English Micro-Planning Summary PDF

Englisch Mikroplanung Zusammenfassung Inhaltsverzeichnis {#inhaltsverzeichnis.ListParagraph.Inhaltsverzeichnisberschrift} ================== [1. From Lead-in to closing 2](#from-lead-in-to-closing) [1.2 From Lead-in to Closing: Stages in an English lesson 2](#from-lead-in-to-closing-stages-in-an-...

Englisch Mikroplanung Zusammenfassung Inhaltsverzeichnis {#inhaltsverzeichnis.ListParagraph.Inhaltsverzeichnisberschrift} ================== [1. From Lead-in to closing 2](#from-lead-in-to-closing) [1.2 From Lead-in to Closing: Stages in an English lesson 2](#from-lead-in-to-closing-stages-in-an-english-lesson) [1.2.1 A Task-based approach 3](#a-task-based-approach) [Present Practice Produce (PPP) 3](#present-practice-produce-ppp) [A Task-based approach (TBL) 4](#a-task-based-approach-tbl) [Conclusion
 4](#conclusion) [2. Kompetenzorientierter Fremdsprachenunterricht 4](#kompetenzorientierter-fremdsprachenunterricht) [2.2 Die Phasen A und R 5](#die-phasen-a-und-r) [A-Phase (authentic) 6](#a-phase-authentic) [R-Phase 6](#r-phase) [Die C-Phase (clarification) 6](#die-c-phase-clarification) [3. Receptive Skills 8](#receptive-skills) [3.1 Interactive processes 9](#interactive-processes) [Introduction 9](#introduction) [Top-down and bottom-up processes 9](#top-down-and-bottom-up-processes) [Role of visuals and feelings 10](#role-of-visuals-and-feelings) [3.2 What is reading and what does it involve? 10](#what-is-reading-and-what-does-it-involve) [Reading as a cognitive activity 10](#reading-as-a-cognitive-activity) [Reading as a communicative activity 11](#reading-as-a-communicative-activity) [Reading and background knowledge 11](#reading-and-background-knowledge) [3.3 Communicative, task-based approaches to reading 12](#communicative-task-based-approaches-to-reading) [Extensive and intensive reading 12](#extensive-and-intensive-reading) [Implications for the classroom 13](#implications-for-the-classroom) [Extensive reading 13](#extensive-reading) [Intensive reading 14](#intensive-reading-1) [3.4 Receptive skills in the classroom 14](#receptive-skills-in-the-classroom) [Challenges and what not to do 14](#challenges-and-what-not-to-do) [Pre- while- post- 15](#pre--while--post-) [Techniques 16](#techniques) [Genre, goals, and techniques 17](#genre-goals-and-techniques) [3.5 Summary 17](#summary) [Route map for teaching listening / viewing 17](#route-map-for-teaching-listening-viewing) [Route map for teaching reading 18](#route-map-for-teaching-reading) [3. Teaching Productive skills 18](#teaching-productive-skills) [Teaching speaking 19](#teaching-speaking) [An example 19](#an-example) [What is speaking? 19](#what-is-speaking) [Why speaking? 19](#why-speaking) [Real-time 20](#real-time) [Genres 20](#genres) [Spoken and written language 20](#spoken-and-written-language) [How to teach speaking 20](#how-to-teach-speaking) [Types of speaking 20](#types-of-speaking) [Free speaking 21](#free-speaking) [Role plays and simulations 22](#role-plays-and-simulations) [Lead-in activities, fillers, ice-breakers 23](#lead-in-activities-fillers-ice-breakers) [Supporting learners 23](#supporting-learners) [Summary 24](#summary-1) [Route map for teaching speaking 24](#route-map-for-teaching-speaking) [Teaching writing 25](#teaching-writing) [A means of communication or an aid to learning 25](#a-means-of-communication-or-an-aid-to-learning) [Psycholinguistic basis of writing 25](#psycholinguistic-basis-of-writing) [Writing on word, sentence, and text level 26](#writing-on-word-sentence-and-text-level) [Approaches to writing 26](#approaches-to-writing) [Moving towards real-world writing 27](#moving-towards-real-world-writing) [Challenges when teaching writing 28](#challenges-when-teaching-writing) [The main challenges 28](#the-main-challenges) [Summary 28](#summary-2) [Route map for teaching writing 28](#route-map-for-teaching-writing) [4. Teaching lexis 29](#teaching-lexis) [Lexis und Grammatik unterrichten 29](#lexis-und-grammatik-unterrichten) [Wie lernt man Grammatik und Lexis? 29](#wie-lernt-man-grammatik-und-lexis) [Sprache(n) im Fokus 29](#sprachen-im-fokus) [Wie wir Grammatik lernen 29](#wie-wir-grammatik-lernen) [Wie wir Lexis lernen 30](#wie-wir-lexis-lernen) From Lead-in to closing ======================= - Has a basic understanding of some key principles of lesson planning (i.e. the role of authentic communication, clarification and restricted exercises). - Has good understanding of the different competency areas in the CEFR and curriculum requirements. - Has a good understanding of approaches and methods for language teaching and language-learning concepts, and often uses many of the key terms (task-based learning, task-exercise, mini task -target task, task-planning-report, task outcome, lexis (single words -- chunks), implicit -- explicit knowledge, controlled -- automatic processing, drill, focus on meaning -- focus on language -- focus on form). 1.2 From Lead-in to Closing: Stages in an English lesson -------------------------------------------------------- Some approaches to language teaching, which we will call **form-based** approaches, are based on the belief that we need to take great care, at each stage of learning, that **learners produce the language accurately.** Usually this involves a focus on form at the very beginning of a teaching sequence. **By a focus on form we mean that teachers isolate one or two specific forms, specific grammatical structures or functional realizations, and identify these as the targets forms.** Learners know that by the end of the teaching sequence, often contained in a single lesson, they will be expected to produce these forms with an acceptable level of accuracy. (\...) Other approaches, which we will call **meaning-based approaches**, are based on the belief that it is more effective to **encourage learners to use the language as much as possible**, even if this means that some of the language they produce is inaccurate. Teachers provide learners with opportunities in the classroom to **use the language for genuine communication**. **This involves a focus on meaning**. Inevitably, in the course of a meaning-focused activity, learners will sometimes naturally focus on language for themselves. They will, for example, stop for a moment to think \'How do I best express this next idea?, \'What\'s the word for X?\', or \'Should I be using the past tense here? When this happens learners are not simply thinking about forms specified by the teacher and how best to incorporate these forms in their output. They are **thinking about language in general and searching their own language repertoire** to decide how best to express themselves in a given **communicative situation**. We will call this a **focus on language.** Sometimes this focus on language involves teacher participation too. Teachers repeat learner utterances, reshaping them to make them clearer, or supply words or phrases to help learners shape their message. When teachers do this they are acting as participants in the interaction. As long as teachers are doing this in order to help learners with communication we regard it as a focus on language. Finally, teachers direct learners\' attention to specific forms which occur in the course of a task or an associated text. They may exemplify, explain and practice these forms. **This we will call a focus on form**. Teachers should take care that this focus on form does not detract from a focus on meaning. The simplest way to do this is to withhold this focus on form until after a task has been completed. Sometimes this focus on form is incidental. **The teacher stops a learner and offers correction**. This correction is aimed primarily at ensuring that the learner is aware of the correct form. It is not offered to help with meaning. When teachers do this they are standing outside the interaction and commenting on learners\' performance with regard to accuracy. We are, then, looking at a three-way distinction: - A focus on meaning, in which participants are concerned with communication. - A focus on language, in which learners pause in the course of a meaning-focused activity to think for themselves how best to express what they want to say, or a teacher takes part in the interaction and acts as a facilitator by rephrasing or clarifying learner language. - A focus on form in which one or more lexical or grammatical forms are isolated and specified for study, or in which the teacher comments on student language by drawing attention to problems.\' 1.2.1 A Task-based approach --------------------------- This article presents an overview of a **task-based learning approach (TBL)** and highlights its advantages over the more traditional **Present, Practice, Produce (PPP)** approach. ### Present Practice Produce (PPP) A PPP lesson would proceed in the following manner. - First, the teacher ***presents*** an item of language in a clear context to get across its meaning. This could be done in a variety of ways: through a text, a situation build, a dialogue etc. - Students are then asked to complete a controlled ***practice stage***, where they may have to repeat target items through choral and individual drilling, fill gaps or match halves of sentences. All of this practice demands that the student uses the language correctly and helps them to become more comfortable with it. - Finally, they move on to the production stage, sometimes called the \'free practice\' stage. Students are given a communication task such as a role play and are expected to ***produce*** the target language and use any other language that has already been learnt and is suitable for completing it. ### ### A Task-based approach (TBL) Task -based learning offers an alternative for language teachers. In a task-based lesson the teacher doesn\'t pre-determine what language will be studied, the lesson is based around the completion of a central task and the language studied is determined by what happens as the students complete it. The lesson follows certain stages. ##### **Pre-task**
 The teacher introduces the topic and gives the students clear instructions on what they will have to do at the task stage and might help the students to recall some language that may be useful for the task. The pre-task stage can also often include playing a recording of people doing the task. This gives the students a clear model of what will be expected of them. The students can take notes and spend time preparing for the task. ##### **Task
** The students complete a task in pairs or groups using the language resources that they have as the teacher monitors and offers encouragement. ##### **Planning
** Students prepare a short oral or written report to tell the class what happened during their task. They then practise what they are going to say in their groups. Meanwhile the teacher is available for the students to ask for advice to clear up any language questions they may have. ##### **Report** 
 Students then report back to the class orally or read the written report. The teacher chooses the order of when students will present their reports and may give the students some quick feedback on the content. At this stage the teacher may also play a recording of others doing the same task for the students to compare.

