English Grammar and Sentence Structure Guide PDF

Lesson One : Parts of Speech Categorizing words as parts of speech is based on two principles. First, a word does not become a part of speech until it is written or spoken in a sentence. Once a word is used in a sentence, this first principle is important because a word can function as more...

Lesson One : Parts of Speech Categorizing words as parts of speech is based on two principles. First, a word does not become a part of speech until it is written or spoken in a sentence. Once a word is used in a sentence, this first principle is important because a word can function as more than one part of speech, depending where it is located and how it is used in the sentence. For example, the word reading can be used as different parts of speech:  Reading is an enjoyable pastime. (Noun)  She has been reading since she was three. (Verb)  The reading assignment took me two hours. (Adjective) The second principle identifies words as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections--the traditional classes--on the basis of similar characteristics. The characteristic of a word is important because it is not just one but several of these characteristics that identify a word as a specific part of speech. Verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs are sometimes called vocabulary words because they make up more than ninety-nine per-cent of all words listed in the dictionary.Prepositions and conjunctions ,often named, function words, connect and relate vocabulary words and pronouns. 1.Nouns Once a word is used in a sentence, it becomes a part of speech. As with other parts of speech, words are classified as nouns if they share similar characteristics. Words are classified as nouns based on four similar characteristics. The first characteristic of many nouns is that they may be words that name a person, animal, place, substance, thing, quality or idea..  My brother will graduate from college next month.  Our car I was stolen in Los Angeles.  Honesty is important in a relationship. Another characteristic of nouns is that they can have a plural form. A word with an -s or -es plural ending may be a noun. Boys, cats, roses, cities, gases, boxes, and months are examples of plural nouns. However, some nouns become plurals by changing their spelling. For example, man becomes men, child becomes children, and mouse becomes mice. Then there are some nouns, such as " sheep or deer" that do not change for both their singular and plural form. The next characteristic of nouns is that they are often easily identified because determiners or noun indicators signal them in a sentence. The words "a, an, and the" are determiners or noun indicators 1 often placed before a noun in a sentence. But, determiners or noun indicators do not always come just before a noun; they may be separated from a noun by other words.  The best friend is the one who is an honest, loyal person.  The boys had eaten all the food in the kitchen.  A new car is used in an old fifties' setting to suggest the manufacturer's old-fashioned quality. The final similar characteristic is that many nouns have the same word endings or suffixes.  "One who" ( or, er, ard,yer,an,ant,ent,ate,eer,ier,ist..). E.g. actor, baker, laggard, lawyer, artisan, contestant, dependent, graduate, engineer, cashier, typist.  "One who is" ( ee,ite,ive).E.g. devotee, contrite, fugitive  "State, condition, quality, act" ( hood, dom, ness, ship ,tude, age, ance,ancy, cy,ence, ency, ion, ism, ity, ment, mony, y, ure..) E.g. Motherhood, freedom, happiness, friendship, attitude, bondage, allowance, abundancy, diplomacy, influence, impotency, invasion, criticism, variety, establishment, matrimony, beauty,venture )  "Action or process" ( ation, tion ).E.g. creation, investigation 1.1.Types of Nouns 1.1.1. Concrete or Common Nouns A concrete or common noun is the name given to a physical thing- something that can be seen or touched.It refers to no particular person, animal, place, or thing, but to any at all. E.g. book – hair- jewel- sailor- letter- zoo- key- day- event- needle- language-magazine …  Common nouns are not capitalized. 1.1.2.Proper Nouns A proper noun is the name of a person,a place,or a particular thing or institution. It is always capitalized. E.g. Richard ( People) – Prince Edward –Mr.Bell ( Titles) –London –Mount Everest ( Places) – The British Broadcasting Corporation –Buckingham Palace ( Building and institution). 1.1.3.Abstract Nouns An abstract noun is a vague word. It expresses things that can't be observed by the senses. It refers to a quality, an idea, a state of mind, an occasion, a feeling, or a time. E.g. jealousy – anger- patience- peace-excellence-beauty-sympathy- promise-luck-fear- courage-time- creativity- justice- freedom… 1.1.4.Collective Nouns Collective nouns are nouns that refer to a group of objects or people. Although they represent a number of things, they are singular words as they can be made plural. 2 E.g. class / classes – collection / collections – crowd / crowds – team /teams – herd / herds. 1.1.5.Compound Nouns A compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. It is usually made up of two nouns, or an adjective and a noun. E.g. blackboard - aftermath- jellyfish- eyelid- floodlight- overcoat- crossroad-headache-newspaper- airport-birthday… 1.1.6. Countable / Uncountable Nouns Nouns that can be counted are called countable nouns. They can be singular or plural in forms. E.g. an exam- a house - my car – knife… / exams- houses – cars- knives… Uncountable or non-countable nouns cannot be counted. They are called mass nouns. They are used with singular verbs.  Non-countable nouns are often names of liquids or gases. E.g water, air, oil, oxygen.  They often refer to a whole or a mass made up of small particles or items. E.g.sugar – expensive clothing –salt- money –white sand…  They are often weather phenomena,fields of study,raw materials,abstractions,or sports and pastimes. E.g.rain,economics,gold,respect,soccer,cards  The following non-countable nouns are often mistakenly used as plural countable nouns Incorrect: furnitures – advices- homeworks-equipments-informations Correct :furniture –advice- homework-equipment-information 2.Pronouns A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun. The pronoun, like the noun, is used in the common sentence patterns as subject, object of a verb, indirect object, object of a verbal, object of a preposition, subjective complement, and so forth. Pronouns may be classified as personal, intensive, reflexive, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, indefinite, and reciprocal. 2.1. Types of Pronouns. 2.1.1. Personal pronouns show person; that is, they, indicate whether the pronoun stands for the person speaking, the first person; the person spoken to, the second person; or the person spoken of, the third person. Personal pronouns also have number and case. 2.1.2. Intensive and reflexive pronouns have the same forms. They are formed by adding -self or - selves (plural form) to certain personal pronouns. SINGULAR: myself – yourself- himself- herself itself PLURAL: ourselves – themselves - ourselves  The intensive pronoun usually comes after the word it stands for and emphasizes that word. ! 3 E.g. The president himself met the reporters. ! I myself gave him the directions. ! I wrote to the principal himself.  The reflexive pronoun points the action back toward the subject. It may function as a subjective complement, direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition, object of a gerund, and so forth. OBJECT OF PREPOSITION: She bought the dress for herself. INDIRECT OBJECT: She bought herself a new dress. SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT: The coach was not himself. DIRECT OBJECT: Do you consider yourself his friend? 2.1.3. Demonstrative pronouns are used only in the third person, to point out particular persons, places, or things. SINGULAR: this, that , PLURAL: these, those E.g. This is my party. These are her pencils. That is Jim's shirt. Those are good apples.  When these pronouns modify nouns, they are demonstrative adjectives. E.g. This party is fun. These shoes are too expensive. That shirt is torn. Those papers arc soiled. 2.1.4.Relative pronouns relate subordinate clauses to main clauses. The relative pronouns are who, which, and that. E.g. I am the person who called earlier today. The door that I closed last night is now open. The boy whose knife I found lived across the street. Here is the painter whom we met last sununer.  Notice that who, whose, and whom are used to refer to people, and that is used to refer to things. 2.1.5. Interrogative pronouns introduce question sentences. The interrogative pronouns are who, whose, whom, which, and what. Who is in the cellar? What is the date of his birth? 2.1.6. Indefinite pronouns refer to particular persons, places, or things in a vague and general manner. E.g. Somebody took the key to the storeroom - Each of the teachers receives a complimentary copy- Nobody has his or her ticket.  Most indefinite pronouns function as singulars: another-anybody- anyone -anything –each- either everybody- everyone -neither -nobody no one- one -somebody -someone -something.  Some indefinite pronouns have a plural meaning only: both –few-many -several.Other indefinite pronouns do not clearly express either a singular or plural meaning: all -any -none - some 7. Reciprocal pronouns express a mutual relationship. There are two reciprocal pronouns: each other and one another. 4 E.g. My brother and I help each other with our homework. To keep their spirits up, the trapped miners shouted frequently to one another. 