ENGL-PRELIM-REVIEWER.docx

**SENTENCE STRUCTURE** \- The Collins Dictionary defines sentence structure as "***the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences***". In other words, the sentence structure defines how a sentence will look and sound. **Sentence Structure**- When we talk about sentence structure, we're essent...

**SENTENCE STRUCTURE** \- The Collins Dictionary defines sentence structure as "***the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences***". In other words, the sentence structure defines how a sentence will look and sound. **Sentence Structure**- When we talk about sentence structure, we're essentially looking at how words come together to form a complete thought. - **Subject**: This is the **"who" or "what"** of the sentence. It's usually a noun (like "dog" or "Alice"). - **Verb:** The action word, It tells us what the subject is doing **(e.g., "runs" or "sings").** - **Object:** The receiver of the action. It answers **"whom" or "what"** **(e.g., "ball" or "song").** - **Together:** "Alice (subject) sings (verb) a beautiful song (object)." **PHRASE** - ***used to build a sentence***, modify parts of a sentence, or provide more information. - A phrase is like a word team. It works together but can't play solo. - Used to build sentences or give extra details. - **What it is:** A group of words. - **Purpose:** Adds detail or information to a sentence. - Example: "Under the bright moon" (adds info but can't stand alone). - "under the table" (gives more information but can't be a sentence on its own). **CLAUSE** - that has a ***subject*** and a ***verb***. may or ***may not be able to stand alone.*** - *A clause is a sentence building block.* - *Has a subject (who/what) and a verb (action).* - *Some can stand alone, like "She sings." Others need friends.* - ***What it is:** A group of words with a subject and a verb.* - ***Purpose:** Can form a complete sentence or be part of one.* - *Example: "When the sun rises" (needs more to be complete).* - *"She runs." (This can stand alone as a sentence) or "because she runs" (This can't stand alone but adds to a sentence).* ***Key Difference*** ***Phrase:** Can't be a sentence by itself.* ***Clause:** Can sometimes be a sentence by itself.* **SENTENCE** - consists of ***at least a subject and a predicate***. **Basic Parts of a Sentence** - **A sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate.** - **The subject can be a noun/noun phrase or a pronoun/pronoun phrase that does the action.** - **The verb is the action performed by the particular subject in the sentence. It is part of the complete predicate.** - **Verb: It tells us what the subject is doing.** - **It's part of the complete predicate.** - **Example: "runs," "sings," or "jumps."** - **Predicate: The predicate includes the verb and everything else that goes with it.** - **It completes the sentence.** - **Example: "sings beautifully" or "jumps over the fence."**  **COMPONENTS OF A SENTENCE:** - **Subject** - **Verb** - **Object** - **Complement** - **Adjunct** **SUBJECT** - ***person***, ***place***, or ***thing*** that is performing the action of the sentence. The **simple subject** usually contains a noun or pronoun and can include modifying words, phrases, or clauses. Examples 1. **The child** kept crying. 2. **Our school** **team** won the match. 3. **John** is in the eighth grade. A subject takes the first place in most cases, especially in declarative or assertive sentences. **VERBS** - is a word that ***describes what the subject of a sentence is doing***. Verbs can indicate (physical or mental) actions, occurrences, and states of being. Examples. 1. Neena is **writing** a letter. 2. It **was** too dark. 3. I **feel** tired. 4. Marco **smiled**. **OBJECT** - is a ***noun or pronoun that receives the action*** done by the subject. - **Direct Object** - *noun or pronoun **receives the action directly***. [ ] ***'what'***. - **Indirect Object** - *noun or pronoun **that is a secondary object***. *[']**whom'***. answers the questions "to what or for what." **COMPLEMENT** - ***word or word group*** that completes the predicate in a sentence. - **Subject Complement** - that expresses the quality, identity, or ***condition of the subject**[.]* - provides additional information about the subject itself. - It usually follows a linking verb (such as "is," "became," "seems," etc.). *Example Sentence:* "The sky is blue." - In this sentence, "blue" is the subject complement. It describes the quality (color) of the subject ("the sky"). - **Object Complement** - that expresses the quality, identity, or ***condition of an object**.