This represented a clear break within the Third Estate. War with Austria declared in April of 1792. Constitution of 1791 (Created September 3, 1791) ​ Louis was granted substantial power and authority, yet escaped France in hopes of convincing Austria and Prussia to attack France and restore the absolute monarchy ​ Only active citizens can become a National Guardsman ○​ People question this policy Succession of governments, with different sets of rules (constitution), indicates political instability National Symbols Assignment (Cult of the Supreme Being and Cult of Reason) a.​ What exactly was the innovation (Did it have a specific origin?) and what, if anything, did it replace? ​ Cult of the Supreme Being (secular religion - constitution) established by Robespierre in 1794 ​ Replaces the Cult of Reason (atheistic) and Catholicism b.​ What was its purpose? ​ Unify the French and maintain social order by providing a set of values and morals ​ Robespierre believed that faith in a higher power (saw himself as the exemplar of virtue) was needed for social stability  ​ The Cult was authorized by the National Convention in May of 1794 as civic religion of France c.​ Was it successful? ​ Not very successful ​ Faced resistance from both public and political factions ​ Many people saw it as an attempt to impose state religion ​ The Cult lost support and was officially banned by Napoleon in 1802 after Robespierre was executed d.​ Does Canada have an equivalent? ​ Canada is a multicultural country ​ People are allowed to freely practice their faith ​ Government does not endorse any religion ​ Government practices are secular 2024-10-21 Argumentative Essay ​ Properties of functioning liberal democracy ​ Analyze why certain events took place in historical essays (not argumentative) ​ State to what extent you agree or disagree with topic and defend position in argumentative essays The Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen ​ Presentism ​ Too radical and outlawed The Cult of the Supreme Being ​ Robespiere regarded himself as the supreme being and an exemplar of virtue The Metric System ​ Standardized units in base ten (natural) The Revolutionary Calendar ​ 10 days a week ​ Was not successful (too radical) ​ Desynchronized the calendar of France with other countries The Tricolore ​ Basis of French flag, taken from colors of Paris ​ Was successful and was easy to construct ​ Colors represented Third, First, and Second Estates respectively, which prioritized people over nobility The Levee en masse ​ Mass military conscription to arm a standing army defending against other monarchies ​ Policy would last until WWI in many countries ​ Standing armies were present for most developed countries La Marseillaise ​ Was the national anthem ​ Marches were the most effective way to rally large amounts of people to a destination song ​ Roused soldiers for war with violent lyrics Bastille Day ​ National day of France celebrating the storming of the Bastille The Guillotine The Revolutionary Clock ​ Divides the day into 10 hours “Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite” ​ Simple political slogans aim to capture audience ​ Took a hundred years to become popular (not immediately) ​ Canada: From Sea to Sea; Peace, Order, Good Government Key Characters of the French Revolution Assignment a.​ His / Her early life ​ Olympe de Gouges was born Marie Gouze in 1748 in Montauban, France ​ Her father was a carpenter ​ Moved to Paris after her mother died ​ Became a writer and began to engage with social issues b.​ Role in the French Revolution ​ Vocal advocate for women's rights ​ Published the "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen," in 1791 ​ Argued that women should have the same rights as men ​ Also spoke against slavery and called for its abolition. c.​ Fate ​ Arrested and executed by guillotine in 1793 because of outspoken views and opposition to revolutionary government ​ Slandered Robespierre Parties to research a.​ Jacobins ​ Radical political group advocating for strong centralized government and social equality ​ Led by Maximilien Robespierre during Reign of Terror b.​ Cordeliers ​ More populist faction that championed direct democracy and rights of common people ​ Supported more radical social reforms ​ Georges Danton and Camille Desmoulins c.​ Girondins ​ Moderate political group favouring constitutional government at first (later became republicans) ​ More aligned with the interests of the bourgeoisie ​ Opposed Jacobins and were purged during Reign of Terror d.​ Feuillants ​ Conservative faction that split from the Jacobins that supported constitutional monarchy rather than republic  ​ Sought to preserve some of monarchy’s powers while promoting moderate reforms The Feuillants were excluded from the Legislative Assembly due to their break from the Jacobins, as they endorsed a constitutional monarchy instead of a republican framework. Their moderate position and efforts to retain monarchical authority rendered them less influential as revolutionary sentiments became increasingly radicalized. 2024-10-23 Louis’ Attempt to Flee ​ Raised concerns about the king ​ Wielded considerable authority (over military, legislation, etc.) ​ France, under the National Assembly, supposed to be constitutional monarchy Control of the Revolution Passes from the Bourgeoisie to the Sans-Culottes ​ State is beginning to fray, evidenced by violent perpetrators not facing legal consequences (sans-culotte, fish women, etc.) ​ Political figures and revolutionaries direct violent groups’ energy to garner their support for a successful political career ​ The French military was in very poor shape. Of its 12,000 officers over half had emigrated. When war with Austria started, many French troops mutinied. The Legislative Assembly needed to take action. It passed a law calling for the deportation of refractory priests (those who would not take the oath of state allegiance) and for the disbanding of crown troops. At the same time it recruited an additional 20,000 National Guards from the provinces. ○​ Emigration of aristocrats allows for new opportunities for Third Estate to join army ○​ Opportunity to advance military position (e.g. Napoleon) ​ Louis vetoed these laws ○​ Raises more concerns about him ​ From April (when war with Austria was declared), rioting resumed and in July, the Legislative Assembly declared a state of emergency and issued a declaration of all mens to arms. “Passive” citizens were now permitted into the National Guard. ○​ State of emergency entails a temporary suspension of citizens’ rights ○​ During times of war, there may be domestic abuses of power ​ Robespierre (was not part of the Legislative Assembly) now re-entered the political arena, calling for the removal of the Constitution, the overthrow of the monarchy, the establishment of a new government (the National