EJ1074656.pdf

Teaching Information Policy in the Digital Age: Issues, Strategies, and Innovation Paul T. Jaeger College of Information Studies, University of Maryland. Email: [email protected] Ursula Gorham College of Information Studies, University of Maryland. Email: [email protected] Natalie Greene Taylor Colleg...

Teaching Information Policy in the Digital Age: Issues, Strategies, and Innovation Paul T. Jaeger College of Information Studies, University of Maryland. Email: [email protected] Ursula Gorham College of Information Studies, University of Maryland. Email: [email protected] Natalie Greene Taylor College of Information Studies, University of Maryland. Email: [email protected] John C. Bertot College of Information Studies, University of Maryland. Email: [email protected] As technology continues to advance at a rapid rate, it is increasingly important to con- sider how information policies are formulated and the impact that they have on both the public’s access to information and the roles of information professionals. As such, current and future information professionals must be adequately prepared through edu- cation to work with information policies and their ramifications. The breadth of infor- mation policy, as it acts as a meta-policy for other policy areas, and the depth of specific information policies that arise from communication, economic, and political issues, inform this discussion of the challenges and opportunities involved with teaching infor- mation policy to library and information science students, as well as to other audiences. Drawing from both past research efforts and extensive teaching experience, this article introduces a conceptual understanding of information policy; uses examples of how the library and information studies community has responded to information policies in the past to further this understanding; and finally, provides a discussion of different ways in which to teach this complicated, but critical topic. Introduction of policy on information and information professions. W ithin library and information studies (LIS), information policy is a term that is used in many ways and to refer to “Information policy has come to influ- ence most interactions in society” (Jaeger, 2007, p. 842), and it significantly shapes many different information issues. Most the activities of all types of information commonly in both education and scholar- professionals. For current and future infor- ship, information policy is viewed narrow- mation professionals to be truly prepared ly as a series of separate issues—privacy, for the far-reaching impacts of policy on security, intellectual property, e-govern- their careers and their institutions, LIS ment, etc.—that impact information pro- educators need to make a commitment to fessionals and organizations, rather than as teaching information policy in LIS cours- an interrelated set of issues that comprise a es, incorporating policy issues into other larger entity (Duff, 2004; Maxwell, 2003; types of courses, and emphasizing policy McClure & Jaeger, 2008). A significant issues in continuing education. Yet the LIS reason for this gap is that education about education literature only contains discus- information policy does not receive suf- sions of aspects of policy such as teaching ficient attention compared to the impacts specific issues like intellectual freedom, J. of Education for Library and Information Science, Vol. 56, No. 3—(Summer) July 2015 ISSN: 0748-5786 © 2015 Association for Library and Information Science Education 175 doi:10.12783/issn.2328-2967/56/3/1 176 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE privacy, intellectual property, and e-gov- aided by the fact that the term policy itself ernment (Dryden, 2011; Gathegi & Burke, is used in a wide variety of ways. 2008; Jaeger, 2008; Jaeger, Bertot, Shuler, In government and scholarly discourse, & McGilvray, 2012). “policy” can variously refer to an activity, Over the past two years, the authors of goal, proposal, decision, program, authori- this paper have co-written a series of arti- zation, output, outcome, theory, model, or cles (Jaeger, Bertot, & Gorham, 2013; Jae- process. Which of these meanings is be- ger, Gorham, Sarin, & Bertot, 2014; Jae- ing used partly is based on the field of the ger, Sarin, Gorham, & Bertot, 2013) and person using the term. Different usages of books (Jaeger, Gorham, Bertot, & Sarin, information policy include: 2014; Jaeger, Taylor, & Gorham, 2015; An organizing social structure (Belisle, Thompson, Jaeger, Taylor, Subramaniam, 1944); & Bertot, 2014) that attempt to analyze the The dissemination and control of gov- complex interactions between policy and ernment information (Cory, 1953); the roles of libraries in their communities. Records management and access to A clear theme across these works is that records (Stallings, 1974); while information is heavily influenced by The information that promotes econom- policy decisions, information profession- ic growth (Lamberton, 1974); als are frequently ill-prepared to engage The information used in policy-making the policy issues related to information, processes (Bozeman & Bozeman, often being taken by surprise by the rami- 1981); fications of the policies, public reactions The design and implementation pro- to the policies, or the ethical questions cesses (Regan, 1984); raised