3. Adjectives Adjectives are words that modify nouns and pronouns. They describe or tell something about the nouns they modify. Most adjectives answer the questions: What kind? Which one? and How many? E.g. happy girl - his desk - that boy - five books - many people - first class 1. Adjectives answering the question What kind? are descriptive. They tell the quality, kind or condition of the nouns they modify. E.g. red boat - tired children - heavy load - waving flag - blue water 2. Adjectives answering the question Which one? narrow or restrict the meaning of the modifier.  Possessive adjectives are possessive pronouns or possessive nouns used to restrict the ownership of a noun. E.g. my boat -our children -his load -someone’s flag- Maria’s car.  Demostrative adjectives point out a noun or a pronoun that is within reach or sight. E.g. this dress -these toys- that suitcase - those papers.  Interrogative adjectives introduce direct or indirect questions. The direct question asks for an answer and ends in a question mark. The indirect question is a sentence constructed so that it indirectly tells the question someone else asked, but the indirect question ends in a period. E.g. INDIRECT: He asked which tools he should take. INDIRECT: He wondered what tools he should take. INDIRECT: She asked whose tools were lying on the floor. DIRECT: Which tools should he take? DIRECT: What tools are needed?  Relative adjectives introduce clauses and modify the noun that follows. E.g.The girl whose dress was torn is Jane Smith- Take whatever supplies you can carry- I will buy whichever car is available. 3. Adjectives answering the question How many? are words that indicate a number to modify or describe the noun or pronouns. E.g. some people- each pet -three women -few answers - third grade Ž  Numerical adjectives use cardinal numbers to modify a noun or pronoun. E.g. four waiters six papers one shoe ten men Some numerical adjectives use ordinal numbers to modify a noun or pronoun. E.g. first class -twentieth century -second place - Twelfth Night  Ž Indefinite adjectives use indefinite pronouns to designate the indefinite number of a noun or pronoun. E.g. some apples -each spoon -many people-few answers. 5  4.Adverbs Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Adverbs answer the questions How? Where? When? and How much? MODIFYING VERBS: They did their work (v) quickly ( adv).- He replied ( v) angrily(adv). MODIFYING ADJECTIVES: They were (v) somewhat (adv) happy Adverbs that answer the How? question are concerned with manner or way. E.g. She ran the race quickly. (adverb) - He yelled loudly. (adverb) Adverbs that answer the Where? question show location. E.g. They drove downtown. (adverb) She climbed upstairs. (adverb) - He stayed behind. (adverb) Adverbs that answer the When? question indicate time. E.g. The ship sailed yesterday. (adverb) - I expect an answer soon. (adverb) Those adverbs that answer the How much? question express degree. E.g.She is entirely correct. (adverb)- He was somewhat happy. (adverb) Most words ending in –ly- are Adverbs. E.g. He completed the task skillfully. (adverb) - She answered him courteously. (adverb). However, there are a few exceptions. E.g. The house provided a lovely view of the valley. (adjective) Your goblin mask is ugly. (adjective). 5.Prepositions A preposition is a word or words that function as a connective. The preposition connects its object(s) to some other word(s) in the sentence.  A preposition and its object(s)--usually a noun or pronoun--with its modifiers make up a prepositional phrase. E.g. Juan played against Aiden and won the game.( Prep.Obj / Prepositional phrase) All of his friends cheered for him. (.( Prep.Obj / Prepositional phrase)  Some of the most common prepositions are the following: about –above- across -after – against- among- around –before- behind- below -beneath -beside –between- beyond- but- by- despite- down- for- from -in –into- like –near- of- off- on- over- past- to- toward- under- until- upon- with  Some prepositions are composed of more than one word and are made up from other parts of speech: according to -ahead of -along with -as far as- as well as- aside from -back of- because of- in spite of- instead of- in front of- together with  Caution: Do not confuse adverbs with prepositions. E.g. I went across slowly. (without an object == adverb) I went across the field. (with an object == preposition) We walked behind silently. (without an object == adverb) 6  We walked behind the mall. (with an object == preposition) 6.Conjunctions A conjunction is a word that connects and shows a relationship between words, phrases, or clauses.  A phrase is two or more words acting as a part of speech. E.g. in the house (prepositional phrase)  A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb. An independent clause can stand by itself as a complete sentence. A dependent clause cannot stand by itself as a complete sentence E.g. Anita wants a new car. ( S –V) (independent clause). Because Anita wants a new car ( S-V) (independent clause)  There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating, subordinating, and adverbial. 6.1.Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank: noun with noun, adjective with adjective, verb with verb, phrase with phrase, main clause with main clause, and subordinate clause with subordinate clause. E.g. Two nouns: Bring a pencil and some paper. Two phrases: Did she go to the store or to the game? Two independent clauses: John hit the ball, and he ran to first base.  The seven common coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. One simple way to remember them is to think of the acronym FANBOYS ( For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So).  Paired conjunctions such as either/or, neither/nor, and both/and are usually classified as coordinating conjunctions E.g. Either one of the students or the teacher had left a book on the table. 6.2. Subordinating conjunctions connect dependent clauses with main clauses. E.g. Because today is her birthday (dependent clause) , Anita wants a new car. (independent clause)  The most common subordinating conjunctions are: after -although -as -as if -as long as -as soon as –because-before- but that- if- in order that- provided- since- so that- till- until- when- whenever- where- whereas- whether- wherever  Caution: Certain words can function as either conjunctions or prepositions. It is necessary to look ahead to see if the word introduces a clause with a subject and verb (conjunction) or takes an object (preposition). Some of the words with two functions are these: after, for, since, until. E.g. After the concert was over, we went home. (conjunction if a dependant clause) 7  After the concert, we went home. (preposition if a phrase) 6.3. Adverbial conjunctions are used to connect two independent clauses. E.g. Today is Anita’s birthday (independent clause) ; therefore( Adv.conj) , she wants a new car. (independent clause)  Adverbial conjunctions include the following words and phrases: also, consequently, furthermore, hence, however, in fact, moreover, nevertheless, now, on the other hand, otherwise, soon, therefore, similarly, then, thus. 7.Interjections An interjection is one or more words used to convey strong emotions or surprise. When an interjection is used alone, it is usually punctuated with an exclamation mark. Interjections do not refer to anything, but simply express the speaker's emotion or wish. Grammatically, they occur in isolation as an exclamation or are added on to sentence  Interjections has two types : Mild interjection ( E.g. well,of course, such ) and strong interjection (E.g. Hurrah ! Bravo! Hush ! Ah ! Well done ! Alas! Oh ! Yes! Wawo! Ha!What ! Hello!). E.g. Ah! Here comes the actor at last - Hush! Don’t make a noise - Hark! I hear a drum - Alas! The soldier is dead - What! The house caught fire - Wow! Did you see that?  When it is used as part of a sentence, an interjection is usually followed by a comma. Oh, I left my car keys in the ignition and closed the door! Lesson Two :Sentence Classifications/ Structure / Composition 1.Sentence Definition A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought. It is a grammatically independent unit of expression, made up of two essential parts called the Subject and the Predicate. E.g. The importance of the minority party in American politics must be understood. ( a sentence) The importance of the minority party in American politics. ( not a sentence) 2.Sentence Classification by Pattern ( Parts of a Sentence) Sentence pattern is the variety of simple and complex sentences that you use in your writing and the way they are arranged within the paper. There are many different types of sentences ranging from basic sentences to sentences containing multiple types of clauses. Sentence pattern is important to 8 manipulate because it can make your writing more appealing to the reader by presenting your information and ideas both in plain, blunt ways, and in more complex combinations. By using a wide variety of sentences, your writing can avoid being boring or repetitive and can get your point across effectively.  Every complete sentence has a subject and a predicate. 