* - It follows and modifies the direct object. *Example Sentence:* "They elected him president." - *Here, "president" is the object complement. It tells us what he became as a result of the action (being elected).* **ADJUNCT**- An adjunct is a **word, phrase, or clause** ***that gives more information about an action***, an ***event***, a ***quality***. These words can include ***adverbs and adverb clauses***. *Adverb-- describe the verb, adjective and another adverb. Eg. Usually may --ly sa huli.* *Adjective-- describe* Examples: - **Yesterday**, we met at the park. - He is **very** tired. - **Due to his ill-health**, he could not come home for Christmas. - "After the rain stopped, we went for a walk." - In this sentence, "After the rain stopped" is an adverbial clause that provides information about the time of the action (going for a walk). - "She sings beautifully." - The adverb "beautifully" modifies the verb "sings," describing how she sings. - "Despite feeling nervous, he delivered a flawless speech." - The phrase "Despite feeling nervous" acts as an adverbial clause, indicating a contrast between his nervousness and the quality of his speech. \* **Transitive verb** -- An action that have a direct object to **receive that action** **BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS** **SUBJECT -- INTRANSITIVE VERB (S-IV)** **SUBJECT -- TRANSITIVE VERB -- DIRECT OBJECT** **(S-TV-DO)**  **SUBJECT--TRANSITIVE VERB --INDIRECT OBJECT-DIRECT OBJECT (S-TV-IO-DO)** **SUBJECT--TRANSITIVE VERB --DIRECT OBJECT-OBJECT COMPLEMENT (S-TV-DO-OC)**  **SUBJECT -- LINKING VERB -- SUBJECT COMPLEMENT (S-LV-C)**  **(S-LV-PN) (Predicate Nominative)** **A predicate nominative** -- identifies or refers to the subject of a linking verb. It may be a noun, a pronoun or a word group that functions as a noun. - ***Noun** -- names a person, place, thing or idea* - ***Pronoun** -- replaces a noun* Example: - The Tamaraw building is the oldest building on campus. - The result was chaos. - Evelyn is the team leader **(S-LV-PA) (Predicate Adjective)** **A predicate adjective** -- is a adjective that is the predicate and modifies the subject of a linking verb - The simplest predicate adjective definition is that it describes or modifies the subject of a sentence *Example Sentence:* The landscape was yellow, green, and blue. Yellow, green, blue -- tells us what kind of landscape there was *Example Sentence:* Aleena was elated **WEEK 3** **Sentence**- is a group of words containing a subject, a predicate, and a complete thought. - **What it is:** A group of words. **Contains:** - **Subject:** Who or what the sentence is about. - **Predicate:** What the subject is doing or what is being said about the subject. - **Complete Thought:** It makes sense on its own. - It begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop. - **Independent clause**- is a complete sentence. - **Dependent clause**- contains a subject and verb, but NO complete thought. - **Structure**: Starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (period). *Example Sentence:* "The cat sleeps." - Subject: "The cat" - Predicate: "sleeps" - Complete Thought: It tells us something about the cat. **Example of Clauses** **Independent Clause** - A group of words with a subject and a verb that can stand alone as a complete sentence. - Poseidon is the god of the seas. - The Parthenon was the sanctuary of the goddess Athena. **Dependent Clause** - A group of words with a subject and a verb that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. It needs an independent clause to make sense. - Although Zeus was respected as the chief of the gods - Because Athena was also the goddess of peace **Key Difference** - **Independent Clause**: Can be a sentence on its own. - **Dependent Clause**: Cannot be a sentence on its own; it depends on an independent clause to complete the thought. - **No Commas:** When separating two compound elements in a simple sentence, don't use commas. - **Complete Thoughts**: Each clause in a compound sentence should be able to stand alone as a complete sentence. - Using **"However"** is used to show contrast or contradiction between two ideas. - **Separate sentences:** The weather was terrible. **However**, we decided to go hiking. - **Single sentence with a semicolon:** The weather was terrible; **however**, we decided to go hiking. - Using **"Therefore"** is used to show cause and effect. - **Separate sentences:** She studied hard for the exam. Therefore, she passed with flying colors. - **Single sentence with semicolon:** She studied hard for the exam; therefore, she passed with flying colors. - **Punctuation Tips -** When using these adverbs to connect two independent clauses in a single sentence, use a semicolon before the adverb and a comma after it. When starting a new sentence with these adverbs, follow them with a comma. **Common Mistakes** **Incorrect:** She was tired, however, she continued working. **Correct:** She was tired; however, she continued working. **Why Use a Semicolon?