Analysis
The teacher then highlights relevant parts from the text of the recording for the students to analyse. They may ask students to notice interesting features within this text. The teacher can also highlight the language that the students used during the report phase for analysis. ##### **Practice**
 Finally, the teacher selects language areas to practise based upon the needs of the students and what emerged from the task and report phases. The students then do practice activities to increase their confidence and make a note of useful language. ### Conclusion
 PPP offers a very simplified approach to language learning. It is based upon the idea that you can present language in neat little blocks, adding from one lesson to the next. However, research shows us that we cannot predict or guarantee what the students will learn and that ultimately a wide exposure to language is the best way of ensuring that students will acquire it effectively. Restricting their experience to single pieces of target language is unnatural. Kompetenzorientierter Fremdsprachenunterricht ============================================= Es ist wichtig "Stop teaching English, start teaching communication". Es geht letztlich darum, dass die Schülerinnen und Schüler Kommunizieren können, die Wahl der richtigen Grammatikalischen Form kann dabei hilfreich sein. Die Korrektheit steht immer im dienste der Kommunikation und nicht umgekehrt. - Was ist eine Kompetenz? Eine Grundlage für die Definition von Kompetenz bietet Weinert an. Sein Kompetenzbegriff liegt auch dem Lehrplan 21 zugrunde. Weinert stellt fest, dass es für das Bewältigen von Situationen mehr als nur fachliches Wissen braucht. «Dabei versteht man unter Kompetenzen die bei Individuen verfügbaren oder durch sie erlernbaren kognitiven Fähigkeiten und Fertigkeiten, bestimmte Probleme zu lösen, sowie die damit verbundenen motivationalen, volitionalen und sozialen Bereitschaften und Fähigkeiten, um die Problemlösungen in variablen Situationen erfolgreich und verantwortungsvoll nutzen zu können» (Weinert 2002, 27 f.).Was heisst das für den Fremdsprachenunterricht? **Kommunikative Handlungskompetenz:** zentral für ihren Erwerb sind der Aufbau und das Automatisieren impliziten Wissens, unabhängig davon, ob explizites wissen aufgebaut wird. Kommunikative Handlungskompetenz kann zum Beispiel bedeuten, dass ich fähig bin, einem verirrten Touristen den Weg zum Bärengraben zu erklären. **Explizites Wissen:** In der Kommunikation kann explizites wissen über die Sprache von Vorteil sein. **Implizites Wissen:** Für eine erfolgreiche Anwendung der Fremdsprache sind der Aufbau und die Automatisierung von implizitem Wissen zentral. **Bewusstheit für Sprache:** **Lernaufgaben (tasks / tâches):** Geeignete sind inhalts- und handlungsorientiert, haben einen Bezug zur Lebenswelt der Lernenden und aktivieren verschiedenen Kompetenzbereiche wie in Fallbeispiel zwei. **Inhaltsorientierung:**Die Erweiterung der kommunikativen Kompetenzen geschieht am besten im sogenannten inhalts-und handlungsorientierten Unterricht, in dem sich die Schülerinnen und Schüler mit Themen beschäftigen, die für sie interessant, bedeutungsvoll und motivierend sind. Zentral ist ein reichhaltiger Input in Form von möglichst authentischen schriftlichen und mündlichen Texten. **Handlungsorientierung:** Beim Sprachenlernen geht es immer um Kommunikation. Wie kann Kommunikation im Klassenzimmer angeleitet werden? Was bringt Lernende dazu, in einer Fremdsprache zu kommunizieren? Ein ganz wichtiges Prinzip ist die Informationslücke (information-gap). Was heisst das? Hier ein einfaches Beispiel: Schüler A hat eine Biografie einer berühmten Person, in der alle Ortsnamen fehlen, während Schülerin B den gleichen Text hat, in dem alle Daten fehlen. Gemeinsam können sie den Text vervollständigen, indem sie sich gegenseitig Fragen stellen. Im folgenden Video lösen zwei Lernende gemeinsam eine Informationslücken-Aufgabe. Eine Informationslücken-Aufgabe ist eine Technik im Sprachunterricht, bei der den Schülerinnen und Schülern Informationen fehlen, die für die Erledigung einer Aufgabe oder die Lösung eines Problems notwendig sind. Das ist die Lücke. Sie müssen mit ihren KlassenkameradInnen kommunizieren, um diese Lücken zu füllen. Aktivitäten mit Informationslücken sind aus verschiedenen Gründen nützlich. Sie bieten die Möglichkeit, das Sprechen zu üben, sie spiegeln echte Kommunikation, die Motivation kann hoch sein und sie erfordern Teilfertigkeiten wie das Klären der Bedeutung und das Umformulieren. Typische Arten von Informationslücken-Aktivitäten sind z. B. Beschreiben und Zeichnen, Erkenne den Unterschied, Lesen und Zuhören, \... (adaptiert aus ) 2.2 Die Phasen A und R ---------------------- Fokus auf Die Kommunikation den Inhalt und Fokus auf die Form oder die Korrektheit. SuS müssen wissen auf was sie sich fokussieren sollen. Es ist wichtig dass wir als Lehrpersonen planen in welchen Phasen der Lektion wir auf den Inhalt/Flüssigkeit und wann auf die Form/Korrektheit fokussieren. ### A-Phase (authentic) Lektionsphasen in welchen der Fokus auf dem Inhalt liegen was die SuS uns sagen wollen. In diesen Phasen wird vorwiegend **Kommuniziert**. Es sind Phasen in denen wir die Sprache wie im echten Leben verwenden. SuS müssen sich nicht darum sorgen wie sie etwas sagen, der Schalter ist auf dem Inhalt. Sie können alle vorhandenen Sprach Ressourcen nutzen, um zu kommunizieren. A-Text = Authentischer Text, wie er auch in der realen Welt vorkommen könnte. ### R-Phase Fokus auf die Korrektheit -- einen Teil der Ressourcen nutzen SuS nutzen bewusst nur einen bestimmten Teil ihrer Sprachlichen Ressourcen. Sie fokussieren darauf das «present simple» korrekt anzuwenden in ihren Äusserungen. Es geht darum einen bestimmten Teil zu üben. R-Text= wurde für Lernende so verfasst, dass diese bestimmten grammatischen Strukturen oder Wörter enthält welche man in den Fokus nehmen möchte. Lehrbuchtexte. Die Rolle der Lehrperson in einer A-Phase unterscheidet sich von ihrer Rolle in einer R-Phase. Würde die Lehrperson mit den Schülerinnen und Schülern ein echtes/authentisches Gespräch über Holzstäbchen führen, würde sie nicht korrigieren sondern höchstens sprachliche Unterstützung anbieten (Scaffolding). Zum Beispiel wenn die Schülerinnen und Schüler etwas Interessantes über Holzstäbchen erzählen möchten, aber ihnen die Worte fehlen dazu, könnte die Lehrperson sie sprachlich unterstützen dabei. Das ist aber eine eher seltsame Situation. Oder wann haben Sie sich das letzte Mal über Holzstäbchen unterhalten??? Im Alltag, das heisst in einer authentischen kommunikativen Situation, korrigieren wir die Grammatik/Aussprache des Gesprächspartners/der Gesprächspartnerin nur sehr selten. Wenn wir es tun, kann dies leicht als beleidigend verstanden werden. In der Konversation unterscheiden wir also sehr genau zwischen \'echter Kommunikation\', das heisst eine Kommunikation, wo es mir darum geht, etwas mitzuteilen, wo mein Fokus auf dem Inhalt ist (A-Phase) und einer Übungssituation, das heisst, eine Kommunikation, die dazu dient, mich sprachlich korrekter ausdrücken zu können und der Fokus auf der Form/der Korrektheit liegt (= R-Phase). ### Die C-Phase (clarification) In dieser Phase werden sprachliche Aspekte geklärt. Die SuS schauen die Sprach ganz genau an. Sie nehmen die Lupe und schauen, wie ein Wort beispielsweise genau geschrieben wird. Es gibt unterschiedliche Gestaltungmöglichkeiten. **Hammer Methode:** Lehrperson versucht gleichsam den Stoff in die Lernenden her einzuhämmern. Sie erklärt, ohne die Vorkenntnisse der SuS miteinzubeziehen. **Puzzle Methode:** SuS finden Gesetzmässigkeiten völlig selbstständig heraus. Selbstständige Analyse der Sprache. Am häufigsten ist eine Form dazwischen. **Guided discovery (Geführte Entdeckung)** Wir geben den Lernenden nur so viel Hilfe wie nötig, dass sie die Regeln anhand Sprachlichen Inputs selber herausfinden können. Ist geführt durch die Lehrperson. In der Fremdsprachendidaktik unterscheiden wir zwischen i**nhaltsorientierten** und **formorientierten** Ansätzen. In einem inhaltsorientierten Ansatz beginnen wir den Lernprozess mit dem Inhalt/der Kommunikation, also mit A-Phasen und verwenden erst später C- und R-Phasen. In einem formorientierten Ansatz ist es gerade umgekehrt: Wir beginnen mit einer C-Phase. Inwieweit ändert sich das Lernen der Schülerinnen und Schüler? Welchen Einfluss hat das auf den Lernprozess und die Lernziele? Wie verändert sich der Unterricht? +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **inhaltsorientierte Ansätze ** | **formorientierte Ansätze ** | +===================================+===================================+ | Bei | In einem formorientierten Ansatz | | einem inhaltsorientierten Ansatz | beginnen wir mit der **Klärung** | | beginnen wir den Lernprozess mit | der Form, zum Beispiel der | | dem Inhalt/der Kommunikation, | Klärung von Grammatik oder | | also mit **A-Phasen**. Die | spezifischen Wörtern (**C**). | | Schülerinnen und Schüler | | | bearbeiten zum Beispiel | | | (halb-)authentische Input-Texte | | | und fokussieren dabei auf den | | | Inhalt. Es stehen Fragen im | | | Zentrum wie: | | | | | | - Was steht in diesem Text? | | | | | | - Was will die Verfasserin mir | | | sagen? | | | | | | Sie sprechen über die Inhalte in | | | diesen Texten, schreiben Texte | | | oder tauschen sich zu | | | spezifischen Themen aus, auch | | | hier wieder, ohne bestimmte | | | grammatikalische Formen oder | | | Ausdrücke verwenden zu müssen | | | (**A**). | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Erst in einer nächsten Phase | Anschliessend werden diese mit | | **klären** werden sprachliche | den Schülerinnen und Schülern in | | Aspekte, zum Beispiel die | eng geführten Aufgaben **geübt** | | Bedeutung von bestimmten | (**R-Phase**, eng geführt = | | Ausdrücken oder grammatikalischen | kleines Kuchenstück). | | Erscheinungsformen (= | | | **C-Phase**) geklärt. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Im Anschluss daran **üben** die | Schliesslich erwarten wir, dass | | Schülerinnen und Schüler die neu | die Lernenden diese Formen in | | entdeckten Ausdrücke oder Formen | einer etwas freieren | | (R**-Phase**). | kommunikativen Aufgabe anwenden | | | (**R**, aber mit relativ viel | | | Freiheit - ein grosses | | | Kuchenstück ;-)  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Ein heute oft verwendeter | Der typische formorientierte | | inhaltsorientierter Ansatz ist | Ansatz ist PPP. PPP steht für | | das sogenannte Task-based | Present-Practise-Produce: Die | | learning oder ein | Grammatik wird präsentiert, geübt | | aufgabenorientierter | und schliesslich produziert. | | Fremdsprachenunterricht. Im | Dieser Ansatz war lange Zeit der | | Zentrum steht eine kommunikative | vorherrschende Ansatz. Der grosse | | Aufgabe (A), allenfalls führen | Vorteil ist die Planbarkeit des | | kleinere vorbereitende | Sprachgebrauchs der Schülerinnen | | kommunikative Aufgaben (A) auf | und Schüler. Der Nachteil | | die Hauptaufgabe hin. Erst im | allerdings ist, dass Schülerinnen | | Anschluss daran werden die durch | und Schüler die Sprache kaum zum | | die Bearbeitung der Aufgabe | Kommunizieren verwenden. Ihr | | wahrgenommenen grammatikalischen | Fokus liegt auch in der dritten, | | Erscheinungsformen und Ausdrücke | freieren Phase auf der korrekten | | geklärt (C) und geübt (R). | Anwendung der zuvor eingeführten | | | Formen oder Ausdrücke. Man geht | | | davon aus, dass der | | | ausschliessliche Einsatz von PPP | | | dazu führt, dass Schülerinnen und | | | Schüler zwar sehr viel über die | | | Sprache lernen (explizites | | | Wissen), aber in einer realen | | | Kommunikationssituation nicht | | | über die nötigen | | | Sprachkompetenzen verfügen, um | | | mit anderen kommunizieren zu | | | können. Es fehlt ihnen die | | | Flüssigkeit, das heisst, sie | | | können die benötigten Redemittel | | | nicht schnell genug abrufen. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ 1. Folgt New World einem inhaltsorientierten oder formorientierten Ansatz? Wie begründen Sie Ihre Antwort? New World folgt einem inhaltsorientierten Ansatz. Die SuS setzen sich zuerst mit dem Inhalt der Texte auseinander und sprechen mit allen zur Verfügung stehenden sprachlichen Ressourcen, bevor sie die verwendeten grammatikalischen Strukturen und bestimmte Wörter verwenden. Die einzige Clarification zu Beginn der Lernsequenz betrifft die Strategien. Diese werden im Dienste der Kommunikation eingesetzt und dienen nicht dazu, die kommenden Aktivitäten einzuschränken. Es geht zu Beginn um echte Kommunikation, die Schülerinnen und Schüler lernen Fakten zu Schottland kennen. 2. Eine Lehrperson behauptet folgendes: Die ganze Idee eines kompetenzorientierten Fremdsprachenunterrichts und die Aufgabenorientierung (Task-based learning) überzeugen mich nicht. Die Schülerinnen und Schüler beschäftigen sich gar nicht mehr mit Grammatik. Stimmen Sie zu? Warum (nicht)? Ich stimme dieser Aussage nicht zu. Im kompetenzorientierten Fremdsprachenunterricht wird auch Grammatik gelernt, aber sie steht im Dienste der Kommunikation und des Verstehens. In einem aufgabenorientierten Unterricht wird Grammatik erst im Nachgang zu einer  A-Aufgabe geklärt und geübt. Das heisst, diese wird erst geklärt und geübt, wenn sie im Kontext der Kommunikation als bedeutungsvoll erlebt worden ist. 3. Welche Ansätze wurden früher eingesetzt: eher formorientierte oder inhaltsorientierte Ansätze? (vgl. 1. Kapitel) Die Geschichte des Fremdsprachenunterrichts beginnt mit formorientierten Ansätzen. 4. Gehen Sie zurück zu Ihren Antworten auf der ersten Seite dieses Kapitels. Welche Buchstaben würden Sie den unterschiedlichen Aktivitäten zuordnen (Achtung: Eine Phase enthält 2 Buchstaben!)? Welche Schlüsse ziehen Sie daraus? A-Phasen sind nahe am Erleben der Schülerinnen und Schüler. Ein Einstieg mit A-Phasen ermöglicht einen Unterricht, der nahe an \'echter\' Kommunikation ist. \... Ein Bild, das Text, Schrift, Zahl, Reihe enthält. Automatisch generierte Beschreibung 3. Receptive Skills {#receptive-skills.ListParagraph} =================== **Reading, Listening, Viewing** - Has a good understanding of many key principles of lesson planning (lead-in, main part, closing). Usually follows the lesson plan without much adaptation, may not yet be able to respond to unforeseen classroom evens and has started to see some clear links between planning and teaching choices and subsequent student learning. - Has a good understanding of many principles and techniques for teaching listening/viewing/reading (Top- down and bottom-up processes, TAVI/TALO/TASP, listening strategies (Listening for specific information, Global/gist listening, Inference, Contextual guessing, Reading for specific information, Global/gist reading, Inference, Contextual guessing, Scanning, skimming). - Lesson plans demonstrate a profound analysis of course book materials and apply a number of techniques and activities for developing listening/viewing/reading skills, with an awareness of pre/while/post stages. 3.1 Interactive processes ------------------------- ### Introduction Traditionally, reading and listening were considered to cover the receptive skills which learners in the English language classroom need to develop. Since the 1990s with the growing importance of images and audiovisual texts, viewing and so-called audiovisual comprehension have been added to the set of receptive skills. Learners are expected to demonstrate competence in their interaction with texts transmitted via a variety of media. They should learn: - to understand written and spoken texts: notes, factual texts, literature, emails, blogs, voice messages, public announcement, podcasts, \... - to decode still and moving images: photos, diagrams, videos, \... - to connect text or speech and images: in comics, newspaper articles, advertisements, digital texts, films, presentations,\... ### Top-down and bottom-up processes Top-down and bottom-up processes Reading, listening and viewing tend to be associated with passive consumerism. However, as readers, listeners and viewers, we are in fact very active even though this can\'t always be seen from the outside. The interaction model states that reading, listening or viewing are a continuous process of meaning-making from what we read, hear or see. There are two processes at work: a) bottom-up processing and b) top-down processing.  #### Bottom-up processing: This process starts with **decoding words** and moves to chunks and sentences (at which point larger units of meaning can be deciphered). During listening, this is accompanied by the recognition of sounds and phonemes, the characteristics of spoken language and the prosodic (intonation, speed, volume) or non-verbal aspects of language (facial expressions, gestures). In multimedia texts, we also construct meaning on the basis of pictures, symbols or other forms of visual signs like colours or camera perspectives. Bottom-up processing tasks in class use the written, audio or visual text as their starting point. Based on the text, learners are encouraged to extract general, specific or detailed information. With bottom-up processing, learners start meaning-making with the component parts: words, grammar or sounds. #### Top-down Processing: However, there is more to the process of understanding when it comes to reading a text, listening to the radio or watching a movie than simply decoding sounds and words. The meaning-making process is also influenced by inference and hypothesis building. While reading, listening or viewing, we constantly make predictions about the development of the text and interpret what we\'ve already read/listened to/or watched on the basis of what might come next. This so-called top-down processing takes place on the basis of cognitive patterns by which the recipient is able to draw on personal experience, context-related frames of reference and different types of knowledge (context knowledge, general world knowledge, genre knowledge, etc.). When listening, for example, we use our knowledge of the social context and the typical flow of a conversation to understand the interlocutor. Our experience helps us identify a speaker's mood, intentions and the situation within which the conversation is taking place -- based, for example, on indicators such as facial expressions, gestures, intonation, speed and volume. When viewing a film, we use our pre-knowledge about the topic or the typical plot structure of a particular genre (for example, fairy tales, crime stories, romantic comedies, or horror films) to predict upcoming events or incorporate new information into our current understanding. Top-down processing tasks support learners in recalling and using previous knowledge to enable the use of this knowledge in the process of understanding a text. 'The following activities are examples of developing top-down listening skills. - Students generate a set of questions they expect to hear about a topic and listen to see if they are answered. - Students generate a list of things they already know about a topic and things they would like to learn more about. Then listen and compare. - Students read one speaker's part in a conversation, predict the other speaker's part, then listen and compare.\' ### Role of visuals and feelings In addition to the ability to interpret the language and structure of a text and ascribe meaning to it, the feelings and subjective reactions of the recipient are also important for understanding a text. Emotions connect the content of a text with one\'s own reality. Feelings capture attention, influence perception and also help in remembering what has been read, heard or seen (cf. Donnertag/Bosenius 2000, 153). In this way, they play an important role in the development of relevant hypotheses and their verification during the receptive process. This means that the emotional dimension of text reception should be taken into account and supported in the classroom. 3.2 What is reading and what does it involve? --------------------------------------------- ### Reading as a cognitive activity - can read Greek texts aloud but don\'t understand what I\'m reading. I studied ancient Greek at Gymnasium that\'s why I can decode the words but I don\'t have the language comprehension necessary for understanding modern Greek. - An infant has the ability to understand the bedtime story her father is reading to her, but she wouldn\'t be able to crack the code of the text written in the storybook. How about you? - Are there any languages you can decode but not understand, or are there any languages you do understand but can\'t decode? - How about dyslexic learners? They can understand but they are poor decoders. What impact does that have on their reading comprehension? The simple view of reading states that Reading Comprehension equals Decoding times Language comprehension: RC = D \* LC Why is this important? Simply put: Our mental activity is limited. If one task takes up lots of mental capacity, we don\'t have enough for the other. If all our capacity is used for decoding words, we won\'t have enough to store the individual words we\'ve decoded and understand what we\'re reading. The faster we are able to recognize words, the more mental capacity there is left for understanding what we are reading. If you\'d like to get a more thorough explanation, watch the video below from where the following illustration was taken. Ein Bild, das Text, Screenshot, Schrift, Rechteck enthält. Automatisch generierte Beschreibung ### Reading as a communicative activity Study the following table describing the way we normally read in our real life.  The way we treat reading in the classroom is sometimes diametrically opposed to the way we read in real life. Is this a problem? Yes and no. Only doing the typical classroom reading might not mirror the communicative nature of reading and thus not teach learners the kind of reading they need in real life. ### Reading and background knowledge **Richtig:** - Background knowledge interacts with comprehension of information in a text and remembering that information. - Readers use schemata (existing knowledge) to interpret texts. - Metacognition involves thinking about what one is doing while reading. **Falsch:** - Readers are passive recipients of information in the text. Meaning resides in the text and the reader has to reproduce meaning. 