2.1.Sentence Subject and Predicate All English sentences must contain at least two parts, a subject and a predicate. The subjects are generally “the someone” or “the something” of the sentence that performs the action or has some element of them described. While looking for the subjects of your sentences, you should most often look for nouns or pronouns. The predicate describes the action taking place or clarifies more information about the subject. Predicates are generally the verbs of the sentence. E.g. Faculty and students (the subject) planned a new class schedule (the predicate) - The fish ( the subject) swam in the bowl slowly (the predicate) - The movie premiere (the subject) lasted until midnight (the predicate)  These two main parts of a sentence may consist of single words or many words. However long the subject or the predicate may be, it always has a core – an essential part. E.g. A loud argument was announced yesterday - The newspaper article treats an important issue. Finding the subject of a sentence : To find the subject of a sentence , first find the verb , then ask yourself the question "who or what…? For instance , in the sentence : Outside the wall walked an armed guard, the verb is " walked".Ask youself : who walked? you find the answer : the guard walked."Guard" is then the subject of this sentence. In addition to this simple formula for locating the subject, you should keep in mind the following: 1-In sentences expressing a command or a request, the subject is always "you" , eventhough " you" may not appear in the sentence ,i.e. implicit. E.g. (You) stamp the envelopes before mailing them 2- To find a subject in a question, turn the question into statement form. Question: Into which drawer did you put the box of pencils? Statement : You did put the box of pencils into which drawer ( Subject : You, verb : did put). 3- "There" or " here" is not always the subject of a verb.  Some grammarians see that there are five important components in a sentence. They list : Subject ( S), Verb (V), Object (O), Complement (C) , Adverbial (Adjunct) (A) 2.2.Complements: Some sentences express a complete thought by means of a subject and a verb only.E.g. He thinks ( S + V) , Everybody left ( S+ V) 9 Most sentences , however,have in the predicate one or more words that complete the meaning of the subject and the verb. These completing words are called compliments. E.g. She seems happy – Jerry is the class president Mrs.Clarke is young ( The adjective " young " is a complement). Mrs.Clarke is a teacher ( The noun " teacher" is a complement). 2.2.1. Subject Complements ( S+V+C Pattern ) Complements that refer to, describe, explain, or identify the subject are subject complements. There are two kinds: the predicate nominative and the predicate adjective.  Subject complements follow linking verbs only a- A predicate nominative is a noun or a pronoun complement that refers to the same person or thing as the subject of the verb. It follows a linking verb. E.g. New York is our largest city ( City refers to the subject " New York " ). b- A predicate adjective is an adjective complement that modifies the subject. It follows a linking verb. E.g. She seems angry – The book is dull. 2.2.2.Object Complements ( S+ V+O+C Pattern) To complete their meaning, some action verbs require an additional complement following their objects. This additional complement is called an objective (object) complement because it refers to the object; it may be a noun or an adjective. E.g. They elected Mary chairman ( The noun " chairman" refers to the direct object " Mary" and helps to complete the meaning of the verb " elected". It is an object complement). E.g.They called David a genius – I found her crying  Only a few verbs meaning " make " or consider" take an objective complement : elect, appoint ,choose ,name ,render ,make ,consider ,etc). 3.Direct and Indirect Objects Complements that receive or that are affected by the action of the verb are called objects. They are of two kinds: the direct object and the indirect object. 3.1.Direct Object : The direct object of the verb receives the action of the verb or shows the result of the action. It answers the question "what" or "whom" after an action verb. E.g.I took him with me ( I took whom?) – Jane has written her composition (Jean has written what?) 3.2.Indirect Object: The indirect object of the verb precedes the direct object and usually tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is done. E.g. Father promised me the car (me is an indirect object) 4.Adverbials 10  Adverbials refer to a single word or group of words which form parts of a clause; in addition, some adverbials may act as different parts of speech.Three kinds of adverbials exist: adjuncts, conjuncts, and disjuncts. 4.1.Adjuncts (also called Adjunctive Adverbs) are words or groups of words which provide more information to the sentence. When an adjunct component is removed from the sentence, the meaning of the sentence is affected and may not be understood. Adjuncts may help to provide information in regards to:  Time/Temporal : E.g. Northern Arizona University opened its doors in 1888  Place/Space : E.g. Shelley does not live above her means  Cause : E.g.George drove to his mother’s house because of the snow storm.  Result: E.g. The company will not sell its shares due to its escalating value  Conditional: E.g. Janet will call Bryan if needed  Concession: E.g. Oftentimes, vegans consume vegetables without thinking about pesticides  Manner : E.g. John wandered aimlessly like a lost puppy 4.2. Conjuncts (also called Conjunctive Adverbs) are words or groups of words which link sentences within a text. Conjuncts may be used for sentence to sentence transitions (or for combining sentences) or paragraph to paragraph transitions (for creating cohesion between two paragraphs). Conjuncts may even be used to show logical movement (i.e., cause and effect, or problem and solution), and/or chronological movement (i.e., movement through time). Common Conjuncts: First - Second –Third -In addition –Additionally –Furthermore -In other words-On the contrary- Therefore 4.3. Disjuncts (also called Disjunctive Adverbs), often appearing at the beginning of the sentence or near the beginning of the sentence, are words or groups of words which provide some comment on the content of the sentence in which it appears. E.g. Eventually, John managed to collect every major first edition comic from the Scatman series. Common Disjuncts: Actually – Basically –Briefly-Clearly-Eventually-Honestly- Obviously- Personally - Remarkably- Ultimately-Unfortunately 3.Summary of the Sentence Main Patterns 1. Subject + verb ( S+V) : E.g. Children play 11 2. Subject + Verb+ Object ( S+V+O): E.g. He handles the computer – She met them. 3.Subject + Verb+ Indirect object + Direct Object (S+V+I.O+D.O).E.g. Mary prepared Fred a cake. 4.There+Verb+Subject.E.g. There have been no agreement.  The preceding patterns are patterns of statements, or declarative sentences. Notice the changes that take place when these patterns are transformed into questions : 5.Auxiliary+ Subject+Verb?.E.g. Do coyotes howl in the distance? 6. Auxiliary+ Subject+Verb+ Object ?.E.g. Would sparrows eat all the seed in the feeder ? 7. Auxilairy+ Subject+Verb+Indirect.Obj + Direct.Obj? E.g. Had the candidates promised voters lower taxes? 8. Object+ Auwiliary+ subject+Verb ?.E.g What did the mice frighten ? 9.Verb + there + Subject ?.E.g. Were there any interviewees? 10. Auxiliary + there + verb+ subject?.E.g. Has there been any objection? 4.Sentence Classification by Purpose (Types) : Sentences may be classified according to the purpose of the speaker or the writer. The four principal purposes of a sentence are described below. 1. The declarative sentence is used to make a statement of fact, wish, intent, or feeling. E.g. I have seen that movie twice. , I wish I could go on the picnic. 2. The imperative sentence is used to state a command, request, or direction. The subject is always "You," though it may not be expressed in the sentence. E.g. (You) Be on time for dinner. , (You) Open the window, please. 3. The interrogative sentence is used to ask a question. It is followed by a question mark. E.g. Do you have a sweater? , Are you having a bad day? 4. The exclamatory sentence is used to express strong feeling. It is followed by an exclamation point. E.g. Keep out! , He screamed, “Help! Lesson Three : Phrases We can see the difference in the following two groups of words: 1. The bus to Eastmont Mall 2. The bus goes to Eastmont Mall In the second group of words, we can identify a subject-verb unit, while in the first we cannot. 12 To find the subject-verb units in sentences, follow these two steps: 1. First find the verb by applying the time test: change the time or tense of the sentence; the word you change is the verb. In number 2, we can change: The bus goes to Eastmont Mall. to: The bus went to Eastmont Mall. (yesterday) or: The bus will go to Eastmont Mall. (tomorrow) When we change the time, we have to change goes to went or to will go, so to go is the verb. 2. To find the subject, ask "Who or what does the action of the verb?” What “goes?” The answer is: the bus, so the bus is the subject of the verb. In a sentence, words do not only act individually, but also in groups. The grouped words act together as a unit which my function as a modifier, a subject, a verb, an object, or a predicate nominative. The most common group of related words is known as the phrase Phrases are groups of related words that do not contain both a subject and a verb. They act as parts of speech within sentences. In other words, phrases are groups of words that serve as nouns, adjectives or adverbs in sentences. Because sentences are made up of phrases and clauses, understanding these basic elements of sentence structure will help you to create writing that is clear, concise, stylistically interesting and free of errors such as sentence fragments. 