Convention) elected by universal male suffrage, and the removal of existing government authorities. ○​ Estates-General, Constituent Assembly, Legislative Assembly, National Convention (republic) ​ The Brunswick Manifesto was published in Paris on August 1, 1792. Austria and Prussia promised not to loot Paris and harm civilians if the French King and Queen were left alone. It did not have the intended impact. ○​ Led to another journee directly against Louis, who was forcibly brought back to the Tuileries The Attack on the Tuileries ​ On August 3, 1792, the mayor of Paris went before the Legislative assembly to have them abolish the monarchy the Assembly refused. The result became the bloodiest journee of the Revolution: the overthrow by force of the Paris Commune with a new Revolutionary Commune (August 9) and the attack on the Tuileries (August 10). The  attack was orchestrated by the Revolutionary Commune and ended with about 1,000 people dead. Louis now became a prisoner and the Legislative Assembly was forced to give up control of Paris. ○​ Second direct attack on the king and becomes a prisoner ​ This marked the final days of the Legislative Assembly; France would soon become a republic. Most of the members of the Legislative Assembly who supported a constitutional monarchy (about 2/3rds of them) stayed away from the Assembly. ​ The National Convention met for the first time on September 20, 1792; the monarchy was abolished and France officially became a republic on September 22, 1792. ○​ Reign of Terror begins with the National Convention and ends when it disbands The French Revolution Channel HD Video Jacques Hébert (1757–1794) was a French journalist and radical politician during the French Revolution. Born in Alençon, he initially worked as a clerk and playwright before moving to Paris, where he founded the influential, satirical newspaper Le Père Duchesne, through which he voiced support for the Revolution’s most extreme ideas. Hébert became a leading figure in the radical faction known as the Hébertists, who called for aggressive de-Christianization and direct democracy. However, he fell out of favor with the revolutionary government, particularly with Robespierre. In 1794, Hébert was arrested, tried, and executed by guillotine during the Reign of Terror. 2024-10-28 Polarization occurs at extreme paces ​ E.g. politics substituting for religion as a binding agent Governments of Revolution - Polarization Legislative Assembly (constitutional monarchy) ​ King is a part of the executive branch ​ Unicameral legislature (one chamber pass legislature) ○​ Canada uses a bicameral system (HOC + senate) ○​ US congress and parliament (House of Representatives + senate) ​ Citizens elect electors, who elect members (filter between people and deputies for competence) ​ Seats ○​ Jacobins, Girondins, Cordeliers are far left and occupy 136 seats (united in the belief for a republic - republicans) ○​ Independents are positioned in the center and occupy 345 seats ○​ Feuillants are a far right party and have 264 seats ​ Much is happening to prevent success of legislative assembly National Convention (Republic) ​ President, an elected member from the legislature with two-week term, forms the executive branch ​ Seats ○​ Jacobins and Cordeliers are far left (300) ○​ Plains are center (250) ○​ Girondins are far right (180) ​ No electors Differences Between Parties ​ Jacobins ○​ Arose from the Jacobin Club (mainly consisted of elite class individuals) ○​ More idealistic ○​ Advocated from centralized power ​ Cordeliers ○​ Came from poorer backgrounds ○​ Supported populism and poorer classes ○​ Advocated from centralized power ​ Girondins ○​ Opposed execution of the king (divides people and civil war), while the Jacobins and Cordeliers were not concerned with this matter ○​ Wanted a federation ​ Jacobins and Cordeliers were less concerned with killing people who opposed their ideas (ideologues imposing their vision on others) ​ Girondins did not wish to harm French people but were not opposed to attacking people from other countries 2024-10-30 - Argumentative Essay Writing Argumentative Essay Writing ​ Use compelling logic supported by evidence ​ Acknowledge the counterargument ​ Avoid a series of claims (shallow); build an argument SEXI ​ Statement (topic sentence) ​ Explain (thoughtfully why/how) ​ Example (real cases that are verifiable) ​ Integrate (remind reader of what you have done) Rubric ​ Recognition of limits to position and these limits are well developed We have been studying transformation from feudal society to liberal, democratic society Dictatorship is by far the best form of government. Liberal democracy, by encouraging the expression of differing points of view, encourages faction formation and disunity. To what extent do you agree? ​ “To what extent” suggests limits, which need to be addressed ​ Can you imagine a situation where it is desirable There may be situations where dictatorships are needed ​ Nuanced and sophisticated argument ​ Why an alternative may be preferable ​ Limits to position may include during times of distress or war (centralized) ​ Acknowledge counterargument Practice I ​ Democracies foster accountability and more free thought ​ Democracies prevent tyrannical governments from forming Peters’ Examples ​ Liberal democracies encourage innovation ○​ How? ○​ What are the benefits to innovation? ○​ What damage can be avoided by innovation? ​ Liberal democracies allow mistakes to be corrected ○​ How? ○​ These are the benefits of fixing errors ○​ Damages from allowing errors to fester  ​ Liberal democracies make abuse of power less likely ○​ How? ​ Liberal democracies allow people to pursue their own interests ○​ How? ​ Liberal democracies encourage compromise and consensus building ○​ How? Thesis ​ Acknowledge other situations where the alternative is more suitable (to what extent) ​ No need to outline every contention ​ Liberal democracies are preferable except in certain times when dictatorships are needed ​ Develop ideas in body of essay 2024-11-04 - Revolutionary Figures Jacobin Cap or Cap Rouge ​ A toque or headwear for peasants and working class ​ Symbolic of the sans-culotte The Power Struggle for the Convention and the Fate of the Monarchy ​ National Convention was elected by universal male suffrage ○​ The elections took place in an environment of fear and intimidation ​ Convention contained about 180 Girondins (royalist and supported Church) and 300 Jacobins ○​ The 250 remaining deputies were uncommitted and made up the Plain ○​ Increasingly hard to be a conservative or moderate (polarized society - hard to take middle ground) ​ In terms of what to do with Louis XVI, the Jacobins generally favored execution, while the Girodins favored preservation ○​ Unfolding events would ultimately seal Louis’ fate ○​ Some wanted Louis to be killed so he could not