3.3 Communicative, task-based approaches to reading --------------------------------------------------- ### Extensive and intensive reading **Richtig:** - Extensive reading involves learners reading texts for enjoyment. - Intensive reading involves learners reading in detail with specific learning aims and tasks. - Intensive reading is mainly done in the classroom. **Falsch:** - Intensive reading is more similar to reading in everyday life than extensive reading. ***Extensive reading: An alternative approach*** Another model for teaching reading exists. This is an \'extensive reading approach\' and involves students reading long texts or large quantities for general understanding, with the intention of enjoying the texts. Students are allowed to choose the books they read depending on their interests, and there is not always a follow-up discussion or work in class. In this way students are encouraged to read for pleasure and should become better readers. **Aims of extensive reading** The principal objective of undertaking an extensive reading approach is to get students reading in English and liking it. An increase in reading fluency should be another objective. Because of this, reading should be a pleasurable activity for the student, promoted as much as possible by the teacher. **The characteristics of an extensive reading approach:** - Reading material Reading for pleasure requires a large selection of books be available for students to choose from at their level. Here, teachers can make good use of graded readers (books which have been written specifically for EFL/ESL students or which have been adapted from authentic texts). Setting up a class library is a good way to provide material for students, and because the books are kept in the actual classroom, there is a greater chance that they will be borrowed, and teachers also have more opportunities to refer to them during class. - Student choice Students choose what they want to read based on their interests. If a student finds a book is too difficult or they don\'t enjoy it, they can change it for another one. - Language level The vocabulary and grammar of the books that students read should not pose a difficulty. The objective of an extensive reading programme is to encourage reading fluency, so students should not be stopping frequently because they do not understand a passage. However, the books should not be too easy as this may well demotivate students, who feel they are getting nothing out of the books. - Motivation One of the key factors to the success (or not) of an extensive reading programme is motivation. Capturing student interest is the key. If the materials available are interesting to the students, then they will be far more likely to want to read them. These books should also be at a level appropriate to their reading ability. As mentioned earlier, the texts should not be too difficult so students experience the frustration of not being able to understand the books. Getting the extensive reading programme off to a good start is also vital. The aim is for an initial successful experience so that students discover they can read in English and that they enjoy it. This positive experience should stimulate them to read more, increasing motivation, enjoyment and a desire to read. **The teacher\'s role** The teacher encourages and assists the students with their reading, which the students undertake during and /or after class. Occasional summaries (oral or written) can help with this as they show both that the students are reading and also that they understand what their books are about. The activities can also help students improve their writing or speaking ability. Another activity teachers can become involved in is individual counselling - this gives the teacher an opportunity to ask students about their reading experiences and can be done by the teacher while the rest of the class are silent reading. Above all, however, extensive reading should be a student-centred and a student-managed activity. #### Intensive reading Intensive reading involves learners reading in detail with specific learning aims and tasks. It can be compared with extensive reading, which involves learners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop general reading skills. Example The learners read a short text and put events from it into chronological order. In the classroom Intensive reading activities include skimming a text for specific information to answer true or false statements or filling gaps in a summary, scanning a text to match headings to paragraphs, and scanning jumbled paragraphs and then reading them carefully to put them into the correct order. ### Implications for the classroom To ensure that reading in the classroom does not degenerate into a purely linguistic exercise, - - Here are some principles we should follow when doing reading in the classroom: - - - - ### Extensive reading Important principles for extensive reading are: - Make available a variety of reading material on a **wide range of topics.** - Have learners **choose** what they want to read. - The purpose of reading is **understanding:** Reading for pleasure, information and general understanding. - **Reading speed** matters: learners read individually, silently and without looking up words! This means learners need to know about 95% of the words in the text. If they know fewer words, the text will no longer be comfortable for them to read. Don\'t slow learners by giving them too many tasks to do while they are reading. ### Intensive reading In language teaching literature TALO, TAVI and TASP are three acronyms that have been used to describe the use of texts for language learning.\  \ ***'TALO: Text as a linguistic object***\ A TALO text is used for language work, specifically grammar or vocabulary.\ TALO texts: - are written especially with a pedagogical purpose in mind - could be authentic texts the teacher has chosen because they contain lots of examples of a particular feature of language - could be authentic texts \"adapted\" to contain or highlight certain features of language. Some sample TALO activities are: - Find all the examples of X in a text (for example, a grammar pattern, function words, a particular verb form...) - Find all the words in the text that are connected to X (words that are topically linked, or lexical sets) - Decide why certain forms were chosen over others (why was a conditional used, for example) ***TAVI: Text as a vehicle for information***\ A TAVI text has a different focus. Information within the text is seen as more important than the language. Students should understand the overall meaning of a text instead of (or at least before) the finer points of detail.\ TAVI texts: - can be chosen because they are motivating - can be ones that the teacher would hope the students would like to read anyway - can be authentic texts. TAVI type activities include: - predicting the content of the text, discussing questions or statements that relate to the text - marking things in the text that you knew/didn\'t know before - answering comprehension questions - summarising the main points of a text - putting events in order ***TASP: Text as a springboard for production***\ Another text acronym is TASP. TASP stands for Text as a Stimulus for Production. This means using a text as a springboard for another task - usually a reading or writing task. TASP approaches also fit well with the communicative approach.\ TASP type activities could be: - doing a role play based on the text - discussing issues raised by the text - having a debate about the points of view presented in the text - writing a similar text about something the students know about - writing a response to the text. 3.4 Receptive skills in the classroom ------------------------------------- ### Challenges and what not to do **Reasons for a deficit in receptive competence**\ Competent foreign language learners use both top-down and bottom-up processes in reading, listening and viewing. In contrast, less successful learners often focus mainly on bottom-up strategies. This carries the risk that they stop at the level of word meaning, often trying to understand single units and reading in this way mainly without being aware of the meaning of groups of words (chunks).\ \ **Problematic approaches to teaching reading**\ Despite the goal of promoting reading comprehension, learners hardly have time to read extensively at school, they often cannot choose texts of interest to them or read texts that are filled with difficult language and/or content (cf. Ivey/Fischer 2006). For a balanced course, learners would need extensive reading and listening opportunities in the classroom and/or at home. Poor choices are also sometimes made when working with the texts in class: - Texts are preceded by many preparatory activities, such as listing or discussing most of the words up to the word field of the topic dealt with in the text: this has a negative effect on decoding skills and promotes word-by-word comprehension, which should rather be avoided. - Unfamiliar texts are read aloud (this prevents silent absorption of information). - Texts are heard and read at the same time (this can lead to collisions between the channels through which information is processed at the sensory level). - Reading strategies are not practised (this prevents independent engagement with texts). - Details about the text are frequently checked or work with texts is dominated by language exercises (this works against reading motivation and individual text interpretation). **Difficulties in listening comprehension** can also arise from the fact that foreign language learners generally do not determine the pace at which reception takes place during listening (despite the fact that with today\'s digital devices listening at an individual pace can easily be implemented). In addition, spoken language differs in many ways from written language (incomplete utterances, abbreviated forms, colloquialisms, restructuring, wearing out-of-word boundaries, etc.). Similarly, texts with unfamiliar topics can be very challenging for learners because they bring so many presuppositions with them and do not allow them to make connections to their prior knowledge. Authentic listening texts with multiple speakers, unfamiliar accents, sociolects or dialects, and distracting background noise can also lead to listening difficulties. This does not mean, however, that such texts should have no place in English lessons; on the contrary, because of their close relation to everyday life, reception of this kind should be practised regularly. **Challenges with films** With films, listening comprehension is linked to seeing or - with subtitles or intertitles - even to reading. Foreign language learners are thus faced with the challenge to simultaneously comprehend speech, auditory and visual information. In addition, reception requires multimodal knowledge and skills in dealing with texts, such as knowledge of film-specific techniques that go beyond pure language comprehension. Furthermore, as with simple audio texts, fast-paced dialogue in films with several changing speakers and different accents, as well as a convoluted plot and complex character constellations, can make comprehension difficult. At the same time, the combination of image and sound can facilitate comprehension if learners are able to compensate for