by the policies. Building on the in- The promotion of information indus- sights from these works, this article offers tries (Bortnik, 1985); suggestions for educational approaches to Government information management facilitate the preparation of information (Cleveland, 1986); professionals to meet the future challenges A competitive business advantage (Ja- and opportunities created by policies that cobides & Croson, 2001); affect the information life cycle—from The means to promote innovation creation to disposition. (Rowlands, Eisenschitz, & Bawden, 2002); What is Information Policy? A reflection of government values (Ar- nold, 2004; Braman, 1989; Overman & Information policy has been a part of Cahill, 1990); and the United States before there was an of- The commoditization of information ficial United States. The Declaration of that requires management and gover- Independence, the Bill of Rights, and the nance (Horton & Lannon, 1989). Constitution all have a clear emphasis on information policy issues: intellectual This diversity of usage reflects the range freedom, access to government informa- of fields of the authors listed above: public tion, protection of intellectual property, policy, business, economics, social science, and dissemination of information through urban planning, law, public administration, the free press and the postal service, and communication, as well as LIS. among others (Relyea, 2008). Over time, Most publications about information many have attempted to define informa- policy do not attempt to define the broad tion policy, but these views usually reflect idea, and instead focus on a single specif- an interest in a specific part of the policy ic issue of policy (Duff, 2004; Maxwell, process rather than the entire process. In 2003). This is easily seen in the huge num- addition, this terminological quandary is ber of policy-related articles written about  Teaching Information Policy in the Digital Age: Issues, Strategies, and Innovation 177 important information policy issues that The revelations in the 1970s about gov- treat them as entirely discrete concerns, as ernment use of technology for surveil- though privacy and cybersecurity, for ex- lance on citizens may have made some ample, are two issues that never intersect. fields hesitant to focus on information This singular focus and avoidance of the policy; larger picture plagues LIS engagements The lack of interest in the recom- with policy, which is surprising given that mendations of the Rockefeller Report LIS is both a field devoted to information issued by the National Commission and a field that embraces interdisciplinarity. on Libraries and Information Sci- Still, LIS does have the distinction of ence (NCLIS) in 1976 calling for the being the only academic field that gives development of a centralized national regular attention to information policy as information policy gave the impression a broad topic area, rather than to the in- of an overall lack of focus on informa- dividual issues that fall within informa- tion policy (U.S. Domestic Council tion policy. Between the 1930s and the Committee on the Right of Privacy, 1970s, the literature reveals that informa- 1976); and tion policy was an area of interest to many The shift in focus from information disciplines, as demonstrated in the list of management to information technol- definitions above. In the last few decades, ogy management and burden spawned however, it has become mainly the interest by the Federal Paperwork Commission of LIS, particularly library science, and to and the subsequent Paperwork Reduc- a much lesser extent communications and tion Act in the late 1970s and early computer science (both of which tend to 1980s (Sprehe, 1987). focus on the infrastructure and technologi- cal aspects of information policy). Ultimately, primarily focusing on infor- This shift away from a unified focus mation policy as a series of issues rather on information policy in many disciplines than a mosaic of interrelated issues badly may have been caused by several histori- hinders our understanding of the impacts cal developments: of policy on information professions and organizations, as well as our ability to Before the 1980s, policy typically engage the policy process and respond to drove technology development to the policy developments. The true scope of extent that state and federal govern- information policy includes both specific ment agencies were promoting research issues—like net neutrality, filtering, intel- and development in this area. As in- lectual property, e-government, and much novation has increased in speed of both else—and large societal issues created by development and distribution, however, the confluence of policies—such as lev- technology has driven information els of access to and availability of infra- policy. This has forced those study- structure, levels of and social supports for ing information policy to depart from digital literacy, and the digital inclusion of traditional views; different populations. Personal computing has become more Among types of policies, information commonplace and, as a result informa- policy is unique for several reasons. First, tion is taken more for granted, making it is a meta-policy, in that it affects virtual- information policy issues both less ly everything else in a world increasingly novel and more