regain power ○​ In 20th century Russia, all of the Tsar’s extensive relatives were killed Armoire de fer documents ​ Chest of letters found in Tuileries that found Louis and Marie Antoinette conspiring invasion of France Marat’s suggestion that Louis’ fate be determined by appel nominal ​ Marat was a physicist and incited violence by directing people to kill any adversaries (published their address) ○​ Proposed that each deputy must voice their decision individually (standing-division) ○​ Secret ballot for deputies vs. secret ballot of citizens ​ Of the 749 deputies, none declared he was innocent; 693 voted he was guilty ○​ 387 voted for the death penalty, while 288 voted for imprisonment ○​ When a reprieve (a chance to revoke the death penalty) was voted on, 380 voted against while 310 voted for ​ Louis went to the guillotine on January 21, 1793 Centralization of Power in Jacobins ​ Jacobins resented moderation and believed it was for uncommitted and weak people ​ From this point onward, the Girondins (right side) were labeled counter-revolutionaries and royalists; they would eventually be purged from the National Convention Key Characters in the French Revolution Maximilien Robespierre  ​ Robespierre was a scholar in the field of law, who developed rhetoric skills. He was passionate about social justice (for the poor and marginalized) and was an ideologue and intellectual. He was attracted to philosophy and ideology, especially enlightened philosophes and the Roman Republic. ​ He was a member of the Estates-General and demanded for universal male suffrage. He was opposed to slavery. He also called for a constitution to be drawn and the disbanding of the Legislative Assembly. He was a Jacobin and the head of the Committee of Public Safety (executive council during the Reign of Terror). Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès ​ Grew up to be a priest and a member of the clergy (First Estate) ​ Wrote What is the Third Estate, a popular pamphlet where he argued that the Third Estate must be represented for France to be a nation ​ In favor of the confiscation of Church land and involved in committee work for the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen ​ Helped Napoleon with the Directory and later died of old age Marie Antoinette ​ Married to Louis XVI to foster the alliance between France and Austria ​ She was regarded contemptuously by the French due to her extravagant lifestyle during times of scarcity ​ Was sentenced to the guillotine shortly after Louis’ execution Jean-Paul Marat ​ Well known doctor in London who published various essays, later appointed to be a physician for Louis XVI’s younger brother ​ He was denied many opportunities in France for being protestant and was resented for his religion ​ During the Revolution, he was a journalist and is credited to inciting massacres (e.g. thousands of counter-revolutionary prisoners were slaughtered) ​ Holding radical beliefs, he was a member of the Montagnard and member of the Committee of Public Safety ​ Assassinated in his bathtub by a Girondin sympathizer Marquis de Lafayette ​ Born into a remarkably high-ranking noble family and was educated at a prestigious school ​ He was enamored with enlightenment ideas and visited America during its revolution (friends with Washington) ​ Invited to the Assembly of Notables and was the leader of the National Guard, where he proposed the tricolore ​ Portrayed as someone against the people of France (National Guard opened fire against civilian)  ​ Was held captive during France’s war with Austria and was liberated by Napoleon Bonaparate, eventually dying of old age Jacques Hébert ​ Was a political pamphleteer (large following called Herbitists) and was widely outspoken for his “rude and crude” personality ​ Advocated for the peoples’ rights and spoke against the monarchy and the Church ​ His newspaper was very popular with the sans-culotte ​ He was a member of the Cordeillers and a member of the National Convention ​ Dedicated to the Cult of Reason and wanted Church temples to be transformed into sanctuaries of reason ​ Gained a lot of enemies and was eventually executed by Robespierre and his political opponents (he was too left leaning) Georges Danton ​ Born into the bourgeoisie (father was an attorney) and entered a seminary in his youth, where he defended against corporal punishment, later becoming a law clerk, a member of the royal council, and a commander of the National Guard ​ Created a militia to storm the Bastille, founded the Cordelier club, incited the Champ de Mars, participated in the attack on the Tuileries, petitioned to make France a republic, and supported France to wage war against Austria ​ Minister of Justice and Member of the Committee of Public Safety but eventually called for moderation before the Reign of Terror (opposed to it), leading to his execution ​ Womanizer, heavy drinker, glutton, displeasing figure (smallpox scars), frequently accused of stealing from the state 2024-11-18 - Revolutionary Figures, cont. Jacques Pierre Brissot ​ Pursued an education in Paris, studying law and literature, before working as a law clerk for the Paris parlement ​ When traveling to Britain and U.S. during times of revolution, he was exposed to republican ideas, which he supported ​ Member of the Legislative Assembly and advocated for the removal of Louis but not his execution (feared disunity) ​ Later became a deputy for the National Convention and led the Girondins ​ Wanted to declare war with other monarchies to spread revolutionary ideas ​ Executed during the Reign of Terror alongside 20 other Girondins, resulting in less representation of the people against Jacobin’s radical actions Charlotte Corday ​ Born into a minor aristocratic family and well educated ​ Sympathized with the Girondins and believed their moderate ideas would save France ​ Assassinated Marat in his bathtub ​ Immediately arrested and found guilty by the Tribunal before being guillotined four days later ​ Corday and Wollstonecraft (English) were both symbols of feminism during the Revolution Olympe de Gouges ​ Born into a bourgeois family and well educated, allowing her to engage with social issues concerning women’s rights ​ Wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Women, advocated for the abolition of slavery, publicly wrote against Robespierre ​ She was guillotined for her attacks on Robespierre and misaligning views with the Jacobins Jacques-Louis David ​ Was extremely gifted in art and attended the Royal Academy ​ Was the most famous painter of that period and the official court painter for Napoleon ​ He supported the Revolution (wanted to make money and was pragmatic - paired with any view that promoted his career) ​ Served in the National Convention ​ After Napoleon’s downfall, he was exiled but continued to paint How did the Jacobins end up dominating the political landscape? ​ Grew from holding 130 seats in the Legislative Assembly to 300 seats in the National Convention ​ How can a minority political party come to dominate the political landscape?  ○​ Convince citizens that they protect the interests of the people and not just themselves ○​ Prepared to use violence and other means, such as blackmail, to rid of any opposition (utilize fear) ○​ Deliver eloquent speeches and spread propaganda ○​ Centralize power for greater authority (Committee of Public Safety) ○​ Speak against opposing parties and their character (deceive citizens to mistrust adversaries) ○​ Blame others to avoid responsibility and still garner support ○​ Justify extreme policies because of unrest ○​ Catastrophize issues to appeal to citizens Foreign War and Increased Domestic Resistance and Repression ​ Things did not go well against the combined Austria and Prussian forces. By the summer of 1792, Lafayette had defected to Austria and it looked like Paris would be invaded. ​ September Massacres (Sept. 2-7, 1792) - called for by Marat and carried out by the sans-culottes. About 1,300 prisoners were murdered. ​ Battle of Valmy (Sept. 20, 1792) - 52,000 French troops defeated 34,000 Purssians, this success was followed by another French victory over the Austrians in the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) ​ The French now went on the offensive (Decree of Fraternity, November 19, 1792). Savoy and Nice were the first areas to be annexed to the new French State. ​ The First Coalition (formed between Mar. and Sept. 1792) - Britain, Holland, Spain, Piedmont, Naples, Prussia, Russia, Austria and Portugal create a loose anti-French alliance. France once again struggled militarily. ​ The Vendee Rebellion - Began March 1792 and lasted until 1796. Began in response to a conscription call for 300,000 troops (Levee en Masse - August 1793). France was clearly divided over the direction of the Revolution. 2024-11-20 Defining Genocide (1948) ​ Intent and the assumption of innocence is the foundation of our justice system ​ Genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part (quantifying), a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group: ○​ Killing members of the group, causing bodily harm, etc. ○​ Worst possible act that can be inflicted on other people ​ Gulag system installed by Stalin to “educate people to become good communists” ​ 3-4 million perished in Homodore, Ukraine in the 1930s ​ Atrocities can be perpetrated under the name of a liberal, democratic government Reign of Terror ​ President of the National Convention, an elected deputy from the Convention, was given a two week term and formed the executive branch (similar to the Governor General) ​ Since the president is futile in enforcing the laws, various committees are formed in the National Convention (similar to our parliamentary system) ​ During the Reign of Terror, a hierarchy of the committees emerges, with the Committee of Public Safety having the most power ○​ A group of 12 deputies led by Robespierre to dictate the policy of the Convention ○​ Same people who pass laws also enforce the law (no longer clear separation between executive and legislative branches - Montesquieu’s division of power) ○​ Becoming more of a dictatorship (similar to Louis’ reign and absolutism) ○​ Constitution is suspended during this period of war, further empowering the Committee The Reign of Terror (1792-1794) ​ Began with the attack of the Tuileries (August 1792) and included the September Massacres and ended with the execution of Robespierre and his supporters (July 1794). ○​ Girondins (republicans not royalists who had support from rural areas) were prepared to use violence against foreign enemies, whereas the Jacobins wanted to eradicate opposition within France The End of the Girondins ​ June 2, 1793 - 80,000 National Guardsmen surrounded the Convention and demanded the expulsion of the Girondins. Ultimately, 29 were arrested and executed. Shortly after the purge, Marat was assassinated. The consequences for deputies not supporting the Jacobins was clear. ○​ Girondins are becoming more demonized by the Jacobins and are then executed, allowing the Jacobins to execute Louis ○​ Fear and intimidation to kill opposition, and with Girondins gone, the Jacobin party also split into factions (Hebert - Jacobin left, and Danton - Jacobin right), but are eliminated by Robespierre  ​ With the purge of the Girondins, disturbances broke out in 60 of the 83 Departments; the provinces were generally opposed to the actions of the National Convention. ​ Maximilian Robespierre “the Incorruptible” joined the CPS on July 27, 1793. ​ For about the next 14 months, the Jacobins aided by their sans-culottes supporters carried out the deadliest period of the Terror. ○​ Marks the end of rule of law and the start of rule of force ​ You can trace how one by one potential opponents were attacked 1.​ The Catholic Church 2.​ The King 3.​ The King’s Supporters (the Feuillant) 4.​ Other countries 5.​ Regions within France (The Vendee) 6.​ Other republicans (Girondins) 7.​ It will end with the Jacobins destroying each other The Death of Marat by Jacques Louis David 1793 Jacques Louis David, The Death of Marat Video ​ Portrays Marat in the same manner of the Michelangelo Pieta 1498-99 (painting of deceased Christ in his mother’s arms) ○​ Marat is a martyred and is characterized as a role model for devout French citizens ​ Three prominent figures were martyred during the Revolution: Jean-Paul Marat, Joseph Chalier, and Michel le Petier de Saint-Fargeau The Origins of the Reign of Terror ​ Civil and foreign war generated fear and produced reckless violence. The Constitution was suspended throughout the time of the National Convention. ​ Democratic idealism encouraged the notion that the “mob” is always right even when it was obviously wrong. A pattern of violence emerged with those carrying out the violence benefitting in some way. ​ During open debates, there was a tendency for moderates to be shouted down and be accused of counter-revolutionary sentiments. Many stopped attending the Convention or supported the Jacobins against their conscience. ​ Little was done to prevent violence coming from the sans-culotte or the peasantry as these groups were seen to offer potential political support. ​ The Jacobins developed a political program that appealed to the most radical segments of the population. Politics became increasingly polarized and consensus and flexibility was seen as neither possible nor desirable. “Us” versus “Them” mentality. ​ Elimination of opposition was seen as necessary in order to produce security and stability, The idea that desperate situations require desperate measures dominated (emergency legislation had suspended the Constitution). 