** - **Clarity: It makes the sentence clearer by indicating a stronger separation than a comma but a closer connection than a period.** - **Correctness: It follows grammatical rules for connecting independent clauses with conjunctive adverbs.** **Example:** - **Without Semicolon: She was tired, however, she continued working. (This is incorrect because it creates a comma splice.)** - **With Semicolon: She was tired; however, she continued working. (This is correct and clearly shows the contrast between the two clauses.)** - **Complex sentence- one dependent clause (headed by a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun) joined to an independent clause.** - **Dependent Clause: Begins with a subordinating conjunction (like "because," "although," "since") or a relative pronoun (like "who," "which," "that").** - **Independent Clause: Can stand alone as a complete sentence.** **Examples:** - **Subordinating Conjunction: "Although it was raining, we went for a walk."** - **Dependent Clause: "Although it was raining"** - **Independent Clause: "we went for a walk"** **PUNCTUATION PATTERN:** **Key Points** - **Flexibility: The dependent clause can come at the beginning or the end of the sentence.** - **Punctuation: When the dependent clause comes first, use a comma to separate it from the independent clause. When the independent clause comes first, no comma is needed.** **PUNCTUATION PATTERN:** **Independent clause, nonessential dependent clause, continuation of the IC.**  **A nonessential dependent clause (also known as a** **nonrestrictive clause) adds extra information to a** **sentence but is not crucial to its meaning. If you remove it, the sentence still makes sense. These clauses are usually set off by commas.** **How to Use Nonessential Dependent Clauses** - **Identify the Clause** - **Use Commas: Place commas before and after the nonessential clause to indicate that it is an aside.** **Nonessential Clause:** - **Sentence: My brother, who lives in Canada, is visiting us next week.** - **Explanation: "who lives in Canada" is extra information. If you remove it, the sentence still makes sense: "My brother is visiting us next week.** **Essential Clause (for comparison):** **Sentence: The students who study hard will pass the exam.** **Explanation: "who study hard" is essential because it specifies which students will pass. Removing it changes the meaning of the sentence.** **KINDS OF SENTENCES** **SIMPLE SENTENCE** - ***one independent clause*.**  Example: **Simple Sentence**: "The nurse helps patients." **Subject**: "The nurse" **Verb**: "helps" **Complete Thought:** It tells us what the nurse does. *Examples:* - Tom reads novels. - Tom reads newspapers. - Tom reads novels and newspapers. (compound direct - object) - Tom reads and enjoys novels. (compound verb) - Tom and Harry read novels. (compound subject) - Tom and Harry read and enjoy novels and newspapers. (compound subject, verb, direct object) - Incorrect: "The nurse, and the doctor help patients." - Correct: "The nurse and the doctor help patients." **COMPOUND SENTENCE** - has ***two independent clauses*** joined by - **A.) a coordinating conjunction,** ***(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)*** Ex: Tom reads novels, **but** Jack reads comics. - **B.) a conjunctive adverb, or *(however, therefore, moreover, consequently,)*** Ex: Tom reads novels; **however**, Jack reads comics. - **C.) a semicolon.** Ex: Tom reads novels; his friend reads comics. **COMPLEX SENTENCE** - has ***one dependent clause*** (***headed by a subordinating conjunction*** or a relative pronoun) joined to an independent clause. **COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE** - has ***two independent clauses joined*** to one or more dependent clauses. - **Dependent clause, independent clause 1; independent clause 2.**  - **Independent clause 1 dependent clause, coordinating conjunction independent clause 2.