linguistic gaps through visual cues such as the speakers\' facial expressions and body language. Furthermore, retention is greater when image and sound work together. ### Pre- while- post- In order to do justice to the complexity of the processes of reading, listening and viewing and to guide learners through the different phases of text comprehension, a process-oriented approach to the development of receptive competences has become established in English language teaching. In this approach, work with texts is divided into the three phases of tasks before, during and after reading/listening/viewing. The tasks in this three-stage structure are designed to facilitate learner-text interaction and also to support oral and written language production. **Pre-** **The pre-reading/listening/viewing activities** pave the way for the receptive process. They prepare learners thematically and emotionally to work with the text, draw on their own experiences, activate their prior knowledge, raise expectations of the text, familiarise themselves with the lexical field and make possible contextual knowledge readily available. In other words, they set the context, activate knowledge and schemata and prepare learners for the main receptive event. For example, we can support comprehension by asking learners to make predictions about what they might read, hear or see. **While-** **Activities during reading/listening/viewing** provide structure and support for text reception. These activities should ensure text comprehension, focus learners\' attention and occasionally (e.g. through observation tasks) encourage them to actively engage and interact with the text. Active reading and viewing of films can be supported, for example, by encouraging learners to reflect on the impressions they have gathered and to articulate their personal reactions. Various forms of creative interaction with the text can also support specific subjective comprehension processes in this phase and promote sense-making (e.g. by testing hypotheses that have already been made in the pre-reading/listening/viewing phase). **Post-** **Activities following reading/listening/viewing** help learners to evaluate the reception process, deepen the text and work further with the newly acquired information linguistically or thematically. It is considered useful to first give learners the opportunity to express their personal reactions to the text. Further activities should then, according to the process character of text comprehension, tie in with the tasks of the pre-reading/listening/viewing phase. Learners should therefore be able to draw on their personal impressions and observations and build on new insights gained during the receptive process. ### Techniques #### Reading techniques: - Skimming (e.g. reading a text quickly to get a general idea of its meaning). - Scanning (e.g. reading a text quickly to find specific information (e.g. names, numbers, dates, etc.)) - Intensive/accurate reading (e.g. reading carefully for full, detailed understanding) - Extensive/fluent/cursory reading (e.g. wide reading to improve reading comprehension, reading speed) - Drawing conclusions (e.g. \"reading between the lines\": the reader understands what is meant but not in a text). - Guessing contexts (e.g. guessing the meaning of words from the surrounding words or text). - Outlining (e.g. a note-taking technique to help the reader see the overall structure of a text. #### Listening techniques: Learners need to be introduced to a variety of listening techniques and activities to become better listeners. It is important to also focus on the process of listening, i.e. making learners aware of how to listen to and understand a text, rather than just checking whether their answers to a listening task were correct. - A very common type of listening is searching for specific information. This usually involves collecting names, times, places, etc. - When learners try to understand texts in a more general way, we call this global or gist listening. They have to identify the main idea, note a sequence of events, find the appropriate image for what they have heard, etc. - The third type of listening, reasoning, involves abstract thinking. This is \'listening between the lines\' - listening for meaning that is implied but not directly spoken. Additionally, learners should be exposed to both interactive (as in dialogue) or transactional (as in monologue) listening. ### Genre, goals, and techniques The methods a teacher chooses to promote receptive skills depend on the genre of the text and the specific reading, listening or viewing objectives. The genre and the receptive goals can complement each other. For example, when reading a cooking recipe, we set the goal of gathering detailed information, while when we are captivated by the emotional aspects of a film, we aim to have our learners follow the main plot in the foreign language without necessarily understanding all the details. Everyday genres and objectives: The main aim of foreign language teaching is to prepare learners to communicate in a variety of everyday situations. Therefore, when selecting texts to promote reading, listening and viewing skills, consideration should be given to those genres that learners are most likely to encounter in their everyday lives. Similarly, receptive goals should be formulated in accordance with everyday listening, reading and viewing experiences. Thus, instead of confronting learners only with pedagogically prepared textbook texts, everyday texts such as brochures, articles, timetables, poems, maps, diagrams, radio interviews, loudspeaker announcements, television news, documentaries, vlogs or theatre performances should also be part of foreign language teaching. The prerequisite for this, however, is that the texts are linguistically and thematically appropriate to the class level so that the learners can make references to their reality in the top-down and bottom-up processing. Thus, instead of always having them extract details from a text or answer mechanical comprehension questions, learners should be engaged in receptive activities that relate as closely as possible to or actually reflect everyday situations. 3.5 Summary ----------- ### Route map for teaching listening / viewing **Pre-listening/viewing** (activating top-down processes): mini tasks - Introduction and lead-in, e.g. setting the context, personalising, predicting vocabulary, predicting facts, etc. - Pre-tasks / mini tasks, e.g. prediction based on pictures, illustrations, reading questions to the recording, predicting the structure of the recording (who speaks? what kind of questions? typical exchanges? \...) **While-listening/viewing:** mini tasks and target task - Tasks to focus on gist listening for overview without worrying about small items or individual words: e.g. guess the title, put pictures in the correct order, put pictures in order, check guesses from pre-listening, identify distracter in statements that have to be put in order, \... - Tasks to focus on specific details: e.g. complete a picture, check for mistakes, re-order a jumbled dialogue, fill in a close, \... - Tasks to listen between the lines: e.g. how does the speaker feel? How do you know that? listen for background information, \... **Post-listening/viewing:**\ Form Focus - Focus on and clarify individual language items, e.g. words, chunks, analyse text structure, and genre-specific features, guessing words from context, using dictionaries, and grammatical structures,... This can be done by studying the transcript of the video or audio. **Practice** - Practise the language items and text genres clarified in the Form Focus. **Task repetition / follow-on task and / or evaluation** - Learners do a new task based on what they have just listened to/watched, e.g. speaking or writing (write a letter in reply), role play, personalising the text, e.g. Have you ever had an experience like this? - Learners review what has been studied and learned. - Learners evaluate the strategies used while reading the text, e.g. they discuss/write down what they have learnt from doing the reading or want to do differently next time. ### Route map for teaching reading **Pre-reading** (activating top-down processes): mini tasks - Introduction and lead-in, e.g. get the learners interested in the topic, personalise the topic,... - Pre-tasks / mini tasks, e.g. prediction based on part of the text, illustrations, reading questions to the text, learners write their own questions,... - **While-reading:** mini tasks and target task (TAVI) - Tasks to focus on fast reading for gist / skimming: e.g. guessing the title, putting pictures in order, checking guesses from the pre-reading,... - Tasks to focus on specific details / scanning: e.g. answering questions about specific information, using the information in the text to complete a table, \.... - Tasks to focus on general points: e.g. answering questions about meaning, make use of information in the text to do something (fill out a form, draw a figure, find out which picture is being described, \...),... - Tasks to focus on finer points of detail, more intensive comprehensive understanding **Post-reading (TALO)**\ Form Focus - Focus on and clarify individual language items, e.g. words, chunks, analyse text structure, genre-specific features, guessing words from context, using dictionaries, grammatical structures,... **Practice** - Practise the language items, text genres, which were clarified in the Form Focus.  \ **Task repetition / follow-on task and / or evaluation** - Learners do a new task based on what they have just read, e.g. a speaking or writing (write a letter in reply), role play, personalising the text, e.g. Have you ever had an experience like this? (TASP) - Learners review what has been studied and learned. - Learners evaluate the strategies used while reading the text, e.g. they discuss/write down what they have learnt from doing the reading or want to do differently next time. Teaching Productive skills ========================== **Teaching Speaking:** - Has a good understanding of many principles and techniques for teaching speaking (Information-gap ( information-, opinion-, experience-, knowledge-gap), Role play, Simulation, Construction - Reconstruction -- Reproduction.) - Lesson plans demonstrate a profound analysis of course book materials and apply a number of techniques and activities for developing speaking skills, with an awareness of pre/while/post stage. **Teaching Writing:** - Has a good understanding of many principles and techniques for teaching writing (Product writing -- Process writing, Guided writing -- Free writing, Aim -- audience -- genre of a writing activity). - Has a good understanding of basic principles and techniques for using complex tasks in the language classroom (real-world related and exploitable content, multimodal intake, diverse cognitive/ linguistic/interactional processes, integrated skills, genre-based, open outcomes, focus on language/ language reflection, scaffolding, planning and reflection). - Lesson plans demonstrate a profound analysis of course book materials and apply a number of techniques and activities for developing writing skills, with an awareness of pre/while/post stages. Teaching speaking ----------------- ### An example **Pre-Task/Mini tasks** 1. Teacher elicits social problems in the US and learners' home country 2. Teacher writes them on the board 3. Teacher explains the target task: - Goal of the activity: Create utopia, Teacher explains keyword 'utopia' and writes it on the board - Outcome: Map where utopia can be visualized - Social form: Pairs - Support: Copy sheet with a list of topics learners need to consider while completing the task (to keep learners talk for longer). - Time: not shown in the video - Evaluation: Not shown in the video but should be included: how the task is going to be evaluated (presentation to the class) **Target Task**\ Task:\ Cooperatively learners create their own utopia, discussing the topics on the copy sheet and making drawings on their maps. While learners are working, the teacher takes notes of mistakes students make (does not interrupt students while speaking). Teacher only monitors and provides language learners need to express their meaning (teacher scaffolds learners speaking).