2024-11-25 Characteristics of the National Convention ​ Republic with unicameral legislature ​ An elected president forms executive branch ○​ Similar to UN ○​ President is weak and more symbolic ○​ Magna Carta (1215) and Bill of Rights (1688) restrict king ○​ Governor General is also symbolic from disuse ​ Committee of Public Safety take on the role of executive function ○​ Committed idealogues who eliminated any opposition ○​ Ratified by other deputies out of fear ○​ Not a clear division of power ​ Once violence is used in politics it must be continually perpetrated or else it will be used on you Committee of Public Safety’s Consolidation of Power ​ Created a private “elite” army that was directly at the command of the CPS (incentivizes violence, done intentionally by those in power). ○​ This was the Armee Revolutionnaire, which was made up predominantly of devoted sans-culottes (Gestapo in Nazi Germany, Cheka in Soviet Union, Stasi in East Communist Germany) whose key tasks were as follows: ​ Secure food for Paris ​ Round up counterrevolutionaries ​ Mobilize the nation’s resources, which often meant confiscation ​ Establish revolutionary justice in places that lacked revolutionary enthusiasm (south and west of France) ​ Passed laws that favoured their base (sans-culottes) ○​ Death penalty for hoarding food or other needed supplies. The law of the General Maximum was passed (Sept. 29, 1793). Prices of essential goods were set ⅓ higher than in 1790 and wages were set ½ higher than in 1790. ​ Limited the meeting of potential opposition ○​ In September 1793, the Convention passed a law restricting assemblies of the Paris Sections (these formed the political foundation for the Paris Commune) to twice a week. ○​ Restrict and criminalize freedom of expression for those who are critical of CPS (politicized blasphemy laws) ​ Destroyed through law separation of powers ○​ On December 4, 1793, the Law of Frimaire gave the CPS and CGS full executive powers. Agents nationaux (appointed by the CPS) were sent out to ensure revolutionary laws were being followed. In May 1794, CPS recommended that provincial revolutionary tribunals be shut down. All trials were to take place in front of the Paris Revolution Tribunal.  ○​ Established Revolutionary Tribunals (extra-judicial courts). These were special courts established to put dissidents on trial. The heads of these courts were loyal Jacobin supporters. ○​ Justified centralized power as God given (Louis) or people given (CPS) ​ Eliminated potential rivals within the Jacobin Party ○​ Jacques Hebert called for the extension of the powers of the provincial revolutionary tribunals to bring about greater economic equality and also urged greater measures to eliminate Catholic influence. This “left” opposition was eliminated on March 24, 1794 when Hebert and 18 of his supporters were executed. ○​ George Danton called for a relaxation of the Terror and release of 200,000 suspects. This “right” opposition was eliminated on April 5, 1794 when Danton and a number of his supporters were executed. “Show my head to the people it is worth seeing.” ​ Replaced Catholicism with a new secular religion ○​ In May, 1794, Robespierre asked for and was granted legislation prompting the Cult of the Supreme Being. This was a process of dechristianization. Churches became Temples of Reason (proposed by Hebert). New revolutionary calendar was introduced on October 5, 1793. Up to 30% of the 60,000 priests in France left the priesthood. ○​ Alienated Catholics throughout Europe and faced opposition from Catholics. ​ Passed laws to concentrate power in the hands of the CPS ○​ In September, 1793, the Law of Suspects was passed. The Law of Prairial was passed on June 10, 1794. This law was directed against the “enemies of the people,” which were broadly and vaguely defined. Trials required no witnesses nor evidence. The conscience of the jurors was able to guide them in determining the verdict. ​ Waged civil war against the regions that opposed them ○​ The regions that resisted most were the Vendee and areas around the Lyons and Marseille. About 250,000 died in civil conflict. The End of Robespierre, the End of the Revolutionary Commune, and the End of the Terror ​ Robespierre’s popularity among the sans-culottes gradually declined. ○​ Execution of the Hebertists, raising the Maximum on prices, preventing the rise of the Maximum on wages, Cult of the Supreme Being ○​ Received less support from sans-culottes (support base) ​ Coup of Thermidor - July 26, 1794 Robespierre rose in the Convection to attack deputies he believed were conspiring against the government. When asked to identify these traitors, Robespierre refused. Fearing for their lives, a number of Robespierre’s colleagues conspired against him. ​ On July 27, when Robespierre rose to speak in the Convention, he was shouted down and a vote was taken to arrest him. On July 28, Robespierre and 21 others were executed. ​ https://youtu.be/_plscSbrWts 2024-11-27 Progression of Governments ​ Absolute monarchy (Louis XVI) ○​ In theory, there are no checks (not in practice) ​ Constitutional monarchy (Legislative Assembly) ​ Republic (National Convention - CPS) ​ Republic (Directory) ○​ Attempts to restore checks and balances ○​ Considered to be most successful revolutionary government ○​ Right-sided ○​ Napoleon is one of world’s first dictator (modern) and used language/rhetoric of the time ​ Napoleon ​ Louis XVIII 2024-12-02 - Directory The Thermidorian Reaction and the Directory ​ The Thermidorians were those who helped to overthrow Robespierre and the Jacobins. They dismantled the machinery of the Terror. The Thermidorians were republicans, not royalists. However, royalist sympathies grew during this period. ​ The risings of Germinal and Prairial ○​ Germinal (April 1, 1795) 10,000 marched on the National Convention demanding economic relief. They were dispersed by the National Guard ○​ Priarial (May 20, 1795) was an even larger demonstration and it too was crushed by National Guard troops loyal to the Convention. The radical phase of the Revolution was now clearly over. The sans-culottes were a spent force. ​ The White Terror - Took place in western and southern France throughout 1795-1796. ​ Verona Declaration (June 24, 1795) - Louis XVIII promised to restore the institutions of the old regime and threatened to punish all regicides. ​ The Constitution of the Year III (August 22, 1795) - This constitution gave birth to the Directory. ​ Vendemiaire Uprising (October 5, 1795) - 25,000 royalist sympathizers converged on the legislature. Napoleon Bonaparte opened fire on the crowd killing over 300 (“Whiff of Grapeshot”). The government had been saved three times in the past 6 months by the military. The Directory (1795-1799) ​ National Convention passed 2/3rds Decree, which stipulated that 2/3rds of the deputies will have seats in the new legislature ○​ In U.S., every two years 1/3rd of senators are