** **LISTENING** \- is the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to a spoken and/or non-verbal message. - International Reading Association - **Receiving:** This is when you hear or see the message. It could be someone talking to you or using body language. - **Constructing Meaning**: This is when you think about what the message means. You try to understand the words and actions. - **Responding**: This is when you react to the message. You might answer back, nod, or show some other response. **TYPES OF LISTENING** **APPRECIATIVE LISTENING** - ***listening for pleasure and enjoyment*** **EMPATHIC LISTENING** - listening to provide ***emotional support for the speaker***, **COMPREHENSIVE/ACTIVE LISTENING** - listening to ***understand the message of a speaker***, **CRITICAL/ANALYTICAL LISTENING** - ***challenges the speaker's message*** by evaluating ***its accuracy*** and ***meaningfulness***, and utility **LEVEL OF LISTENING**  **VERBS** **3 BASIC TYPES OF VERBS:** - **Action verbs** - **Linking verbs** - **Auxiliary verbs, sometimes called helping** **ACTION VERBS -** express action by describing the behavior of a person, place, or thing. They may describe physical or mental actions. Ex: John thinks about moving to Alaska every day. Add "S" on the end of a verb in present tense to agree with the singular "he," "she," or "it" subject. This sentence is in the present tense. John is a "he" subject, so the verb, "sit" must add "s" to agree with "he." This sentence also expresses repeated action. *To identify a word as an action verb, ask yourself: "Does this word express something I can do?"* **LINKING VERBS** - ***link the subject (noun phrase)*** of the sentence with the rest of the sentence. Many linking verbs are forms of ***"to be."*** - ***are special verbs that connect the subject of a sentence to more information about the subject. They don't show action like "run" or "jump." Instead, they describe what the subject is or how it feels.*** *Ex:* *James is a nice person.* *The new cat could be a calico.* - ***Note: in the two example sentences the linking verb connects the subject to its definition. In the first sentence, Jane is defined as a nice person; in the second sentence, the new cat is identified as a possible calico.*** **AUXILIARY VERBS** - sometimes ***called helping verbs***, act as ***helpers to other verbs***. They appear in front of action verbs and linking verbs. - Auxiliary verbs, or helping verbs, assist the main verb in a sentence to form different tenses, moods, or voices. They are placed before the main verb. - Auxiliary verbs include forms of "to be" (am, is, are, was, were), "to have" (have, has, had), and "to do" (do, does, did), among others. They are essential for constructing complex verb forms and adding nuance to sentences Ex: The Girl Scouts are meeting after school today. **Linking verbs** ***connect a noun or an adjective*** to the subject of the sentence to describe it. **Auxiliary verbs** ***attach to other verbs*** to add tense, mood, voice, or modality. For example: - She is running. ("**is**" is the auxiliary verb helping the main verb "running") - They have finished their homework. ("**have**" is the auxiliary verb helping the main verb "finished") **SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT**     **LISTENING: NOTE-TAKING** \- involves ***active listening***, as well as ***connecting*** and ***relating information to ideas*** you already know. **Active Listening**: Paying close attention to what's being said. **Connecting Ideas**: Relating new information to what you already know. **Asking Questions:** Looking for answers to any questions that come up while you're learning. Note-taking can help you to... improve your understanding by making you convert difficult ideas into your own words; prepare for writing fuller, better-connected arguments in your essays; be more focused and time-efficient in your exam revision period; and assess your progress as you study. **STRATEGIES TO INCREASE COMPREHENSION AND IMPROVE NOTE-TAKING** **Use symbols and abbreviations.\'** \- shorten words by leaving out vowels or other letters (also known as ***"word*** ***truncation"***)  Some ways of abbreviating are: - leaving out most articles and conjunctions (the, a, and, but) - shorten words by leaving out vowels or other letters (also known as "word truncation") - using abbreviations and symbols for commonly used words and phrases **Use concept maps and diagrams.** **Sketchnoting** \- also commonly ***referred to as visual notetaking*** \- is the ***creative and graphic process*** **Mapping Method**- This approach allows note-takers to ***organize thoughts*** ***into branched topics or subjects.***    *[The primary goal of notetaking is to actively engage with the material being presented, process and retain information, and develop a deeper understanding of the subject matter.]