invisible; dominated by information and communi- Information is intangible and concep- cation technologies. Other types of policy tual; have a range of definable impacts, but Information is its own issue, but also information reaches everything. Second, part of every issue; many other areas of policy are dependent 178 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE on information policy and those policy tions, signing statements, rulemaking, choices are framed by information policy agency memos, and other processes of choices. Economic growth, political delib- governing (McClure & Jaeger, 2008; Ber- erations, technological innovation, civic tot, Jaeger, & Hansen, 2012). International engagement, development, and urban treaties and the rulings of international planning, among much else, are driven in organizations are an increasingly impor- no small part by information policy deci- tant source of information policy (Hosein, sions. Third, information policy governs a 2004). Professional and business organi- tremendous range of institutions, includ- zations can also generate information poli- ing not only those in which information is cies that shape information in much more central to their existence, such as libraries, limited contexts. The stakeholders of in- schools, archives, and museums, but also formation policy decisions are even broad- government agencies, corporations, and er than the sources. Individuals, commu- nonprofits, dictating the management, col- nities, government agencies, professional lection, sharing, and other aspects of their groups, cultural institutions, corporations, information usage. Fourth, information nonprofits—basically every actor in a so- policy decisions create clear advantages ciety—can be directly affected by an in- and disadvantages across society, with a formation policy decision. huge range of groups and organizations The implementation of filtering soft- directly affected by every information ware in libraries in the early 2000s is one policy decision. Finally, information, un- example that highlights how one policy like other resources that are key areas of issue can span different sources of policy policy, is not finite (McClure & Jaeger, and impact many different actors. Three 2008). Unlike other resources, information federal laws are at the core of this issue: cannot be used up and more can always be (1) The Children’s Internet Protection Act made, creating unique dynamics. Fifth, (CIPA) (2000); (2) The Telecommunica- although information is theoretically un- tions Act of 1996; and (3) The Library limited, its availability over the long term Services and Technology Act (LSTA) can vary due to a number of issues such (1996). Under CIPA (20 U.S.C. § 7001), as information storage and retrieval, the any public library receiving “universal media on which information is captured, service” (E–rate) discounts established by and other factors. the Telecommunications Act of 1996 or In light of the need to teach the com- LSTA grants from the Institute for Mu- prehensive nature of information policy, seum and Library Services (IMLS) to state this paper defines it as: library agencies is required to install filters on networked computers so as to prevent The broad set of goals created by children from viewing certain categories governments and other institutions to of regulated online content (Jaeger & Mc- manage the information lifecycle (from Clure, 2004). Libraries thus found them- creation to disposition), and selves in a difficult position because, at The ways in which these policies the time of CIPA’s passage, many of them affect the everyday use of informa- relied on E-rate funds to support library tion by individuals, communities, and technology and Internet access (Jaeger & institutions (Jaeger, Bertot, & Gor- Yan, 2009). This reliance led a number of ham, 2013; Jaeger, Gorham, Bertot, & libraries to comply with CIPA for finan- Sarin, 2014). cial reasons (Jaeger, Bertot, & McClure, 2004). Libraries may not create the online Such policies are created primarily by content that CIPA seeks to regulate—the local, state, and national governments resources they provide to patrons, how- through laws, executive orders, regula- ever, certainly can be used to create con-  Teaching Information Policy in the Digital Age: Issues, Strategies, and Innovation 179 tent—but they were nevertheless caught how many were affected by its require- in the crossfire of the government’s effort ments, it serves as an extremely useful ex- of protect children from certain content ample of information policy. Even while availability through library infrastructure various groups (including libraries) were and technologies. This resulted in the need debating the constitutionality of the law, to balance several different legitimate libraries still had to figure out the practi- interests, namely, their need for federal cal implications of filters. It also shows funding, their commitment to providing how information policies can impact indi- unrestricted access to information, and viduals, institutions, and society, as well their desire to limit children’s exposure to as how problems can arise when policy- potentially harmful content. In court, the makers fail to fully appreciate the scope American Library Association (ALA) and of these impacts. These problems are then others challenged CIPA