replaced ​ A republican government ​ Afraid of resurgence of left and right sides of political spectrum (sans-culottes and royalists) ​ Established a bicameral legislature to restore checks and balances, consisting of the Council of 500 (lower house) and the Council of Elders (upper house) ​ All citizens (men over 21 who paid tax) could vote electors (very rich and required to pay taxes equivalent to 175 days of labour), who would select deputies ○​ Electors act as a check on the will of the people Legislative Branch ​ Council of 500 (500) ○​ Had to be over 30 ○​ Initialized legislation ​ Council of Elders or Council of Ancients (250) ○​ Had to be over 40 ○​ Can only accept or reject bills (cannot amend) ​ Both had a three year term Executive Branch ​ Consisted of 5 Directors picked from the legislature ​ U.N. has a similar system to nominate General Secretary ​ Council of 500 submits a list of names to the Council of Elders, who chooses a new Director ​ Every year a new Director is chosen with a five year term ​ Directors had no veto over legislation but controlled foreign affairs and military Napoleon Bonaparte 2024-12-04 Napoleon Bonaparte ​ Directors requested him to stage a coup against legislators ​ Napoleon was supposed to be subordinate to the Directors ​ They wanted to coerce deputies into giving them more power by changing the Constitution ​ Napoleon made deputies give him power instead of the Directors What talents should a person develop to become an effective dictator? How would they develop the skill? Why is the skill necessary? ​ Context: budding democracies vs. feudal society ​ Oratory skills - speech and rhetoric can manipulate others through emotional appeal to rally support and galvanize masses ​ Fearmongering - using fear to control the public by creating threats will allow justification of authoritarian measures and suppress opposition 2024-12-09 Maps comparing Europe in 1789 and Europe at the height of Napoleon’s power in 1810 Group Identity ​ Each identity group, based on culture, will get their own states ​ Many empires disintegrated because of divides in culture ​ Smaller and fragmented states are conquered by larger empires ​ France, Spain, Great Britain, Russia, Ottoman Empire (Turkey, Bulgaria, Greece, Bosnia, Serbia), Austrian Empire (Austria, Hungary) ​ Civic nationalism vs. ethnic nationalism ​ Period where nationalism emerges (specifically ethnic nationalism) ​ Nationalism is a force of building unity and fracturing unity, both growing out of liberty (new community) Napoleon ​ Born into an environment where he is conducive to what he becomes ​ Corsican nobility but downplays his origins ○​ Corsica was an insignificant island and looked down upon ​ Had opportunity to become a leader in military because of his status (sub-lieutenant) ​ Although he was a French citizen, he was not entirely a French man (did not speak French -- Tuscan Italian) ​ Highly political from a young age (involved in French civil code, thought about administration to build effective organizational systems) ○​ Bureaucracies are about organizing people to do something ○​ Napoleon organized France to fight war against other countries ​ Gift giving assures loyalty, prevents betrayal, disincentivizes corruption (Napoleon heavily rewarded his generals and paid administrators well) ​ Knew that Catholics were alienated and negotiated with Pope to mend relations with France, which would contribute to his support Napoleon Quotes ​ “France needs me more than I need France.” ​ “There are two levers for moving men - interest and fear.” ​ “I love power. But it is as an artist that I love it. I love it as a musician loves his violin, to draw out its sounds and chords and harmonies.” ​ “I made all my Generals out of mud.” ​ “You must not fight too often with one enemy, or you will teach him all your art of war.” ​ “I can no longer obey; I have tasted command and I cannot give it up.” ​ “Religion is regarded by the common people as true, by the wise as false, and by the rulers as useful.” ​ “Nothing is more difficult, and therefore more precious, than to be able to decide.” ​ “Courage isn’t having the strength to go on - it is going on when you don’t have strength.”  ​ “Never interrupt your enemy when he is making a mistake.” ​ “Religion is excellent stuff for keeping common people quiet. Religion is what keeps the poor from murdering the rich.” ​ “Napoleon has not been conquered by men. He was greater than any of us. God punished him because he relied solely on his intelligence until that incredible instrument was so strained that it broke.” - Jean Baptiste Bernadotte (1763-1844) The Rise of Napoleon Broad Background ​ Born in Corsica on August 15, 1769 (Corsica was annexed to France in 1768). At the age of nine sent to France to study; his teachers were monks. After six years of study, he entered the Ecole Militaire. Napoleon graduated in 1785 at the age of sixteen as a sub lieutenant of artillery. ​ In 1791, Napoleon joined the Patriotic Club in Corsica which was closely affiliated with the Jacobin Club. ​ In 1793, Napoleon’s family fled Corsica as a result of political disagreements between Corsica’s nationalist leader, Paoli, and the Bonaparte family. By this time Napoleon had become friends with Cristoforo Saliceti (an elected deputy from Corsica to the National Convention). ​ Opportunities within the military were great between 1789 and 1792 as approximately 6000 officers left the country. I.​ Napoleon makes his name known to the governing class ​ Napoleon’s role in the siege of Toulon. In September 1793, Napoleon became artillery commander on the recommendation of Saliceti. Napoleon played a critical role in ousting the British from the city. ​ Napoleon also became associated with Paul Barras (a future Director) at this time and eventually married his mistress Josephine de Beauharnais. ​ As a result of his actions in Toulon, Napoleon also became known to Augustine Robespierre. ​ 1795 - Directory was formed and Napoleon was called on to deal with the Vendemiaire Uprising (royalist mob); his reward was to become commander of the Army of Italy on March 2, 1796. One week later, Napoleon and Josephine were married. II.​ Napoleon makes himself known to the masses ​ In the First Italian Campaign (1796-97), Napoleon had a dozen military victories in less than a year. He did this with what was generally considered to be an army that was poorly equipped and suffering from poor morale. ​ Treaty of Campo Formio (October 17, 1797) - effectively ended the First Coalition and made Napoleon the most famous soldier in France. III.​ Napoleon’s plans become grander  ​ Napoleon devised a plan to defeat Britain - wanted to take over Egypt, then consolidate control of Syria, and from there go overland to India. The Directory appointed Napoleon Commander of the Orient. ​ July 1798, the French easily defeated the Ottomans in the Battle of the Pyramids and from there proceeded north into Syria. ​ August 1, 1798 - Admiral Nelson destroyed Napoleon’s fleet at Aboukir Bay (Battle of the Nile). IV.