1.Phrase Definition A phrase is two or more words that do not contain the subject-verb pair necessary to form a clause. Phrases can be very short or quite long. Here are two examples: a- After lunch b- After slithering down the stairs and across the road, Traditionally “phrase” is defined as “a group of words that does not contain a verb and its subject and is used as a single part of speech”. To find out if a group of words is a complete sentence, you can use this trick: Add: Is it true that before the words. If the question does not make sense, the group of words is a sentence fragment. If the question does make sense, the group of words is a complete sentence. Consider the examples below. 13 1. Is it true that the bus to Eastmont Mall? 2. Is it true that the bus goes to Eastmont Mall? 2.Types of Phrases and their Functions Certain phrases have specific names based on the type of word that begins or governs the word group: noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase, infinitive phrase, participle phrase, gerund phrase, and absolute phrase. 2.1.Noun Phrase A noun phrase includes a noun (a person, place, or thing) and the modifiers -either before or after- which distinguish it. Its pattern looks like this: O P T I O N A L M O D I F I E R ( S ) + N OUN + O P T I O N A L M O D I F I E R (S) E.g.s. a-The shoplifted pair of jeans ( the + shoplifted (modifiers) + pair (Noun) + of jeans ( modifiers)) b - A cat that refused to meow c- A great English teacher  Noun phrases function as subjects, objects, and complements  As said before, noun phrase contains a noun and its modifiers and functions as a noun within a sentence. Egs a-The tree with the purple blossoms hangs over the sidewalk, sprinkling flowers along the path (as a Subj) b-He decided to wear the yellow shirt. (as an object) c-With her love of Shakespeare and knowledge of grammar, Jasmine will someday be a great English teacher ( as a subject compliment) 2.2.Verb phrase Sometimes a sentence can communicate its meaning with a one-word verb. Other times, however, a sentence will use a verb phrase, a multi-word verb, to express more nuanced action or condition. A verb phrase can have up to four parts. The pattern looks like this: A U X I L I A R Y V E R B (S) + M A I N V E R B +V ER B E N D I N G IF N E C E S S A R Y E.g.s.: a- Had cleaned( Had = auxiliary verb ; clean = main verb; ed = verb ending ). b - Should have been writing ( Should, have, been = auxiliary verbs; write = main verb; ing = verb ending) 14  c- Must wash ( Must = auxiliary verb; wash = main verb. Here are the verb phrases in action:  Mom had just cleaned the refrigerator shelves when Lawrence knocked over the pitcher of orange juice.  Sarah should have been writing her research essay, but she couldn't resist another short chapter in her Stephen King novel.  If guests are coming for dinner, we must wash our smelly dog! 2.3. Prepositional phrase At the minimum, a prepositional phrase will begin with a preposition and end with a noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause ( i.e. the "object" of the preposition) The object of the preposition will often have one or more modifiers to describe it. These are the patterns for a prepositional phrase: P R E P O S I T I O N + N OUN, P R O N O U N , G E R U N D , OR C L A U S E. P R E P O S I T I O N + M O D I F I E R ( S ) + N OUN , P R O N O U N ,G E R U N D , OR CLAUSE E.g.s. On time (On = preposition; time = noun ) , Underneath the sagging yellow couch ( Underneath = preposition; the, sagging, yellow = modifiers; couch =noun ) , From eating too much ( From = preposition; eating = gerund; too, much = modifiers.) A prepositional phrase can function as an adjective or an adverb. Occasionally, a prepositional phrase is used as a noun.  As an adjective, the prepositional phrase will answer the question Which one? E.g. The librarian at the check-out desk smiles whenever she collects a late fee. Which librarian? The one at the check-out desk! Tourists from the East visit the old frontier towns in the West.  As an adverb ,a prepositional phrase will answer questions such as How? When? Why? How long? or Where? E.g. He practises in his studio ( Where he practises) He practises with diligence ( How he practises) He practises for his own good ( Why ge practises) He practises before a concert tour ( When he practises) He practises for weeks (how long he practises) 2.4. Gerund phrases: 15 When you look for verbs in sentences, remember that the -ing form of a word cannot be a verb all by itself, so the group of words ‘succeeding in school is a phrase To make this phrase into a clause, we need to complete its meaning Succeeding in school requires hard work. 2.5. Infinitive Phrase: An infinitive phrase includes an infinitive (the base form of the verb preceded by to) Egs: She wants to learn Spanish. To learn Spanish is her ultimate objective. Lesson Four: Clauses Sentences can be classified either in terms of the kinds of clauses they contain (grammatically) or in terms of their purpose (rhetorically). Becoming aware of types of sentences allows one to vary his/her writing style to suit one's audience, content, and purpose. One will find, too, that sentence variety holds a reader's interest. How boring it is to read all simple sentences! In contrast, after many longer sentences, a punchy short sentence adds force to a key point. 1.Clause Definition A clause is a group of words that contain a subject and a predicate. It can be a sentence as it can be used as part of a sentence. 2. Kinds and Functions: Clauses are classified according to grammatical completeness. Those that can stand alone when they are removed from their sentences are called independent/ main clauses. Those that do not express a complete though and cannot stand alone are named subordinate/ dependent clauses. 2.1.Independent Clause ( Main Clause / Simple sentence): An independent clause is a simple sentence. It can stand on its own when removed from its sentence, it makes a complete sense. Written with a capital letter at the beginning and period at the end, it becomes a simple sentence. It is called independent because it doesn't depend on anything else to complete its thought. E.g.s I’ll tell her the assignment , The battery is defective , He feels well, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemmings lived in Paris for a time. 16   Commas join independent clauses Independent clauses can be written as individual sentences, or they can be joined as one sentence. One way to join them is by using a comma and coordinating conjunction after the first independent clause. Two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, yet, or so) make up a compound sentence. E.g.s: 1. Dan wrote a research paper on motivation. He submitted it for publication (Two independent clauses). 2. Dan wrote a research paper on motivation, and he submitted it for publication (Compound sentence). The same two independent clauses are joined by a comma and the coordinating conjunction "and".) N.B: Be careful that what follows the word and (or any other coordinating conjunction) is an independent clause. If not, then do not use a comma. E.g.: Dan wrote a research paper and submitted it for publication.  No comma is needed because " submitted it for publication" is not an independent clause; it does not have its own subject) 2.2.Dependent Clause (Subordinate Clause) A dependent clause has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone grammatically. A dependent clause is dependent because its connecting word (because, if, so, which, that, etc.) links it to an independent clause. The following are examples of subordinate clauses : When the sun finally came out, that we are on the right track, As you requested…  Combined with an independent clause , each of the subordinate clauses plays its part in a sentence : 1-When the sun finally came out, we left more cheerful. 2-I told you that we are on the right track. 3- As you requested, I have cancelled your trip to the fourth dimension.  So, dependent clauses rely on independent clauses to complete the thought in the sentence. 2.2.1.Types of Subordinate Clauses 17 A subordinate (dependent) clause can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. E.g.s. I know that wheat grows in Kansas. (direct object) The car which rolled over the cliff was a pink Cadillac. (adjective) He retired early because he had made so much money. (adverb) 2.2.1.1.Noun Clause : A noun clause is clause that functions as a noun functions. It can be a subject, a predicate nominative, or an object of a verb E.g.s Noun Noun Clause Subject : 1. His whereabouts are unknown. 1. Where he lives is unknown. D.Obj : 2. I don't know that man. 2. I don't know who he is. I. Object 3. The security officer gave the students the key. 3. The security officer gave whoever wanted it the key..  A noun clause begins with a subordinator that connects the clause to the main clause. The following is a list of subordinators used to introduce noun clauses: how ,where ,what, whatever , whose, whosever, that ,whether, if who, whoever, which, whichever ,when ,why whom, whomever. 2.2.1.2.Adjective Clause (who/which/that clauses) An adjective clause is a dependent clause. An adjective clause modifies a noun or a pronoun. An adjective clause begins with who, whom, which, that, whose, when, where, why and follows the word it modifies. E.g.s 1- David (noun) , who has been with the company five years (adjective clause ) , is our new director. 2- The time (N) when our plane arrives (A.C) is 4:00 p.m. 3- The house (N) where Lincoln lives as a young man (A.C) was in Springfield, Illinois.  An adjective clause, begins with a subordinator. The subordinator connects the adjective clause to the word in the main clause it modifies: it stands for this word.  Relative Pronouns: Adjective clauses often begin with the relative pronouns: who, whom, which,or that. These pronouns refer to a noun or a pronoun that has come before (antecedent). A relative pronoun does three things :  It refers to the preceding noun or pronoun.E.g. The joke was one that I had heard before  It connects its clause with the rest of the sentence. E.g. I do not admire anyone who acts like that.  