on its face on sev- compounded by the fact that information eral grounds: professionals do not always understand the scope of these impacts either, and thus The filtering mechanisms were severely do not know how to get involved in the flawed (particularly those prone to policy-making process. The end result is overfiltering); that information professionals find them- The mechanisms set forth in the law for selves in reactive, rather than proactive, adult patrons to obtain unfiltered access positions. were cumbersome and implementation of them was subject to the discretion of Teaching Information Policy librarians; and The statutory requirements were far Several papers have suggested the more broad than they needed to be, need for LIS to focus more attention on covering all library networks, technolo- teaching information policy to current gies, and content that received federal students and current practitioners, and E-rate and LSTA funding—including have suggested strategies for teaching patrons and staff use, regardless age or some aspects of information policy (Ber- purpose (e.g., assisting patrons con- tot, Jaeger, Shuler, Simmons, & Grimes, ducting research). 2009; Jaeger, 2008; Jaeger & Bertot, 2009; Jaeger, Bertot, Shuler, & McGil- The case eventually made its way up to vray, 2012; McClure & Jaeger, 2008), but the Supreme Court, which held that CIPA no paper has previously laid out the key neither violated the free speech clause pedagogical issues in and approaches to of the First Amendment, nor imposed an teaching information policy. The discus- impermissible condition on public librar- sion that follows highlights the consider- ies, so long as the patrons could request ations of audience, goals, assignments, that the filters be turned off. The ruling and instructional methods in teaching in- reflected some naivety and poor strategy formation policy. Based on the extensive in ALA’s legal approach (Jaeger & Mc- research about information policy for the Clure, 2004). Still, debates about the issue publications noted at the beginning of the continue today—in 2010, the Washington this paper—along with the authors’ expe- Supreme Court broadly upheld filtering in riences teaching a wide array of informa- libraries, equating it to content develop- tion policy courses—the lessons below ment and relying heavily on the Supreme can be employed whether the information Court’s ruling in the ALA case. policy is being discussed in a face-to-face Because of how many different actors or online setting and whether the course and stakeholders were involved in the en- is devoted to policy or includes issues of actment and enforcement of CIPA, and policy when discussing other topics. 180 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE Audience cies impact them or perhaps on policy evaluation. But, if you are working The first consideration in teaching in- with public policy students, the focus formation policy is the audience. Infor- may be on breaking down the steps of mation policy is a broad area with many the policy-making process and helping nuances, which presents both opportuni- them understand how to analyze policy ties and challenges for teaching. The types options. These differences are impor- of students in the course being taught— tant—the readings and materials may undergraduates, LIS graduate students, be very similar but the assignments and current information professionals—and in-class exercises are likely to vary. their career goals, are significant consid- What role do your students want to erations. The logical place to start is to play? Going back to the CIPA example, consider both what the students need and we can see how librarians’ efforts to what you want them to take away from the do more than they traditionally did in class. These lenses will help to shape what the area of information policy were less part of the information policy universe than successful. This outcome raises will frame your focus. The question of au- the question of what we can do to equip dience will also help to determine how you librarians and other information profes- approach information policy—as a set of sionals to take on an expanded role in interrelated issues, as large-scale societal policy arenas, highlighting how crucial concerns, or both. These approaches will it is that they understand the policy- be different, for example, if one is incor- making process better and think about porating internet security and privacy into the different roles they can play in this workplace training as compared to teach- process. ing information policy to graduate stu- dents in an iSchool. For those of us teaching in this area, it There are many potential audiences, is important to think about what we can and their needs, perspectives, and expec- do to help students develop a voice, which tations will vary widely. A needs assess- extends beyond teaching select areas like ment can help you develop a curriculum filtering and net neutrality into facilitating that aligns goals, content, and audience. the development of skills with broad ap- Important questions to ask include: plication in the public policy arena. This can be accomplished by examining both Who are you teaching and what do the big societal issues and the specific is- you know about their backgrounds? sues, placing both types of issues into con- Do you have a