​ Back in Europe - France is in Trouble ​ 1798 - Second Coalition formed against France. ​ Directory was facing pressure due to a series of military defeats in “Germany”, “Switzerland”, and “Italy”. There were also civil uprisings throughout France as more and more troops were called up. ​ Napoleon found out about this through reading an English newspaper while in Egypt. ​ On August 23, 1799, Napoleon abandoned over 30,000 of his men and returned to France. Napoleon arrived back in France in October and was greeted as a hero “The Conqueror of Egypt”. V.​ Napoleon Seizes Power ​ Napoleon wasted no time. Carried out the coup of Brumaire on November 9, 1799 with the help of his brother Lucien Bonaparte. ​ 1800 - drew up a new constitution and established a new government, the Consulate, which consisted of 3 consuls of which Napoleon was the first and most important. ​ Napoleon had a plebiscite to validate the legitimacy of his actions and received overwhelming support. Napoleon PBS Documentary 1 of 4 2024-12-11 Napoleon’s Rise ​ Military → First Consul → First Consul for Life → Emperor ​ Secures his position by using compelling language and rhetoric to the people (represents the people, protects the people, etc.) Background ​ Noble status allow him to be a commander in the army ​ Low ranking Corsican noble Circumstances ​ Many high ranking officers (aristocrats) fled from France during the Revolution ​ France is in a lot of wars (seven coalitions form against France) ​ Has connections and is called to save the Directory, leading to another opportunity in Italy ​ Josephine belongs to high ranking aristocracy ​ First Italian campaign makes him known to the masses Plans for Conquest ​ Later becomes Commander of the Orient and sets off for Egypt (ancient civilization) ○​ Wants to take that region and gift it to the French ​ Wanted to Conquer the Middle East to gift region of Jerusalem to France for support and to eradicate threat of Islam ○​ Seize land for the Catholic world ​ Merchant marines move materials from one place to another, unlike battleships ○​ Navies were used to protect merchant marines and control seas ○​ Merchant marines generate wealth ​ Battle of Trafalgar (Napoleon wasn’t actually present) - Trafalgar was the entrance to the Mediterranean Sea (controlled access) ○​ Napoleon defeats Spanish armada ○​ Britain controls the seas and France controls the land ○​ Control over waters proves to be more important ​ Hoped to control India (crown jewel of British Empire) after defeating Ottoman Empire ○​ Ottoman Empire was weakening (more difficult to maintain their jurisdiction) Coup of Brumaire ​ Lucien Bonaparte and Sieyes conspire to overthrow the Directory and need military support from Napoleon ​ Lucien Bonaparate was a part of the Council of 500 Coup of Brumaire Immediate Background ​ Second Coalition was formed against France - Early 1799 France suffered defeats in the German States, Switzerland and the Italian States.  ​ Result: 1.​ Forced loan on the rich - As high as 75% of income 2.​ Law of Hostages - Relatives of emigres and law breakers could be arrested 3.​ Jourdan’s Law - Goal was to conscript 400,000 men ​ Napoleon Returns: Abandons his army on August 23 and is back on French soil on October 9, 1799 An Inside Job ​ Plan was initiated by Sieyes who wished to strengthen the executive, but needed a loyal general to push through the needed changes. Lucien (Napoleon’s brother) was also involved in the plan. At the time he was the President of the Council of 500. ​ Series of meetings took place among the men. They concocted an “Anarchist Plot” which they said threatened the government. Using this pretext, the government was moved outside of Paris to St. Cloud on November 9. Command of the Paris troops was given to Napoleon in order to “protect” the legislature at St. Cloud. ○​ Security and safety is valued more than rights ​ Many deputies were already suspicious of what was taking place; they had Napoleon swear an oath of loyalty to them before they went. ​ On November 10, a number of Directors were arrested and the remaining ones resigned. A provisional government was now formed to draw up a new constitution. It was at this point that Napoleon made his move. 1.​ Entered the Council of Ancients but was shouted down. 2.​ Entered the Council of 500, where a call was made for a “decree of outlawry”. ​ A skirmish broke out where Napoleon was scraped; he was escorted outside and at this point Lucien called on the troops to protect their commander. ​ Ended with the “Law of Brumaire,” which established a provisional government with three consuls: Sieyes, Napoleon, and Ducos ​ Work then began on a new constitution (The Constitution of Year VIII), which came into effect on December 25, 1799. ○​ Chose this date so the people could worship him on the date of Jesus Christ’s birth 2024-12-16 - Chronology of Napoleon’s Rule Napoleon’s Policies ​ Solved France’s pressing problems through domestic policy ​ Foreign policy was initially successful but then faltered ​ Similar to Hitler’s rise to power and both wanted to conquer Europe ​ Removes papal states and puts pope under house arrest (inconsistent relationshIp) Timeline of Napoleon - Rise, Consolidation, and Fall of Napoleon ​ Rise to power ↑: Battle of Toulon (1793), Vendemiaire (1795), First Italian Campaign (1796-97), Battle of the Pyramids (1798) ​ Defeat ↓: Battle of Aboukir Bay (1798) - naval battle ​ Rise to power ↑: Coup of Brumaire (1799), Battle of Marengo and Second Italian Campaign (1800), Napoleon becomes First Consul (1799) ​ Consolidation and series of domestic reforms ↑: Treaty with Britain (1799-1804) - uses peace to reform France, series of domestic reforms (1799-1804), Napoleon becomes First Consul For Life (1802), Coronation of Napoleon (1804) ○​ Short period of peace (Treaty of Amiens) ​ Series of battles to build French Empire ↑: Battle of Austerlitz (1805), Battle of Trafalgar (1805) - naval battle, Battle of Jena (1806), Battle of Friedland (1807), imprisonment of pope (1808) and Peninsular War (1808-14) - Spanish ulcer, Moscow Campaign - finds himself in a two-front war ○​ Shifted priorities from conquering Britain to impeding their trade ○​ Imposes trade restrictions and drafts men from territories he conquered in the name of liberating them but actually alienates them (similar to expropriation of Church land) ○​ Britain industrialized textiles and British cloth was sought after by many countries because of how cheap it was, and the Continental System was created during this period in response ​ Napoleon’s downfall ↓: Battle of Leipzig (1813), Napoleon’s exile to Elba (1814), Congress of Vienna (1814) and First Treaty