It performs a function within its own clause by serving as the subject, the object,…etc of the subordinate clause.E.g. The principal appointed George, who is reliable student. 18  (" who" is the subject of the verb "is" in the adjective clause " who is reliable student") 2.2.1.3. Adverb Clauses (because/if/when clauses) An adverb clause is a dependent clause. An adverb clause modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence. The Adverb clauses always begin with a subordinator. The subordinator is a connecting word which explains the relationship between the adverb clause and main clause. It tells the reader what kind of information is added by the adverb clause. The following subordinators (subordinating conjunctions) are often used to begin adverb clauses: after Before Though whatever although even if Unless whenever as even though Until wherever as if as far as as soon as whether because Since as well as while  An adverb clause can answer any of the following questions: When? Where? How? To what degree? and Under what condition?  Examples of adverb clauses that answer a question: a- Cinderella lost her shoe after the clock struck twelve. (When did she lose her shoe?) b- Mary hid the key where no one could find it. (Where did she hide it?) c- My sister drove so fast that she got a ticket. (How fast did she drive?) d- The fire will burn the forest unless it rains. (Under what condition?). 2.2.1.4. Essential and Non-essential Clauses ( Restrictive and Non-restrictive) An essential clause or phrase (also called a restrictive, or necessary clause or phrase) appears after a noun and is essential in the sentence to complete the meaning. An essential clause or phrase cannot be moved to another sentence or omitted because the meaning of the sentence would change.  Essential clauses and phrases are not set off by commas. Clauses starting with that are almost always essential. E.g.s.: Compare the meaning of the following two sentences with and without the clause after the noun people: 1-People who can speak more than one language are multilingual. People are multilingual.  Using "the that clause" versus "taking the that clause out": 2- Please repair all the windows that are broken. Please repair all the windows (The meaning of the sentence changes). 19 A non-essential clause or phrase (also called a non-restrictive or unnecessary clause or phrase) adds extra information but can be removed from a sentence without disturbing the meaning. The information can be put in another sentence. E.g.: Compare the following two sentences to see if the primary meaning of the sentence remains the same even after the clause is removed: 3-My cousin Michael, who lives in New York, is coming for a visit over Thanksgiving vacation. My cousin Michael is coming for a visit over Thanksgiving vacation. The "who clause" is nonessential because it adds information about "where Jim lives", but it is not necessary.  Note: A pair of commas is necessary when nonessential clauses and phrases appear within a sentence. Only one comma is needed when non-essential clauses and phrases appear at the end of a sentence. 3.Sentence Classification by Structure ( Types) Classified according to their structure, there are four kinds of sentences: simple, compound, complex , and compound complex. 3.1. Simple Sentence : A simple sentence is a sentence with only one independent clause, i.e. it does not consist of a subordinate one. E.g. Great literature stirs the imagination 3.2.Compound Sentence : It is a sentence composed of two or more clauses but without subordinate ones. E.g. Great literature stirs the imagination, and it challenges the intellect.  Independent clauses can be joined by coordinating conjunctions like : and ,but, for, yet.. or by conjunctive adverbs as : also, therefore ,moreover, besides, however, then, furthermore ,thus… 3.3.Complex Sentence : It is a sentence that contains one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses. E.g. -Great literature ,which stirs the imagination, also challenges the intellect. -You need to prepare for the spelling test tomorrow if you want to get all your spellings right. -Although Tom reads novels, Jack reads comics. 20 3.4.Compund-complex Sentence: A compound-complex sentence is comprised of at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. E.g.s - Although I want to go camping, I haven't had the time to go lately, and I haven't found anyone to go with. - Laura forgot her friend's birthday, so she sent her a card when she finally remembered.  Because compound-complex sentences are normally longer than other sentences, it is very important to punctuate them correctly. Lesson Five: Sentence Problems 1. Sentence fragments: sentence fragments are incomplete sentences or parts of sentences. Remember that a complete sentence must contain at least one main or independent clause. Study the following examples of sentence fragments and the suggested methods for correcting them. 1. Because some students work part-time during classes. PROBLEM : This is a dependent clause. It begins with a subordinator (because). It does not express a complete thought because there is no independent clause. To correct: (1) Add an independent clause. Because some students work part-time during classes, they have very little free time. (2) Delete the subordinator (because). Some students work part-time during classes. 2. The increase in the cost of renting an apartment. To live and work for at least a year in a foreign country. PROBLEM: Neither sentence has a verb. To correct: Rewrite each sentence so that it has a verb. For example, the increase in the cost of renting an apartment is one reason for more people being homeless. 21 To live and work for at least a year in a foreign country has always been my dream. 3. Teachers who give too much homework. PROBLEM: This is a noun (teachers) + an adjective clause (who give too much homework). The noun is the beginning of an independent clause that was not finished. To correct: Finish the independent clause. Teachers who give too much homework are unpopular Always check your own writing for sentence fragments. Pay particular attention to sentences beginning with subordinators (although, since, because, if, before, and so on). These are DANGER WORDS! Make sure that every clause beginning with these words is attached to an independent clause. Choppy sentences: Choppy sentences are sentences that are too short. Short sentences can be effective in certain situations. For instance, when you want to make an impact, use a short sentence. Despite countless doctors' warnings, news stories, and magazine articles about the importance of eating a nutritious, balanced diet, many people resist developing healthy eating habits. Some people just like junk food. (A sentence of 25 words is followed by one of 6 words. The second sentence has greater impact because it is so short.) However, overuse of short sentences is considered poor style in academic writing. Choppy sentences are easy to correct. Just combine two or three short sentences to make one compound or complex sentence. Your decision to make a compound or a complex sentence should be based on whether the ideas in the short sentences are equal or whether one idea is dependent on the other. 1. If the sentences express equal ideas, use coordination to combine them. Wind is an enduring source of power. Water is also an unlimited energy source. Dams produce hydraulic power. They have existed for a long time. Windmills are relatively new. Both wind and water are enduring sources of power. Dams have produced hydraulic power for a long time, but windmills are relatively new. 4. If the sentences express unequal ideas, that is, if one sentence expresses a less important idea than the other, use subordination to combine them. 22 We must find new sources of energy. Natural sources of energy are decreasing. Solar energy is a promising new source of energy. Solar energy is energy from the sun. We must find new sources of energy because natural sources of energy are dwindling. Solar energy, which is energy from the sun, is a promising new source. Run-on Sentences: A run-on sentence is a sentence in which two or more independent clauses are written one after another with no punctuation. A similar error happens when two independent clauses are incorrectly joined by a comma without a coordinating conjunction. This kind of error is called a comma splice. My family went to Australia then they immigrated to Canada. My family went to Australia, then they immigrated to Canada. The ways to correct these two sentence errors are the same. 1. Add a period: My family went to Australia. Then they immigrated to Canada. 2. Add a semicolon: My family went to Australia; then they immigrated to Canada. 3. Add a coordinator: My family went to Australia, and then they immigrated to Canada. 4. Add a subordinator: My family went to Australia before they immigrated to Canada. After my family went to Australia, they immigrated to Canada Stringy Sentences: A stringy sentence is a sentence with too many clauses, usually connected with and, but, so, and sometimes because. It often results from writing the way you speak, going on and on like a string without an end. To correct a stringy sentence, divide it and/or recombine the clauses, remembering to subordinate when appropriate. Eg: Many students attend classes all morning, and then they work all afternoon, and they also have to study at night, so they are usually exhausted by the weekend. To correct: Many students attend classes all morning and work all afternoon. Since they also have to study at night, they are usually exhausted by the weekend. OR Because many students attend classes all morning, work all afternoon, and study at night, they are usually exhausted by the weekend. 