* **MOODS OF VERB** \- indicates ***the speaker's attitude*** toward a statement as he states it. - **INDICATIVE MOOD** - **IMPERATIVE MOOD** - **SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD** **INDICATIVE MOOD** - is for ***statements of fact***, opinion, or strong probability. **IMPERATIVE MOOD** - is ***for commands*** and ***requests*** made directly. **SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD** -- ***expresses wishes***, ***hypotheticals***, or ***recommendations***. \- is ***used to talk about actions*** or states that are in doubt or not factual. **PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE FORM** \- formed with the base form of a verb \- noun clauses beginning with that \- Expresses wishes, hypotheticals, or recommendations. \- In English, it often involves using the base form of the verb, regardless of the subject. This is why you might see "have" instead of "has" in certain sentences. Ex: **Why Use "Have" as the Verb** In the present subjunctive, the verb "have" is used in its base form to maintain the subjunctive mood, which is different from the indicative mood (used for stating facts). This form is ***used to express something that is desired, suggested, or demanded, rather than something that is actually happening***. **Request:** "I ask that he have the report ready by tomorrow." - Here, "**have**" is used instead of "has" to indicate a request. **Demand**: "The manager insists that she have all the documents completed." - "**Have**" is used to express a demand. **Suggestion**: "It is recommended that everyone have their ID cards." - In this case, "**have**" is used to convey a suggestion. **PAST SUBJUNCTIVE FORM** \- formed with the ***past form of a verb*** that describes a ***state***, ***condition***, or ***habit***. \- used to talk about ***hypothetical*** or ***imaginary situations***. \- with the verb ***be***, the form ***were***(***not was***) is usually ***used for all subjects***. \- In English, the past subjunctive mood is used to express wishes or hypothetical situations that are contrary to reality. When expressing an unfulfilled desire, "could" is often used to indicate something that was possible but did not happen. This helps convey a sense of regret or longing for a different outcome. Ex:  **Why Use "Could" in the Past Subjunctive** "**Could**" is the past tense of "can," and in the past subjunctive, it is used to express a hypothetical ability or possibility that did not occur. This usage helps to emphasize that the desired action or situation was not realized. Examples: - **Wish for a different past outcome:** "I wish I could have attended the concert last night." Here, "could" indicates a past ability that was not realized. - **Regret about a missed opportunity:** "She wishes she could have traveled more when she was younger." - **Desire for an alternative past scenario:** "They wish they could have spent more time with their grandparents." **Meaning of "Would" in the Past Subjunctive** - "Would" is used to describe hypothetical or imagined situations, often those that are unlikely or impossible. It can also express a characteristic or habitual action in the past. - **Examples of "Would"** 1. **Hypothetical Situation**: "If I were rich, I **would** travel the world." - This sentence imagines a situation that is not true (the speaker is not rich). 2. **Unreal Condition**: "If she had known about the meeting, she **would** have attended." - This expresses a past condition that did not happen. 3. **Habitual Action**: "When we were kids, we **would** play outside every day." - Here, "would" describes a repeated action in the past.  **VOICES OF VERB** **VOICE** - refers to the form of a verb that indicates when a ***grammatical subject performs the action*** or is ***the receiver of the action***. **ACTIVE VOICE** - The subject of the sentence is the ***one doing the action***. Ex:  **PASSIVE VOICE** - The subject of the sentence is ***being acted upon***. The actor moves to the ***end of the sentence with by or drops*** off altogether. \- the subject receives the action. \- The person or thing doing the action (the actor) is either mentioned at the end of the sentence with "by" or left out if it's not important or unknown. Ex:   **Listening Comprehension:** **IMPLICATION VS INFERENCE** **REMEMBER!** *[Listening is NOT a single skill.]* **In reality, it makes more sense to think of listening as related skill sets:** **PASSIVE LISTENING or APPRECIATIVE LISTENING** -- oral reading -- Theater -- music **DISCRIMINATIVE LISTENING** -- distinguishing sounds -- Phonemes -- non-verbal cues **INFORMATIONAL or PRECISE LISTENING** -- finding details -- Retelling -- sequencing **STRATEGIC LISTENING** -- finding the main idea -- Summarizing -- inferring **CRITICAL LISTENING** -- analyzing -- Synthesizing -- evaluating