sense of their baseline text so that students understand why they knowledge? For example, we talk about matter. For example the USA PATRIOT the sources of law—do you think the Act, like CIPA, raised constitutional ques- students understand the legislative tions related to privacy but also raised process? Is understanding the legisla- practical questions for academic and pub- tive process important for your course? lic librarians related to the collection of If you think this is something that patron information, the legal obligation to should be addressed, how can you walk respond to requests from law enforcement them through the process as quickly officials, and other issues (Klinefelter, as possible so that you can move onto 2007). By looking at these various levels substantive areas of policy? of any given policy, students can begin to What role do your students play in the fully understand the applicability of infor- policy process? If teaching informa- mation policy to their professional lives. tion professionals, the focus may be on Teaching the skills to recognize policy helping them understand how poli- issues as they appear is extremely impor-  Teaching Information Policy in the Digital Age: Issues, Strategies, and Innovation 181 tant as new policy issues for information these were laws were ultimately blocked professionals are being created with great from implementation, but each also served frequency. The importance of net neutral- as a stepping-stone to CIPA. The mes- ity to libraries did not become part of the sage was clear: proponents of content discourse until the U.S. Court of Appeals regulation affecting minors would con- for the D.C. Circuit’s ruling in Verizon v. tinue until they prevailed—and they did. FCC (2014) struck down key parts of the Information professionals had a choice: FCC’s Open Internet Order (2010), hold- they could better understand the policy ing that the FCC overreached its author- process and policy-making audience, and ity in implementing net neutrality rules for work towards pragmatic solutions, or they broadband providers. Immediately follow- could continue to fight (Jaeger, Bertot, & ing the Verizon ruling, the ALA, as well Gorham, 2013; Jaeger, Gorham, Bertot, & as the American Association of Law Li- Sarin, 2014). One wonders what the out- brarians (AALL) and the Association of come of CIPA—or if there would have Research Libraries (ARL), came out with been a CIPA—if libraries had been will- strongly worded statements, detailing the ing to play the policy system and offer a reasons for their opposition to this deci- patron-choice option, giving patrons (and sion (ALA, 2014). In February 2014, the parents of minors) the choice of using fil- FCC opened up a new rulemaking docket tered or unfiltered computers. Sometimes to consider how it should proceed in light a goal of information professionals is to of the Verizon opinion and the ALA was shape an information policy that is going one of the first to file a comment when this to be implemented regardless of their lack docket opened. In July 2014, the FCC re- of support; the strategy then is to minimize leased a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking, its impact. specifically requesting comment on the role that open Internet has for public insti- Types of Information Policy Courses tutions, such as public and school librar- ies. ALA, in a collaborative effort with There are many kinds of information EDUCAUSE, created a template letter for policy courses, and a variety of other libraries to use to express their support for courses in which information policy can ALA and others’ comments to the FCC be an important aspect. Courses or training (Clark, 2014). These recent efforts are but sessions with words like “policy,” “law,” one demonstration of the ways in which and “government” in their titles are gener- the library community can make itself a ally what people think of as policy courses, recognized player in these debates. but courses that delve into specific areas of It is also important to impart an under- policy or the impacts thereof, such as hu- standing of the policy process—and how man rights, digital inclusion, and literacy, to be effective in policy-making. Policy are also important mechanisms for teach- development is often an ongoing process, ing information policy. Examples include: particularly as technologies and current events influence issues. Take CIPA as an Classes seemingly unrelated to informa- example. What most information profes- tion policy—This might be a class on sionals, particularly libraries, forget is collection development that requires a that CIPA was actually the third attempt discussion of copyright or censorship, to regulate access to certain content in or a class on management that requires libraries. First was the Communications a discussion on where an institution gets Decency Act (47 USC § 230) contained its funding. A more specific example within the Telecommunications Act of is a course on digital literacy. Here, the 1996, followed by the Children’s Online focus is more on familiarizing students Protection Act (47 USC §231). Both of with existing laws and policies (e.g., 182 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE BTOP, National Broadband Plan) a semester-long information policy class that promote digital literacy and then might have