\ Planning a report:\ Not shown in the video! At this level, the presentations will be of much better quality and learners will work on their language more if they are given planning time for the presentation.\ Report:\ Groups present their drawing and describe their utopia.\ Teacher asks some comprehension questions (real questions not with the intention to have learners display their English!). Teacher does not correct learners.\ Purpose for listening: Whose utopian city would work best?\ **Form Focus**\ Analysis:\ Not shown in the video: Teacher discusses some mistakes (and hopefully also some good language) she heard during the target task.\ Practice:\ Not shown in the video: Learners might do some exercises on some of the mistakes the teacher had pointed out, or do some lexis practice in relevant lexical areas or building on the good language teacher heard during the target task.\ \ **Task repetition and/or evaluation**\ Not shown. Learners might write a description of their utopia. For this, they can use some of the language from the Form Focus. What is speaking? ----------------- ### Why speaking? 'Research suggests that learners make progress by communicating in the target language because\ interaction necessarily involves trying to understand and make yourself understood. This process is called negotiation for meaning. It involves checking to see if you've understood what someone has said, clarifying your understanding, and confirming that someone has understood your meaning. ### ### Real-time 'Many people feel that speaking in a new language is harder than reading, writing, or listening for two reasons. First, unlike reading or writing, speaking happens in real time: usually the person you are talking to is waiting for you to speak right then. Second, when you speak, you cannot edit and revise what you wish to say, as you can if you are writing.' ### Genres ‚Speaking includes the oral production of many different genres. Reciting poetry, participating in debates, engaging in class discussions, and leaving messages on answering machines are all different types of speaking. Perhaps the most common type of speaking is conversing.\ (...) One key characteristic of true conversations is that their outcome is not predetermined or wholly governed by any one participant.' ### Spoken and written language There are some differences in the way spoken and written language are produced. In spoken language, for example, hesitations and pause fillers are normal linguistic strategies used to gain time. Using these in written texts would be unnatural. There is, of course, a continuum of spoken and written language with texts such as family conversations on one end, maybe a weather report in the middle and an encyclopedia entry on the other end.\ Some other typical features of spoken language are that it is unplanned and negotiated, it is frequently co-constructed by two or more speakers, and it makes use of spontaneous, informal language, such as incomplete sentences. Spoken language contains a lower number of content words and a higher number of function words than written language. It often uses conjunctions (e.g. and, but, so, etc.) to link clauses whereas in written language subordination (e.g. who, which, when, etc.) is used. Ein Bild, das Text, Screenshot, Design enthält. Automatisch generierte Beschreibung How to teach speaking --------------------- ### Types of speaking Most speaking work falls on a continuum of how much restriction, help and control is offered from reproducing a given dialogue to free speaking.\  \ **Reproduction**\ A phrase or a sentence is repeated word by word.\ Learners memorise a given or self-created role play and act it out = acting play scripts.\  \ **Reconstruction**\ Some rehearsed phrases are adapted to a new situation.\ Learners use some key phrases from a given role-play to act out a new scene.\  \ **Construction**\ All available language resources are activated to communicate.\ Learners take on a role and act it out spontaneously. ### Free speaking During free speaking activities, students express themselves without being required to use prescribed lexis or structures (construction). These may involve pair work, group work or whole-class seated or mingling activities. Most free speaking activities aim at improving fluency, competence and confidence. And it is also an opportunity for teachers to diagnose student\'s learning needs.\ Making mistakes is inevitably part of any free speaking activity when being done at the beginning levels. Still, it\'s crucial that learners have enough fluency-building practice, and the teacher doesn\'t keep interrupting them to correct their oral errors.\  \ For learners to be able to speak freely, they need access to chunks. Especially during discussions -- as short as they may be -- learners need phrases to voice agreement (absolutely, I couldn\'t agree more...), disagreement (I don\'t agree, Not at all...), to give an opinion (If you ask me, In my opinion...) or express a reservation (Yes, but... Sure, but... I take your point, but...). These types of phrases can be on role cards, on the board or posters about the room or as extra copies in their wordlist. The sooner our students learn some of these phrases, the better.\  \ Varieties of free speaking:\ 'Buzz groups': Divide the class into small sets of four learners and have them discuss your questions/summarise what has been said so far/think of three questions that would be interesting to share. Then have the different groups report and continue from this. '**Pyramid discussion**': This works well with problem-based discussions and item-selection tasks. For example: What are the top five items of clothing you take with you for a holiday at the beach? Or 'Put these items in order of importance.' - Set the context and introduce the problem.Learners work individually to solve the task. - Put learners in pairs. They now discuss and come to a compromise. - Pair them up with another pair; again, they need to reach an agreement. - Join each four with another four or the whole class. - Try to reach a class solution.  \ '**Mingling activities':** Learners get a task (e.g. a questionnaire, 'find s.o. who',...), stand up, walk around and interact with different learners.\ \ **'Wheel':** Put learners\' chairs into two concentric circles with the inner circle facing out and outer circle facing in. Learners talk to the person directly in front of them for some time. Then ask the outer circle to move one chair to the left. Learners talk to their next partner. Go on like this. Each interval can be a bit shorter because by repeating the same task several times, learners become more fluent. The wheel can also be used to present the outcome of project tasks, e.g. drawing and labelling a family tree and then presenting it to another person.\  \ **Guidelines** for running free speaking activities: - Set up the activity clearly so that learners know what to do. - Make sure the task is meaningful to the learners. - Ensure the task has a clear outcome. - Avoid the talk-talk loop but ask clear questions and allow enough waiting time for learners to respond. Talk-talk loop means the teacher asks a question but no learner answers. Then, the teacher says something else, again with no response by the learners. She adds something else. - Avoid asking closed questions but ask open questions (e.g. when, what, who, why, how, when-questions) instead. - You may spur on the conversation by playing the devil's advocate (i.e. taking an opposing or contrasting viewpoint) - Rather use pair, group or whole-class mingling groupings than whole-class seated. Speaking freely in front of the whole-class can be very face-threatening for elementary learners. ### Role plays and simulations 'Speaking activities involving a drama element, in which learners take an imaginative leap out of the confines of the classroom, provide a useful springboard for real-life language use. Situations that learners are likely to encounter when using English in the real world can be simulated, and a greater range of registers can be practised than are normally available in classroom talk. For example, situations involving interactions with total strangers or requiring such face-threatening speech acts as complaining or refusing can be simulated with relatively low risk.\'\ (Thornbury, S. 2006. How to teach Speaking. Harlow. Pearson Education Limited. p. 96)\  'A distinction can be made between role-plays and simulations. The former involve the adoption of another 'persona', as when students pretend to be an employer interviewing a job applicant... In a simulation, on the other hand, students 'play' themselves in a simulated situation: they might be stuck in a lift\...' (Thornbury, S. 2006. How to teach Speaking. Harlow. Pearson Education Limited. p. 98) **Varieties of role plays:** **'A new person':** Learners put themselves in somebody else's shoes (e.g. the Queen, a millionaire, a pop star,...) **'A new situation':** Learners stay in their shoes but put themselves into an imaginary situation (e.g. 'At the restaurant\', 'Checking in at the airport\', 'Looking for lost property\',...) '**Opinions':** Learners take on the opinion of another person. **'For and Against Debate':** Learners take part in a 'For and Against' debate. **Guidelines** for running a role play or simulation: - Make sure situation is clear to everybody. - Give preparation time to make sure everybody understands his/her role card and can prepare for the role play. - Take away role cards (e.g. learners leave them at their desks) to ensure learners don't over-rely on their preparation. - After the role play, give some feedback (content and/or language). #### Further speaking activities **'Pairs interviews':**\ Change partners and tell your new partner what you\'ve learnt from partner A.\ **'Find someone who...'**\ Work in groups to tell about the results.\ **'Completing a questionnaire'**\ e.g. about habits\ **'Find the difference'**\ Differences between two accounts of a person's life.