Enlightenment Thinkers and French Revolution

The idea that people naturally have rights to life, liberty, and property. These rights are inherent and not granted by any ruler.

An agreement where people voluntarily give up some freedom in exchange for government protection and order. This is a concept by Jean-Jacques Rousseau.

The idea that a government should be divided into separate branches (like executive, legislative, and judicial) to ensure no single person or group has too much power.

A system where the different branches of government can check each other's power, preventing tyranny or abuse.

A ruler who embraces modern ideas and reforms but still maintains absolute power. Often associated with the Enlightenment period.

Mary Wollstonecraft's argument that women deserve equal rights and education to participate fully in society.

A system where society is divided into three classes based on birth and privilege: the clergy, nobility, and everyone else.

The French government's financial troubles caused by excessive spending on wars, palaces, and debt.

Peasants suffering from crop failures and famine due to droughts in the 1780s.

The educated middle class of France, who played a key role in the French Revolution.

The events leading up to the French Revolution, fueled by economic hardship, social inequality, and political discontent.

A system of government where the rule of law is upheld and the branches of government are clearly defined, with distinct powers.

An equitable contribution from all citizens based on their financial means.

The belief that the welfare of the nation and its principles should be prioritized above individual interests.

A period of intense political and social upheaval, characterized by violence and suppression of opposition.

The suppression of freedom of the press during a time of crisis.

The justification of actions based on the will and interests of the majority of citizens.

A dangerous faction that seeks to undermine the nation and its principles.

Efforts to destroy prejudice and promote the common good.

The French Revolution was a period of significant social and political upheaval in France that lasted from 1789 to 1799. It began with the storming of the Bastille, a symbol of the monarchy's oppressive rule, and led to the overthrow of King Louis XVI.

The Third Estate, which encompassed all citizens of France who were not part of the clergy or nobility. The Third Estate consisted of burgesses, peasants, and workers. This group was heavily taxed, lacked political representation, and was largely responsible for fueling the revolution.

The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement that emphasized reason, individual liberty, and human rights. Enlightenment thinkers, such as John Locke and Rousseau, challenged the authority of absolute monarchs and argued for the rights of individuals. These ideas inspired the French Revolution.

The Reign of Terror was a period of extreme violence and political repression during the French Revolution, from 1793 to 1794. The Committee of Public Safety, dominated by figures like Robespierre, eliminated anyone suspected of being an enemy of the revolution. This ultimately resulted in the execution of thousands.

The Napoleonic Code was a legal system established by Napoleon Bonaparte after the revolution. It replaced complex laws with a clear, standardized system, incorporating elements of Roman Law. The code promoted equality before the law and religious tolerance.

Nationalism is a sense of unity and patriotism towards a nation, founded on shared culture, history, and language. The French Revolution sparked a rise in nationalism, as people identified more with their nation than their traditional rulers.

The Congress of Vienna was a series of meetings held in 1814-1815 following the defeat of Napoleon. European leaders, led by Austrian Prince Metternich, aimed to restore the pre-revolutionary order and suppress liberal ideas, such as those associated with the French Revolution.

The Directory was a five-man executive body that ruled France after the Reign of Terror. It was widely considered ineffective and corrupt. Its downfall led to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

The French government under the Committee of Public Safety declared all those suspected of being against the revolution as enemies of the Republic, and the revolutionary tribunals harshly punished them.

The Law of Suspects authorized the creation of revolutionary tribunals, courts that tried people suspected of treason against the French Republic. Those found guilty were often sentenced to death.

A system of economic control in which colonies were required to trade exclusively with the mother country, benefiting the mother country's economy at the expense of the colonies. This system was resented by the Latin American Creoles.

The French Revolution provided inspiration to Latin Americans, demonstrating that people could challenge existing power structures and fight for their rights.

Napoleon, a French emperor had conquered Spain in 1808, plunging the Spanish Empire into chaos and creating an opportunity for independence movements in its colonies.

Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin, two leading figures, played a key role in Latin American independence movements, uniting and leading rebellions against Spanish rule.

In Haiti, a majority of enslaved Africans rose up against their French rulers, led by Toussaint L'Ouverture, in a struggle for freedom and equality.

After gaining independence, Latin American nations faced challenges such as economic dependence on cash crops, a lack of stable democratic governments, and military dictators, known as caudillos, who often seized power.

One of the major obstacles faced in the unification of Italy was the fear of the Pope losing power.

Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi were prominent figures who spearheaded the movement for Italian unification, advocating for a unified Italy.

The unified Italy faced weaknesses due to disparities between the industrialized North and the agrarian South, creating imbalances in development and economic opportunities.

Prior to unification, numerous German states were loosely bound under the Holy Roman Empire, which was dissolved by Napoleon. A German Confederation was then established.

The main obstacle to German unification was the rivalry between Prussia and Austria, both vying for dominance and leadership in the newly unified state.

Otto von Bismarck, known as the Iron Chancellor, masterminded German unification through a series of strategic maneuvers.

Bismarck used realpolitik, a pragmatic approach focused on power and national interests, to achieve German unification.

Bismarck's policy of Kulturkampf was a campaign against the Catholic Church, aiming to limit its influence and promote a more unified German identity.