the goals of teaching students encouraging students to think through to understand: how to promote the development of Relationships among policy issues such digital literacy skills in different envi- as access rights, proprietary rights, con- ronments; sumer rights, and privacy rights in the A class on information policy writ large information and telecommunications —This course provides an opportunity policy arenas; to tackle both the big societal issues Importance of information policy is- and the more specific issues surround- sues to professionals and to the general ing information policy and to help public; students understand how these issues Roles of constitutional and statutory intersect; provisions, domestic laws, regulations Classes on aspects of information and federal policies, as well as non- policy—These courses might include governmental sources of policy; a government information class that Issues of ethics and values raised by not only introduces students to primary policies, as well as potential conflicts sources but also provides instruction on of professional ethics created by policy how to locate primary sources in print decisions; and and online and how to teach others Processes of policy analysis and re- about using these resources. Policy and search. program evaluation classes, classes on specific policies, and advocacy classes In any type of policy course, the con- might also fit in this category; and text for information policy issues can be Classes on issues affected by policy— examined through the different perspec- These might include courses on human tives of stakeholders on an issue. Re- rights, asking students to consider how turning to CIPA, as filtering software in information access and human rights libraries has generated an ongoing dia- intersect; how current laws and policy logue, organizations like the ALA, the recognize access to information as a American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), right (if they do); and the implications and the Electronic Privacy Information of policies that do not consider access. Center (EPIC) have made concerted ef- forts to educate the public about this is- If your class is a workshop, training, or sue. The ALA created a webpage (http:// some other type of stand-alone class, you www.ala.org/advocacy/advleg/federal- need to think about how much you can legislation/cipa), for example, that pulled realistically cover and may not be able to together the relevant legal materials (e.g., go into as much detail as you would like. the text of CIPA, decisions rendered by An iSchool or other graduate school envi- the lower courts and the Supreme Court, ronment is a little different, offering the briefs submitted to the Supreme Court) potential for a curriculum with different and gives a sense of the variety of policy information policy classes that are com- sources and actors involved. Materials plementary and build upon one another. from advocacy-oriented sites should be With a semester-long class, there is the taken with a grain of salt because they opportunity to give students a foundation are obviously articulating a particular po- in policy in general, acquainting or reac- sition, but these kinds of educational re- quainting them with sources of policy, sources compiled by interested organiza- as well as to give them a baseline under- tions can be a valuable starting point for standing of the policy process and how to understanding the different facets of an engage in policy analysis. As an example, information policy issue.  Teaching Information Policy in the Digital Age: Issues, Strategies, and Innovation 183 The instructional format may also af- cific policies to be covered. No course, fect the course. Increasingly, LIS instruc- even a semester-long course devoted to tion takes place in multiple formats— information policy, can hope to capture all in-person, online, or blended. Teaching of the elements or specific topics that fall information policy online offers both chal- under the umbrella of information policy. lenges and opportunities that include the Instead, selections can be made to provide ability to: an overview sampling of the range of is- sues; a more focused grouping of closely Include content in multiple formats to related issues, such as copyright, security, enhance the student experience (e.g., and privacy; or a course devoted to one TedTalks,YouTube videos, interactive specific topic, such as a course on e-gov- lectures via tools such as Camtasia, and ernment or a course on digital literacy and other interactive online content). inclusion. A course could also be framed Expose students to thought leaders and entirely around a large-scale concept in policy professionals via Webinars and information policy, such as examining the other real-time media (e.g., Google reactions in information policy to societal Hangout, Skype). crises (Caidi & Ross, 2005; Hogenboom, Innovate through learning technolo- 2008; Jaeger & Burnett, 2005). gies such as Present.me for student In connection with selecting content ar- presentations; blogs for the debate and eas, consideration should be given to how discussion of key policy issues and the course will prepare students to under- the publication of website reviews; the stand the impacts of the policies and the creation of Websites (through tools like various ways in which