\  \ **'Picture difference'**\ One learner gets picture A, one picture B. Without looking at the other picture, learners find the differences. **'Taboo'** Can be played as with the well-known card game, or as an information-gap crossword puzzle (learner A has some words written in the crossword puzzle and learner B has the other words), or... Being able to paraphrase is a useful strategy! **'Chain story'** In groups, learners take turns to tell a story, either an invented or a known one. ### Lead-in activities, fillers, ice-breakers Speaking activities need not always take very long. Sometimes they simply help open the door for an English lesson. Sometimes it is important just to get our students tuned in. Maybe English takes place first lesson on Monday morning or Friday afternoon or after having had home economics. In a word, body and mind are not yet ready to deal with English.\  \ Warmers are activities designed to get things started, wake up tired students (and teachers) and prepare brains, mouths, ears and eyes for English.\ Icebreakers are activities you can use to make people feel more relaxed at the beginning of a course.\ Fillers are activities you can add to a class because you have time to fill.\  \ ***Here are some ideas:***\ **Animal, vegetable or mineral?** \ One student comes to the front of the class and writes the name of an object (e.g. table, apple, teacher) on the back of the board. This student then tells the others whether the object is made of animal, vegetable or mineral or a combination of these. For upper level: Remind the student to think carefully about the composition of their object. Perhaps like in a shoe which is mostly animal (leather) but also partially mineral (nails, rubber). The others may only ask 20 questions to guess the object. They must be questions to which the student at the front can answer only \'Yes\' or \'No\'.\ Word clap: Students stand or sit in a circle and maintain a four-beat rhythm, clapping their hands on their thighs three times and then both hands together. The idea is to take turns, clockwise, to shout out a different word form a pre-selected lexical set (e.g. fruit and vegetables) on every fourth beat. Players who either repeat a word or break the rhythm are 'out'.\  \ **Coffeepot:**\ This is a guessing game. One learner answers yes/no questions from the rest of the class about a verb that she has thought of. In the questions, the word coffeepot is used in place of the mystery verb.\  \ **Spelling race:** \ The board is divided into two halves, and a representative from each group stands at the board with a piece of chalk. The teacher shows the rest of the class a word on a card. The teams must simultaneously spell (not say) the word to their representative, who cannot see the word. ### Supporting learners **Pre-teaching vocabulary**\ Depending on the demands the task places on the learners, teachers need to prepare their learners by doing several mini or pre-tasks before the target task. Thus they can recycle useful words and phrases for the task or even learn some new ones.\  \ **Giving preparation time**\ Especially at elementary levels, it might be useful to give learners some preparation time for speaking. They can think about what they want to say and how they could say it, i.e. brainstorm ideas and collect useful phrases and words. However, it\'s vital they don\'t over-rely on their preparation for their speaking. Therefore, it might be a good idea to allow learners to have a last look at their notes and then run the activity without any notes.\  \ **Teaching process language**\ Learners need specific classroom language to interact with each other while completing speaking tasks. For example: \"What did you write for number 2?\", \"Do you want to start?\", and \"Sorry, can you say that again, please?\". These chunks should be introduced or revised before setting up speaking tasks. They can be projected, or learners have a copy of the phrases on their desks while speaking.\ You\'ll find a collection of these phrases in \'My Resources\' of New World.\ For the classroom wall the following posters might be useful: **'Providing a supportive atmosphere**
\ I try to raise confidence by giving lots of praise and giving feedback on task achievement as well as language use. When monitoring I try to do so as unobtrusively as possible so the students don\'t feel that I\'m necessarily listening to them personally. On the other hand in feedback I try to make it clear to the class that I have been listening to them and through feedback show them that there is a point to interaction and thereby overcome student resistance.\  \ **Varying the interaction and repeating tasks**
\ When teaching large classes I plan to move students around so that they are not always talking to the same partner. A good way to do this I have found is by asking the learners to perform the same task a number of times but each time with a different partner. As well as providing variety of interaction, this approach also maximises practice of the language being worked on.\  \ **Having different levels of task
**\ With mixed ability classes I prepare an easy, medium, and difficult version of the same task so students of different levels can interact together at a level appropriate to the language level. For example, after some listening practice students with different tasks can tell each other what they have found out.\  \ **Providing a reason to interact
**\ I use tasks that actively provide the learners with a reason to speak and listen. Information gap activities are a good example of these (and these can be used repetitively if designed carefully) and students generally enjoy doing them. Using project work is another good example of a motivating and collaborative approach that promotes both realistic language use and interaction.' Summary ------- ### Route map for teaching speaking **Pre-speaking:** mini tasks (to focus on the topic and engage learners' knowledge and opinions, to introduce the vocabulary associated with the topic)\ Depending on the level of the learners and the difficulty of the speaking target task, more or fewer pre-speaking activities will be used. - Introduction and lead-in, e.g. get the learners interested in the topic, personalise the topic,... - Pre-tasks / mini tasks, e.g. matching task on useful vocabulary for talking about the topic, sorting task on useful phrases to manage speaking in the target task (e.g. it's your turn),... **While-speaking:** target task (task -- planning a report -- reporting back) - Task: Learners complete the speaking task. - Planning a report: Learners discuss what they want to report back to other groups or the whole class - Report: Learners report back to other groups or the whole class. **Post-speaking**\ Form Focus - Focus on and clarify some of the words, chunks, genre-specific features, or grammatical structures used during the speaking or a transcript of a similar discussion. Practice - Practise the language items and text genres clarified in the Form Focus. Task repetition / follow-on task and / or evaluation - Learners repeat the task with another learner/group and/or - Learners do a similar task and/or this time try to include some of the items focused on in the Form Focus. - Learners evaluate the strategies used during task completion, e.g. they discuss/write down what they have learnt from doing the task or want to do differently next time.  Teaching writing ---------------- ### A means of communication or an aid to learning #### Copying to free writing Most writing work falls on a continuum of how much restriction, help and control is offered: Free writing (no restriction) to copying a given text (a lot of restriction).\  \ **Copying**\ Learners note down tables from the board, copy examples from a textbook,...\ **Doing exercises**\ Learners write single words or phrases with limited options and limited opportunities for creativity, e.g. in grammar exercises.\ **Guided writing**\ Learners write longer texts in quite restricted or controlled activities. Samples, model texts, and organisational frameworks are offered. For example, learners study a model letter and then write their own by replacing the personal information contained in the letter with their own.\ **Process writing**\ Learners write what they want to, with help, encouragement and feedback from the teacher and other learners throughout the process of choosing a topic, gathering ideas, organising thoughts, drafting, etc.\ **Free writing**\ Learners write freely without overt guidance, assistance or feedback during the writing process, though a title or task may be set. ### Psycholinguistic basis of writing \'Der Schreibprozess basiert auf automatisierten synaptischen Schaltkreisen, die sich während des Schreibvorgangs beständig modifizieren. Das Schreiben kann als ein zyklisch rekursiver Vorgang aufgefasst werden, wobei die Phasen des Planens, Ordnens, Entwerfens, Überarbeitens und des Reflektierens wiederholt durchlaufen werden. Verfasst der Schreiber beispielsweise ein Beschwerdeschreiben wegen eines beschädigt gelieferten Produkts, so trifft er laufend zahlreiche Entscheidungen über Inhalt, Form, Strategie und der Formulierung: - Er überlegt sich die Schreibabsicht sehr genau und überlegt eine Erfolgversprechende Diskursstrategie: Er möchte ein unbeschädigtes Produkt. - Er entscheidet sich für eine konsequente Strategie bzw. für eine klare Organisationsstruktur, um seine Schreibabsicht erfolgreich umzusetzen. - Er limitiert den Inhalt/Umfang, reaktiviert die formorientierten generischen Muster eines Beschwerdeschreibens (Texthandlungsmuster) und formuliert die Schreibabsichten (vorsprachliche Konzepte) mit Hilfe des mentalen Lexikons adressatengerecht und in einer angemessenen Diktion (*adequacy of vocabulary and syntax*) in der Fremdsprache. - Während der Formulierung muss er den Unterschied zwischen der gesprochenen und der geschriebenen Sprache (*differences between spoken andwritten language*) beständig reflektieren. - Er überwacht die Textproduktion in allen Stadien, reformuliert, ergänzt oder verzichtet auf bereits ausgeführte Gedanken (*monitoring*) und rekurriert beständig auf das bereits Geschriebene. - Er überprüft während und am Ende des Schreibens nochmals die sprachliche Richtigkeit seines Elaborats (Textkohärenz und Textkohäsion, Grammatik und Vokabular). Während des Schreibens werden also sowohl das Themen- bzw. Inhaltswissen (*content knowledge*) als auch das rhetorische Wissen (*discourse knowledge*) interagierend in mehreren Zyklen aktiviert.\' ### Writing on word, sentence, and text level In primary, learners start by writing **single words**, e.g. for a shopping list. They need to come to terms with the fact that one sound can be written in various ways. English shows one of the most complex correspondences between the phonetic sound and the written symbol. Later, learners start producing **sentences** by modifying or completing sentence stems. It\'s only at lower secondary when they start writing longer texts and the focus shifts to the **text level**. For this to be successful, learners need model texts from which they can derive characteristics of the specific **text genre.** A letter of complaint, for example, normally has the following characteristics: - content: concrete, concise, accurate - structure: introduction, outline of the problem, proposed solution, formalities - wording: neutral sentence patterns, polite expressions, formal tone ### Approaches to writing #### Process writing **What is process writing?