23  Lesson Six : Wordiness What is Wordiness? Wordiness is a trap all writers fall into occasionally. Your goal should always be to write as clearly and simply as possible, using no more words than you need to express yourself accurately. Certainly, you may add words to enhance meaning, but you should never add words to make an essay longer when you have nothing more substantial to say or in a mistaken effort to make yourself sound more sophisticated. Be especially alert to words with overlapping meaning (redundancy) or any phrase using several words where a shorter phrase will suffice. WORDY: The committee members decided to have an office party for the employees’ children. The main reason for their decision to have a party for the children was that employees had been complaining that the company did not pay enough attention to family life. BETTER: The committee members decided to have an office party for employees’ children, mainly because employees had been complaining that the company did not pay enough attention to family life 2. What Makes Wordiness?  Draft vs. Final version When drafting, you do not want to impede the flow of ideas by worrying about the details of wording and sentence structure, so you may use more words or phrases than necessary or become repetitive. The problem comes when you do not take the time to revise thoroughly and these elements of wordiness stay in the final essay.  Conversational style People typically talk and think in a more casual style, which can involve extra words, clichés and empty phrases. But when writing for an academic, technical or scientific purpose, you must be more formal and direct.  Attempts to clarify When struggling to communicate your ideas, you may find yourself writing around and around it in circles, trying to focus in on the actual concept. Often this is an issue with imprecise vocabulary.  Padding 24  If you are worried about meeting a certain page length or word count requirement, you might feel the need to repeat concepts or add unnecessary phrases to fill out the length. However, professors are good at spotting such padding, so it does not work. How to Eliminate Wordiness?  Omit ineffective subject-verb combinations like “it is,” “there is,” and “there are.” Wordy: There are thousands of fans who want a baseball team in our city. Concise: Thousands of fans want a baseball team in our city.  Replace prepositional phrases with one-word modifiers. Wordy: The president of the student government was in charge of the protest against the change in graduation requirements at the university. Concise: The student government president led the protest against the university’s change in graduation requirements.  Take out unnecessary repetition of key words and ideas. Wordy: The city council decided to approve the request from the electric company. The proposal was presented by the electric company to ask for some tax money to help with the cost of burying the additional electric lines. The electric lines were needed because of the development of new housing. Concise: The city council approved the electric company’s request to provide tax money toward the cost of burying the additional electric lines needed because of new housing developments.  Combine two short sentences into one. Wordy: The director is concerned about possible problems. Typical problems may occur with lighting, sound, and props. Concise: The director is concerned about possible problems with lighting, sound and props.  Take out words that are implied by other words in the same sentence. Wordy: The ceiling overhead had been painted an ugly green colour. (Note, the ceiling is always overhead, and by definition, green is a colour.) Concise: The ceiling had been painted an ugly green.  Omit “which,” “that” or “who” when possible. Wordy: Because the meeting, which was long and boring, occurred on a Friday afternoon, the employees, who were ready for the weekend to begin, tried to leave early. 25  Concise: Because the long, boring meeting occurred on a Friday afternoon, the employees, ready for the weekend to begin, tried to leave early.  Avoid passive voice. Wordy: An article about the dramatic court case was written by George Smith. Concise: George Smith wrote an article about the dramatic court case. Lesson seven: PARALLELISM Parallelism is an important element in English writing, especially when you are listing and comparing and contrasting items or ideas. Parallelism means that each item in a list or comparison follows the same grammatical pattern. If you are writing a list and the first item in your list is a noun, write all the following items as nouns also. If the first item is an -ing word, make all the others -ing words; if it is an adverb clause, make all the others adverb clauses. Use parallel structure as an aid to coherence To get parallel structures, you need to balance a word with a word, a phrase with a phrase, a clause with a clause , and a sentence with a sentence. Study the following examples : 1). Words: Awkward: The way we write reveals our bent, our inclinations ,and what our inner drives are. Parallel : The way we write reveals our bent, our inclinations, and our inner drives. 2). Phrases : Awkward: It is easier to love humanity as a whole than loving one's neighbour. Parallel: It is easier to love humanity as a whole than to love one's neighbour. 3).Clauses : Awkward : What we say and the things that we do somehow seem out of joint. 26 Parallel : What we say and what we do somehow seem out of joint. 4). Sentences : Parallel: The danger of the past was that men became slaves. The danger of the future is that men may become robots. LESSON EIGHT: MISPLACED PARTS / DANGLING MODIFIERS The meaning of an English sentence depends largely on the position of its parts. Usually these parts (words, phrases, subordinate clauses serving as modifiers) can be placed in various positions. Misplaced modifiers can lead the reader to misinterpret what the author means. Note how the meaning in the following sentences changes according to the position of the modifier “ only” 1-Jane said that she loved only her mother 2-Jane said that only she loved her mother 3-Jane said only that she loved her mother  A- Avoid needless separation of related parts of the sentence 1-In standard written English, adverbs such as almost, only, just, even, hardly, nearly, or merely are regularly placed immediately before the words they modify Ambiguous: He is just asking for a trifle Clear: He is asking just for a trifle 2-The position of a modifying prepositional phrase should clearly indicate what the phrase modifies A propositional phrase used as an adjective nearly always immediately follows the word modified Misplaced: Mother gave date muffins to my friends with pecans in them Clear: Mother gave my friends date muffins with pecans in them 3- Adjective clause should be placed near the words they modify Awkward: I saw the horse stop at the edge of the precipice that had raced ahead. Clear: I saw the horse that had raced ahead stop at the edge of the precipice. 4- Avoid “squinting” constructions (modifiers that may refer either to a preceding or to a following word) 27 Squinting: I agreed on the next day to help him Clear: I agreed to help him on the next day or On the next day, I agreed to help him. 5-Avoid awkward separation of parts of verb phrases and awkward splitting of infinitives Awkward: There stood the old car which we had early last autumn left by our lake cottage Improved: There stood the old car which we had left by our lake cottage early last autumn.  B-Dangling modifiers Avoid dangling modifiers A dangling modifier is a word, phrase or clause that modifies no word in the sentence or refers to the wrong word. Dangling modifiers cause the sentence to lack coherence. The word dangling is applied especially to incoherent clearly and logically phrases and elliptical clauses.A dangling modifiers is one that does not refer to some word in the sentence Prepositional phrase: After watching the late show, Nancy was tired (Nancy watched the late show) Elliptical clause: When only a small boy, I went with my father to Texas ( “I was” is implied in the elliptical clause) Note: To correct a dangling modifier: 1- rearrange the words in the sentence to make the modifier sensibly refer to the right word, or 2- add words to clear up the meaning 1-Avoid dangling participial phrases Dangling : Taking our seats, the game started ( “taking” does not refer to the subject “ game”, nor to any other word in the sentence) Improved : Taking our seats, we watched the opening of the game ( “ taking” refers to “ we” , the subject of the sentence) Or : After we had taken our seats, the game started ( Participial phrase expended into a clause) 2-Avoid dangling infinitive phrases Dangling :To write well, good books must be read. Improved : To write well, a student must read good books. 3-Avoid dangling elliptical clauses 28 An elliptical clause, which is a clause with an implied subject and verb, dangles unless the implied subject is the same as that of the main clause (See the example above, B- Dangling modifiers) Lesson Nine: Punctuation Using correct punctuation is important because punctuation conveys meaning just as words do. When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate emphasis. When writing, we use punctuation to indicate these places of emphasis.So, punctuation helps to clarify the meaning of our written pieces. Consider these two sentences: - Eat children. - Eat, children. Both sentences are commands, but the first sentence would be correct only in a society of cannibals! Learn and practise the rules of punctuation until you are confident about using them correctly. 