to engage relevant WordPress) on information policy is- policy discussions. Performance measure- sues; and more. ment, program evaluation, and advocacy Establishing mechanisms for ongoing each focus on outcomes in different ways. discussions that provide an under- And by becoming familiar with the core standing of the meta-policy and larger aspects of each of these outcome-oriented information policy issues. activities, students will better understand Online instruction can enhance the the link between policies as written and learning experience of students seeking to policies in practice. In covering these top- understand information policy issues and ics within the context of the selected in- solutions by going beyond the limitations formation policies, issues related to stake- of classroom walls. holders, sources, implementations, and the like will be addressed as well. The evalua- Key Concepts to Teach tion of a government website, for example, can consider usability, accessibility, goals Any discussion of information poli- in terms of audience, and number of visits. cy should begin with the issues detailed Having students conduct an evaluation of above: definitions of information policy, this nature encourages them to think about policy actors, sources of policy, and the stakeholders, their different interests, and scope of the policies. The level of this dis- how the site does or does not meet these cussion again depends on your audience, different interests. but regardless of your students’ knowl- The extent to which you choose to have edge base, it is a good idea to explain how students engage with issues related to the these foundational considerations are the policy impacts and outcomes will depend various lenses that will be used to frame on the focus the course. General questions discussions throughout the course. to consider include: Having laid out the broad framework for the course, the next choice is the spe- What populations, organizations, or 184 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE government agencies are affected by policy-making process. Advocacy mes- the policy? sages, funding, and the persistence of in- Are there disproportionate impacts on terested parties—all forms of engagement certain populations and/or is the policy with policy-making—are essential to this biased in favor of or against certain process. Often policies are developed not groups? and because they will have the greatest impact What are the short-term and long-term for the largest number of people, but be- impacts, as well as the best-case and cause a small group of influential citizens the worst-case possible impacts of the or corporations have the loudest voices. policy? A comparison of the outcomes in CIPA and the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) Discussion of measurement and impact is informative here (Jaeger, Gorham, Ber- also allows students to consider differ- tot, & Sarin, 2014). The ALA took a firm ent types of data collection—qualitative, stance against both policies. In the for- quantitative, or mixed method—and to mer case, they were involved directly in think about the implications of choosing a legal opposition to the legislation, ending particular approach to data collection. Pro- in the rendering of a Supreme Court case gram evaluation can include any number against them, and the organization in fact of methods to try to understand whether took quite a bit of flak for their position. the goals of the policy are being met, in- SOPA, on the other hand, also had detrac- cluding cost-benefit analyses, comparisons tors in influential positions. In that situa- among similar programs, and comparisons tion, however, the powerful Internet busi- of goals to outcomes. Bias or political mo- nesses prevailed in their efforts to stop the tivation can underlie any measurement or legislation, demonstrating the varying lev- evaluation though, and evaluations often els of influence that organizations wield in take into account the goals and anticipat- the policy-making process. While an in- ed outcomes built into the policy-making depth exploration of the power struggles process. Helping students to understand of legislators, lobbyists, and other inter- the political issues surrounding the study ested parties may be beyond the scope of of policy impacts is an important compo- most information policy courses, students nent of teaching this particular aspect of should be given at least a basic under- information policy. standing of how advocacy can impact the Equally important is helping students development, as well as the actual impact, to understand how evaluation fits into of any given policy. the broader policy-making process. To highlight how evaluation can play a role Types of Assignments in modifying (and hopefully improving) existing policies, an assignment can ask There are as many ways to get your stu- students to consider the following ques- dents thinking about information policy as tions as part of an evaluation of an exist- there are opinions on the policies them- ing policy: selves. Below are a sample of assignment types we have found effective in teaching Are there mechanisms for citizen or policy courses and the reasons underlying agency input? each of the assignments: Are there modification processes? and Legislative Tracing shows students that Are there timeframes