of Paris - conservative reaction ○​ Governs Elba but is ambitious for a vast domain in Europe, so he returns to France, where he deceives royal guards to escort him to Paris ​ Napoleon’s restoration ↑: Hundred Days (1815) ​ Napoleon’s fall ↓: Battle of Waterloo (1815), Second Treaty of Paris (1815) - banished to St. Helena until his death ○​ Wrote many memoirs to preserve his legacy, portrayed himself as a victim, and justified his actions although he had contempt for the countries he conquered ○​ His ashes are brought back to Paris and placed in a grandiose sarcophagus Napoleon's Domestic Policy Assignment What was the purpose? What was implemented? What benefit was there or what future harm prevented? **This system was the beginning of public education (not universal) Napoleon’s Education Policy ​ Education laws were introduced in 1802 ​ Lycées are similar to high schools ○​ Military training created new elite of France ○​ Men go to specialized schools and girls train for household management The government’s domestic policy on education will create a stronger and more capable nation. By introducing lycées, more people will have access to education, ensuring that talent is not wasted. These schools focus on creating a skilled bureaucracy and intelligent citizens who benefit our country. An educated society makes better decisions, helping France grow stronger and preventing the harm caused by ignorance and poor management. Louis XVI and previous monarchs have shown incompetence time and time again, ruling by birthright rather than ability. Their inability to govern wisely led to the turmoil in France, and makes it clear that we need to invest in a system where skill and merit, not privilege, guides our nation. Before, only nobles received education, which limited the talent pool and left many capable people overlooked. With this new system, young men can train in specialized fields, including military preparation. Equality in society is of utmost importance, and these education reforms achieve this ideal by offering educational opportunities to so many people, which was denied under the Old Regime. This reform creates a new generation of skilled professionals based on merit rather than birth and attenuates the longstanding inequality we have endured for centuries. At these lycées, boys will specialize in fields such as medicine, teaching, law, military training, engineering, and administration to prepare them for roles that contribute to the wellbeing of the citizens and the nation. Girls will train in cooking, needlework, child-rearing, and other practical skills to equip them for their roles within the home, which is undoubtedly an important aspect in society. These education reforms are holistic and will make future workers well-rounded, so that all sectors of society in France can flourish and contribute to our country's future. Through this, we can build a stronger nation. 2024-12-18 Napoleon’s Actions ​ Comes to power ​ Develops domestic policy 1.​ Bank of France ​ Brought back metal coins as currency to instill more faith in currency (metals are valuable) ​ Economies shut down from rampant inflation and results in bartering 2.​ Tax Reform 3.​ Concordat ​ Church wanted special treatment from the government, like how they did under Old Regime, but Napoleon declines (merit-based state) ​ Religious tolerance was monumental 4.​ Napoleonic Code ​ Did not apply to Napoleon, who reintroduced slavery ​ Extended equality under the law in big picture 5.​ Education ​ Anybody with talent can be educated at state expense (not assumption of present public education) ​ Talent is extraordinarily rare, which is why it should be maximized 6.​ Legion of Honour ​ Tended to privilege military and incentivizes talent ​ Was able to be inherited and purchased later on 7.​ Public Works ​ ​ Achieves a broader base (nationalism over class identities) ​ Military conquest ○​ French law applies to all territories ○​ Napoleon raids satellite states, poses indemnities, and conscript men (multicultural army) ​ Claimed to unify German states (Italy, Naples, Confederation of the Rhine) to come together ○​ Justified his actions and portrayed himself as a victim of aggression from others in his memoirs Understanding The Napoleonic Empire There were three broad categories to the Napoleonic empire: 1.​ The French Empire - France within its natural frontiers (Rhine, Alps, Pyrenees) plus the annexed territories of Piedmont, Pama, Tuscany, the Papal States, the Illyrian Provinces, and Holland. 2.​ The Grand Empire - included all of the above plus the satellites of Switzerland, Spain, Italy, the Confederation of the Rhine, and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. These formed a  buffer zone that protected the French Empire from attack. Ruled by Frenchmen who were often the relatives of Napoleon. 3.​ French Allies - These were the great powers of Europe who were brought into Napoleon's sphere of influence by military or diplomatic pressure. Only Britain and the Ottoman Empire remained outside Napoleon’s control. Napoleon’s War Strategies ​ Napoleon deployed novel military strategies (not standard practice during feudal times) ​ Transformed the nature of war and how it is conducted ​ Resulted in all European countries conscripting for war (WWI standing armies) Military and Strategic Developments during the Napoleonic Period 1.​ Mercenaries vs. French concept of “nation in arms” 2.​ Development of the Grande Armee - army was divided into Corps (25,000 men) which were then divided into Divisions (2-3 for each Corp). Each Division was made up of infantry, cavalry, and artillery mixed together; this mixture allowed for a great deal of flexibility. In addition to these divisions there were reserved artillery and elite regiments. ​ Mixing was frowned upon during feudal times (order) 3.​ Mixed Line (--) and Column (|) formations according to circumstances “Mixed Order”. ​ Spontaneous vs. stagnant 4.​ On the march the army was well spread out. This contributed to mobility, speed, and surprise. ​ Reconnaissance and element of surprise (they forge better) 5.​ Rather than taking on states in decline (typically small and weak ones), Napoleon took on strong countries. By demonstrating dominance over the strong, the weak would fall into line. 6.​ Used punishing indemnities to finance his military conquests. ​ Indemnities (reparations) were common in feudalism and were not too harsh, in hopes of fostering better relations (prevent revenge - war is common) 7.​ Spent much time planning his battles, yet recognized that chance played a huge role and opportunities needed to be recognized and seized. If this involved scrapping the original plan, then so be it. ​ Strategy was valued over spontaneity in feudal times (Napoleon was versatile) 8.​ Used his Bulletins and Orders of the Day to build a special bond between h