1- Commas: Commas are sometimes troublesome to learners of English because they are used differently in other languages. There are many comma rules in English, but you may remember them more easily if you realize that they can be organized into just four main groups: introducers, coordinators, inserters, and tags. Each group of commas relates to independent clauses in a particular way, except the coordinator group. Coordinator commas link not just independent clauses but any coordinate (equal) elements in a sentence. Study the examples for each comma group, and notice the kinds of elements that can be introducers, coordinators, inserters, and tags. a- lntroducer Commas: An introducer comma follows any element that comes in front of an independent clause. Consequently, I plan to quit smoking. Nervously, I threw away my cigarettes. As a result, I feel terrible right now. After 16 years of smoking, it is not easy to quit. Having smoked for 16 years, I find it difficult to quit. Because I have a chronic cough, my doctor recommended that I quit immediately. b- Coordinator Commas: Together with a coordinating conjunction, a comma links coordinate (equal) elements in a sentence, or elements in a list. She has a good job, yet she is always broke. They were tired, so they went home early. He does not enjoy skiing, ice-skating, or sledding. Jack speaks English, Spanish, French, and Creole. (No comma with only two items: Chen speaks Mandarin and Taiwanese.) A nurse has to work at night, on weekends, and on holidays. 29 We ran into the airport, checked our luggage, raced to the boarding gate, gave the attendant our boarding passes, and collapsed in our seats. c- lnserter Commas: An inserter comma is used before and after any element that is inserted into the middle of an independent clause. My uncle, however, refuses to quit smoking. My father, on the other hand, has never smoked. My aunt, his wife, died of lung cancer. My cousins, grieving over their mother's death, resolved never to smoke. My mother, who has just celebrated her fiftieth birthday, enjoys an occasional cigarette. "I have tried to quit dozens of times," she says, "but I can't." d- Tag Commas: A tag comma is used when adding certain elements to the end of a sentence. My uncle believes in drinking a daily glass of wine, too. He appears to be in good health, however. He swims for an hour every day, for example. It is not logical, is it? 2- Semicolon: Using semicolons is not difficult if you remember that a semicolon (;) is more like a period than a comma. It is a very strong punctuation mark. Semicolons are used in three places: 1. Between two sentences that are closely connected in idea 2. Before conjunctive adverbs and some transition phrases when they are followed by an independent clause 3. Between items in a series when the items themselves contain commas a- Between Sentences: Use a semicolon at the end of a sentence when the following sentence is closely connected in meaning. You could also use a period, but when the sentences are connected in meaning, a semicolon indicates the connection. Independent clause; independent clause. Andrew did not accept the job offer; he wants to go to graduate school. Computer use is increasing; computer crime is, too. The meeting ended at dawn; nothing had been decided. b- Before Connectors: Use a semicolon before conjunctive adverbs such as however, therefore, nevertheless, moreover, and furthermore. Also use a semicolon before transition phrases such as for example, as a result, that is, or in fact when they are followed by an independent clause Skiing is dangerous; nevertheless, millions of people ski. 30 I have never been to Asia; in fact, I have never been outside the country. Between Items in a Series: Semicolons are used to separate items in a series when some of the items already contain commas. I cannot decide which car I like best; the Ferrari, with its quick acceleration and sporty look; the midsize Ford Taurus, with its comfortable seats and ease of handling; or the compact Geo, with its economical fuel consumption. 3- Colons: Using a colon at the end of an independent clause focuses attention on the words following the colon. After a colon, we often write lists, appositives, and direct quotations. a- Before lists: Use a colon to introduce a list. Libraries have two kinds of periodicals: bound periodicals and current periodicals. I need the following groceries: eggs, milk, and coffee. The causes of the U.S. Civil War were as follows: the economic domination of the North, the slavery issue, and the issue of states' rights versus federal intervention. Caution 1. Do not use a colon to introduce a list after the verb to be unless you add the following or as follows. For me, the most important things in life are: good health, a happy home life, and a satisfying occupation. For me, the most important things in life are good health, a happy home life, and a satisfying occupation. For me, the most important things in life are the following: good health, a happy home life, and a satisfying occupation. 2. Do not use a colon after a preposition. Use a colon only at the end of an independent clause. After a long day at work, I look forward to: enjoying a quiet dinner at home, playing with my children, and watching a little TV. After a long day at work, I look forward to enjoying a quiet dinner at home, playing with my children, and watching a little TV. b- Before Appositives: Use a colon after an independent clause to direct attention to an appositive (a word or word group that renames another word or word group). He had one great love in his life: himself. A doctor has two important abilities: the ability to listen and the ability to analyse. c- Before long Quotations: Use a colon to introduce a quotation longer than three lines. This type of quote is indented on both sides, and no quotation marks are used. As Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable state in their book The History of the English Language: 31  There is no such thing as uniformity in language. Not only does the speech of one community differ from that of another, but the speech of different individuals of a single community, even different members of the same family, is marked by individual peculiarities. d- Before Subtitles: Use a colon between the main title and the subtitle of a book, article, or play. A popular book on nonverbal communication is Samovar and Porter's Intercultural Communication: A Reader. The title of an article from the New York Times is "Man on Mars: Dream or Reality?” e- ln Expressions of Time of Day: Use a colon between the numbers of hours and minutes when indicating the time of day. Helen left the class at 12:30. Their plane arrived at 1:40 a.m., six hours late. f- After Formal Salutations: Use a colon after the salutation of a formal letter. Dear Professor Einstein: Dear Customer Relations: In informal letters, use a comma. Dear Mom, Dear Mark, 4- Quotation marks: “…” have three basic uses: to enclose direct quotations, to enclose unusual words, and to enclose titles of short works. a- Around. Direct Quotations: Use quotation marks around a direct quotation that is shorter than three lines. A direct quotation states the exact words of a speaker and is usually introduced by a reporting phrase such as he said or as the report stated. Punctuation with quotation marks can be a little tricky. Here are some rules to follow: 1. Separate a quoted sentence from a reporting phrase with a comma. The receptionist said, "The doctor is unavailable right now. Please wait." "We have already been waiting for an hour," we answered. 2. Periods and commas go inside the quotation mark. "I thought he was responsible," he said, "but he isn't." 3. Exclamation points (!) and question marks (?) go inside quotation marks if they are a part of the quotation; otherwise, they go outside. "Is it eight o'clock?" she asked. Did she say, "It is eight o'clock"? 4. Begin each quoted sentence with a capital letter. When a quoted sentence is divided into two parts, the second part begins with a lowercase letter unless it is a new sentence. 32 "I thought he was responsible," he said, "but he isn't." "I think he is responsible," he said. "Look at his fine work." 6. Use single quotation marks ‘...’ to enclose a quotation within a quotation. As John F. Kennedy reminded us, "We should never forget the words of Martin Luther King, Jr., who said, 'I have a dream.' " b- Around Unusual Words: Use quotation marks around words with an unusual, especially ironic, meanings. The "banquet" consisted of hot dogs and soft drinks. The little girl proudly showed her "masterpiece": a crayon drawing of a flower. c- Around Titles of Short Works: Use quotation marks around the titles of articles from periodical journals, magazines, and newspapers; chapters of books; short stories; poems; and songs. The Times of London recently published an article entitled "Who Needs the Monarchy?" in which the relevancy of the English monarchy was discussed. Lesson Ten: CAPITALIZATION 2. MECHANICS 2.1.CAPITALIZATION Capitalization of individual words may be checked in a good dictionary 2.1.1. Capitalize proper names, words used as an essential part of proper names, derivatives of proper names, and abbreviations (acronyms) Proper names begin with capitals, but not names of classes of persons , places, or things. E.g. Churchill, England, Broadway, but not man, country ,street. 