** The process approach treats all writing as a creative act which requires time and positive feedback to be done well. In process writing, the teacher moves away from being someone who sets students a writing topic and receives the finished product for correction without any intervention in the writing process itself. **What stages are there in a process approach to writing?** Although there are many ways of approaching process writing, it can be broken down into three stages: 1. **Pre-writing** The teacher needs to stimulate students\' creativity, to get them thinking how to approach a writing topic. In this stage, the most important thing is the flow of ideas, and it is not always necessary that students actually produce much (if any) written work. If they do, then the teacher can contribute with advice on how to improve their initial ideas. [Activities:] **Brainstorming** Getting started can be difficult, so students divided into groups quickly produce words and ideas about the writing. **Planning** Students make a plan of the writing before they start. These plans can be compared and discussed in groups before writing takes place. 2. **Focusing ideas** During this stage, students write without much attention to the accuracy of their work or the organisation. The most important feature is meaning. Here, the teacher (or other students) should concentrate on the content of the writing. Is it coherent? Is there anything missing? Anything extra? [Activities:] **Fast writing** The students write quickly on a topic for five to ten minutes without worrying about correct language or punctuation. Writing as quickly as possible, if they cannot think of a word they leave a space or write it in their own language. The important thing is to keep writing. Later this text is revised. **Group compositions** Working together in groups, sharing ideas. This collaborative writing is especially valuable as it involves other skills (speaking in particular.) **Changing viewpoints** A good writing activity to follow a role-play or storytelling activity. Different students choose different points of view and think about /discuss what this character would write in a diary, witness statement, etc. 3. **Evaluating, structuring and editing** Now the writing is adapted to a readership. Students should focus more on form and on producing a finished piece of work. The teacher can help with error correction and give organisational advice. [Activities:] **Ordering** Students take the notes written in one of the pre-writing activities above and organise them. What would come first? Why? Here it is good to tell them to start with information known to the reader before moving onto what the reader does not know. **Self-editing** A good writer must learn how to evaluate their own language - to improve through checking their own text, looking for errors, structure. This way students will become better writers. ### Moving towards real-world writing **'Write letters / emails**\ Think of real people to whom students can write, e.g. Members of Parliament, manufacturing companies, fan clubs, local newspapers, other schools, etc. Send them. Get replies, Write back.\  \ **Write your own newsletter, magazine, blog, etc**\ Class magazine, school magazine, fan newsletter, local news, campaigning on environmental or political issues, etc.\  \ **Advertise (ideas, school events, products, etc)**\ Advertise around the school, around town; send in your ads to local papers.\  \ **Send comments, replies to discussions, reviews, etc to websites**\ There are now a wide number of discussions, message boards and newsgroups specifically for students or for special-interest groups. Many shop and consumer sites invite reader reviews of books, products, events, etc.\  \ **Write questionnaires and then use them out in the street.\ **These can be written in English or in the learners' own language. Write up the results. Publish them!\  \ **Long-term projects**\ These are a good way of integrating writing with other work. The aim could be a file or book at the end.\   Challenges when teaching writing  --------------------------------- ### The main challenges The following is an overview of the various competencies learners need to have in order to successfully write texts.  As becomes obvious from the diverse competences, learners might struggle when they have to write a text in a foreign language. Here are some of the challenges: - Learners feel overwhelmed. - Learners make many mistakes because they don't have the language yet. - Learners are reluctant to rewrite their texts because they've tried their best already. - Learners can't self-correct because their attempts are beyond what they can do. - Learners can\'t provide useful peer feedback. How can we face these challenges? - Set pre-tasks, which give learners the tools (words, phrases, ideas, structures) for the writing. - Provide learners with texts for mining; do a listening/reading with a form focus before you set the writing task. - Teach learners how to take useful chunks out of a given text and use them for writing. - Help less able learners organise the process of writing (cf. example here). - Scaffold learners' emergent language and don't expect them to self-correct things they can't know yet. - Teach learners how to make good use of translation machines. Summary ------- ### Route map for teaching writing **Pre-writing:** mini tasks (to focus on the topic and engage learners' knowledge and opinions, to introduce the vocabulary asssociated with the topic)\ Depending on the level of the learners and the difficulty of the speakin target task, more or fewer pre-speaking activities will be used. - Introduction and lead-in, e.g. get the learners interested in the topic, personalise the topic, \... - Pre-tasks / mini tasks, e.g. matching task on useful vocabulary, sorting task on useful phrases or genre-specific text features,... - State the aim, audience and genre of the text learners will be writing. - Discuss possible criteria which can later be used for self-evaluation and evaluation by the teacher. **While-writing:** target task (task -- planning a report -- reporting back) - Learners complete the writing task: - Generating ideas - Focusing: Choosing ideas - Drafting: Writing drafts - Rewriting - Editing **Post-writing**\ Form Focus (This can also be included in the drafting and editing phase above.) - Focus on and clarify some of the words, chunks, genre-specific features, or grammatical structures used in the writing **Practice** - Practise the language items and text genres clarified in the Form Focus. - **Task repetition / follow-on task and / or evaluation** - As learner texts need an audience, a writing is normally followed by a reading: Learners complete a task which requires them to read other learners' texts. Ensure learners want to read other learners\' texts (purpose for reading). In real life: Who would read this kind of text? Can you mimic this in the classroom? Ensure there's an information-gap between the writer and the reader. - Learners evaluate the strategies used during task completion, e.g. they discuss/write down what they have learnt from doing the task or want to do differently next time. Teaching lexis ============== - Has a good understanding of many key principles and techniques for vocabulary teaching and learning (lexis in Nation's four strands, distributed practice and TPR). - Lesson plans demonstrate a profound analysis of course book materials and apply a number of techniques for teaching vocabulary activities and lessons. Lexis und Grammatik unterrichten -------------------------------- Wie lernt man Grammatik und Lexis? ---------------------------------- ### Sprache(n) im Fokus Im Bereich Wortschatz und Grammatik orientieren sich viele Lehrpersonen an den Lehrmitteln. Die Lernangebote in den Lehrmitteln sind allerdings nicht verbindlich, weshalb diese nicht als heimliche Lehrpläne missbraucht werden sollen. Lehrmittel bieten Lernumgebungen an, damit Schüler\*innen die nötigen Kompetenzen erwerben können. Verbindliche Aussagen zu den zu erwerbenden Kompetenzen im Bereich Wortschatz und Grammatik finden Sie auf den folgenden Seiten im Lehrplan: LP21 ### Wie wir Grammatik lernen Dokument von KW 13 in Mikroplanung SoL - Paying deliberate attention to features of language in use can help learners to notice the gap between their own performance in the target language and the performance of proficient users of the language. - Noticing can give salience to a feature, so that it becomes more noticeable in future input, so contributing to the learner\'s psychological readiness to acquire that feature. - The main objective is to help learners to notice for themselves how language is typically used so that they will note the gaps and \'achieve learning readiness\' \[as well as independence from the teacher and teaching materials\]. - The first procedures are usually experiential rather than analytical and aim to involve the learners in affective interaction with a potentially engaging text. \[That is, learners read a text, and respond with their own views and opinions before studying the language in the text or answering comprehension type questions.\] - Learners are later encouraged to focus on a particular feature of the text, identify instances of the feature, make discoveries and articulate generalizations about its use.\' ### Wie wir Lexis lernen Um in der Fremdsprache gut zurechtzukommen, braucht es einen grossen Wortschatz. Um alltägliche Konversationen im Englisch zu verstehen, muss man ungefähr 6\'000 - 7\'000 Wortfamilien kennen, und zwar die häufigsten Wortfamilien. 8\'000-9\'000 Wortfamilien decken ca. 98% aller Wörter in einem Text ab. Dabei handelt es sich um Wortfamilien, nicht um einzelne Wörter! **Teaching grammar** - Has as a good understanding of many principles and techniques for grammar teaching and learning. (Language awareness, grammar in Nation's four strands, Inductive and deductive approaches to teaching grammar, Guided discovery activities, Final round-up, Timelines, Checking exercises, Re- ceptive grammar exercise types (Grammar interpretation, choose the correct form, correct and explain), Holistic exercise types (Grammaticization, Progressive deletion, Holistic gap-filling, Dictogloss), Grammaring up tasks. - Lesson plans demonstrate a profound analysis of course book materials and apply a number of techniques for teaching grammar, and an awareness of different lesson shapes to support learners and their learning. **Planning a sequence of three lessons** - Is able to draw on selected theories of language learning and relevant research findings to reflect on their ideas about teaching. - Has a basic understanding of many of the key language-learning concepts, and often uses many of the key terms to justify own lesson plans. - Lesson plans demonstrate some grasp of the connection between theories and concepts and student learning. - Uses understanding of key principles to plan reasonably detailed systems and skills lessons according to a given template with some awareness of learners' needs and difficulties and some linking of activities within one/more lessons.