2.1.1.1. Proper names Capitalize names of specific persons, places, and things; organizations and institutions; historical periods and events; members of national, political, racial, and religious groups; calendar items, and words pertaining to the Deity and Holy Scripture E.g. George the First, America, the Statue of Liberty, Young Men's Christain Association, the Second World War, Middle Ages, Memorial Day, Christ and His Followers… 2. 1.1.2. Words used as essential parts of proper names Words as college, high school, club, lake, river, park, building, street, pike, country, railroad, and society are usually capitalized when they are essential parts of proper names , but not when used alone as a substitute for the name E.g. Central High School, the high school ; Madison Street , the street… 33 2. 1.1.3.Derivatives Words derived from proper names are usually capitalized. E.g. Georgian, American, Arabian, 2.1.1.4. Abbreviations In general, abbreviations are capitalized. E.g. FBI, AIDS, UN, USA…. Notes - Words denoting family relationship ( father, mother, sister ,brother, aunt, cousin…) are generally capitalized when used as titles or alone in place of the name ,but not when they are preceded by a possessive. E.g. Brother William; Sister Mary; Mary, my sister; a trip with Father; a trip with my father - Days and months are capitalized, but not seasons.E.g. Monday, July; fall, summer -Words denoting specific sections are capitalized, but when they denote directions they are not. E.g. the West, the South, in the East; to fly west; to the east ; a wind from the south…. -When some words like chemistry, geology, history, mathematics… are used as specific courses they are capitalized, but when they refer to general courses or subjects they are not. E.g. History 2, to take Mathematics A ; courses in geology and chemistry , to study mathematics 2.1.2. Capitalize titles preceding, but usually not following, a proper name. E.g. Mr. Brown , Judge White, King George , Aunt Mary, President C.B.Jones ( title before) ==C.B.Jones, the president of the company ( title after the name) 2.1.3. In titles of books, plays, student papers ( theses…) capitalize all words except articles, short conjunctions, and short prepositions E.g. Crime and Punishment, Midnight on the Dessert, Men Without a Country (Without is usually capitalized) 2.1.4. Capitalize the first word of every sentence (including quoted sentences and direct quotations within sentences) E.g. We were late, My friend said:" We are late", the question is, Will others be late, too ? LESSON TWELVE: SPELLING 3.DICTION 3.1.SPELLING It is evident that spelling is a highly individual problem, so it should be solved by a careful attention to one's own particular difficulties 34 Improving your spelling: This lecture suggests a number of things you can follow to enhance your spelling: 1. Be careful 2.Use dictionary 3.Keep a list of your own spelling errors 4.Do not allow mispronunciation to cause misspelling 5.Learn to spell words by syllables 6.Learn some helpful spelling tips ( rules) 7.Learn to distinguish between homonyms Good spelling habits 1.Be careful : Proofreading your composition will eliminate errors in the spelling of simple words like " to, there, its" which count a lot for teachers' corrections. Ignorance of the right spelling of ordinary words is now, and will probably continue to be the universally accepted sign of the uneducated person. 2.Use dictionary : Some students think themselves allergic to the dictionary. But the only sure safe way to find out how to spell a word is to look it up. 3.Keep a list of your own spelling errors :By writing down in your individual spelling list all the words you misspell during your composition , your spelling skill will be steadily improved. Although it may seem a difficult habit, recording – in your notebook - the words you misspell will pay you a large return on the investment of time and patience. 4.Don't allow mispronunciation to cause misspelling : Two problems may arise when one uses pronunciation as a guide to a correct spelling. First, changes in pronunciation take place more rapidly than changes in spelling. Second, one spelling form may symbolize a half dozen sounds like " ough" in "though, rough, and through ", and one sound may have numerous spellings like the sound "sh" in "ration, tissue, and ocean". In spite of this , however , the mispronunciation can cause the misspelling 5. Learn to spell words by syllables : Dividing the word into its pronounceable parts ( syllables) will assist you to pronounce and to spell it correctly. For example, the above errors in pronunciation are the result of ignoring the exact syllables in the word 6.Learn some helpful spelling tips (rules) : Study the following rules and use them whenever possible : a) - cede ,ceed, and sede Only one English word ends in " sede" : supersede; only three words end in " ceed" : exceed ,proceed, succeed ; all other words of similar sounds end in "cede" : precede ,recede, secede, accede ,concede. b)- Distinguish between the prefix and the root ( adding prefixes) 35 A prefix is one or more letters (syllable) added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning. A root word is the base to which prefix or suffix are added.Notice in the following that when a prefix is added to a root word, its spelling remains the same : Examples : il + legal = illegal , im + movable = immovable , mis + understood = misunderstood over + run=overrun c).Adding suffixes : A suffix is a syllable that is added to the end of a word to change its meaning or its class.  When the suffixes " ness " and " ly" are added to a word, the spelling of the word itself does not change. E.g. care + ness = careness, final+ly = finally Exceptions: Words ending in "y" usually change the "y" to "i" before "ness" and "ly" as in : ready = readily; heavy = heaviness; happy= happiness. One –syllable adjectives ending in "y" ,however, generally follow the rule above : dry = dryness; shy= shyness  Drop the final "e" before a suffix beginning with a vowel.E.g. combine + ation = combination ; bride +al=bridal ; fame+ous = famous; come+ ing = coming Exceptions: keep the final "e" before " a" or "o" if necessary to retain the soft sound of "c" or "g" preceding the "e" as in : noticeable, courageous  Keep the final "e" before a suffix beginning with a consonant. E.g.care + ful = careful ; entire + ly = entirely ; acknowledge + ment = acknowledgement  Double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel if the two conditions exist : 1-The word has only one syllable or is accented on the last syllable (for e.g. a word with two syllables and stressed on its second one). 2-The word ends in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel. Exmaples : plan+ing == planning ; drop+ing== dropping (one syllable word) for 'get +ing== for 'getting ( accent on the last syllable ; which contains a single consonant preceded by a single vowel). Exceptions : cancel+ed= canceled , benefit +ed = benefited ( the accent is not on the last syllable, so the "t" consonant is not doubled) ; prefer +able = preferable ( accent shifts ; not kept on the last syllable)  Notice the importance of this rule in forming the present participle (stem+ing) and the past tense of regular verbs.  Except before "ing" final "y" is usually changed to " i". E.g.defy + ance= defiance modify + er = modifier , modify + ing= modifying ( not changed before "ing". 36   Verbs ending in "y" preceded by a vowel do not change the "y" to form the third person singular of the present tense or the past participle as in : array, arrays, arrayed.BUT, lay== laid ,say == said. e)- Formation of plural nouns : Observe the following rules : 1-The regular way to form the plural of a noun is to add "s" or "es". E.g. chair == chairs, book==books, radio=radios ,dress=dresses, box= boxes, watch=watches, bush=bushes, hero=heroes Exceptions: The plural of words which end in "o" and refer to music is with " s" : piano =pianos, solo=solos 2- The plural of nouns ending in "y" preceded by a consonant is formed by changing the "y" to "i" and adding " es" as in fly=flies, lady=ladies , but in case of a vowel only "s" is added as in donkey=donkeys. 3-The plural of nouns ending in " f, or fe" is formed by adding "s" or changing " f" to "v" and adding "s or es". E.g. roof = roofs, chief = chiefs. BUT knife= knives, calf = calves 4-Ireegular plural : Some words in English do not follow the above regular patterns like : child== children, mouse == mice, tooth == teeth, woman == women… 5-The plural of compound nouns written as one word is formed by adding "s or es" like : cupful== cupfuls , leftover=leftovers 6-The plural of compound nouns consisting of noun + modifier is formed by making the noun itself plural. E.g. mother-in-law = mothers-in –law; man-of-war=men-of-war, passer-by= passers-by  Notice that " in-law" ,"of-war" ,and " by" are all modifiers.i.e. it is the nouns modified by them which are made plural 7- Some words have the same form for singular and plural as: sheep ,species ,Chinese… 7. Learn to distinguish between homonyms / homophones Words that sound alike cause hurdles. Though they may have the same sound patterns, the same spellings but with different meanings ( homonyms) ,or they may have the same pronunciation with different spellings and different meanings ( homophone) , you need to learn about them. You may have problems to distinguish between " principle" and "principal, or "capital and capitol", and other pairs. The eye is the chief aid in avoiding such misspelling. The following words sound alike : Already / all ready, altar / alter , altogether / all together, born / borne, brake / break, coarse / course, complement / compliment, its / it's, piece / peace, plane / plain, their / there…. 37 38