or benchmarks most pieces of legislation do not stand for policy evaluation or reevaluation? alone. For example, a bill might be incor- porated into a larger bill for passage, often Advocacy also plays an enormous appropriations bills. Tracing legislation role throughout the various stages of the also requires students to consider the bi-  Teaching Information Policy in the Digital Age: Issues, Strategies, and Innovation 185 cameral system of the United States. You the intent? Are the key terms carefully might ask students to describe the history defined? Are there examples or applica- of certain policies, beginning with their tions in the policy? first introduction in the legislature to the Consistency—Is the policy internally last action taken with respect to them, consistent? whether it be passage, reauthorization, Ambiguity—Can the policy be inter- or another action. This assignment also preted in multiple plausible ways? Are gets students to discover and evaluate the there established parameters for the means in which the government makes policy? Does the policy cover one topic this information public. For example, or multiple topics? Congress.gov, currently in beta, replaces Contradiction—Does this policy run the old thomas.loc.gov. Whether this is a counter to another policy? Are there in- change for the better remains to be seen herent contradictions within the policy? and can certainly be a point of discussion Does the policy comply with related among students. judicial holdings? Is it constitutional? Identification of Legislators is key to Duplication—Does the policy duplicate understanding the policy environment and another policy? the political environment in which the pol- Implementation—Are methods of icy context evolves. To better understand implementation defined? Are responsi- this policy context, students should know bilities in implementation defined? Are something about those who create the pol- timelines for implementation defined? icies, including their voting records. While Enforcement—Are methods of enforce- this may seem like an incredibly basic ex- ment defined? Are responsibilities for ercise, a recent Gallup poll’s finding that enforcement defined? Are timelines for only a third of Americans surveyed could enforcement defined? name their members of Congress sug- Gaps—Is additional guidance not in the gests the importance of focusing on the document needed to implement it? Is fundamentals (Mendes, 2013). Although there sufficient detail to implement and it is likely that your students will be more enforce the policy? aware of political issues than the general Evaluation and impacts—how would public, it is always best not to assume. the effects of the policy be measured? Some questions you may want to incorpo- rate into this assignment are: An Elevator Speech describes an issue and persuades the listener in a very suc- Identify their members of Congress and cinct manner. Although the name suggests their respective political parties; the length of the speech should be around Identify the year in which they were 30-seconds, the concept of an elevator first elected; and speech simply implies concise and to-the- Identify at least one committee on point communication. For this assignment, which they serve and/or leadership you might ask your students to choose an position they hold. information policy you have covered in class or on one focused on an issue of in- Policy Analysis can take the form of terest, and then ask them to pitch the pol- a research paper that examines one par- icy to the class. The speech should have ticular policy on multiple levels or com- elements of advocacy and persuasion, but pares policies, focusing on a specific area should be factual (however slanted those of analysis. A thorough policy analysis facts may be). This is perhaps the skill would consider a policy’s: most of your students will use most fre- Clarity—Does it have a clear meaning? quently outside of your classroom, given Can a reasonable person understand the increasing importance of “sound bites” 186 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE to both the public and policy-makers to- Such an assignment helps students scan day. the larger information policy space, assess A White Paper—an informative report its significance and potential impact(s), on an issue—is another way of having and consider strategies and approaches re- students study a specific policy issue. The garding how as professionals we may need most classic examples come from policy to act, engage, and monitor the topic. research centers like Brookings Institu- A Make a Policy assignment can pro- tion. An assignment of this nature induc- vide students with the opportunity to think es students to consider multiple sides of through a controversial issue and what it an issue, the potential costs and impacts means to try and create an information pol- thereof, and existing data on the needs for icy or set of policies to address the issue. the policy as well on public opinion. One example is an assignment that has stu- An Issue Brief in the style of the Con- dents working in groups as a Community gressional Research Service (CRS) reports Decency Board, with the idea of creating requires the student to think objectively a set of community standards that govern and broadly about policy and exposes decency that would affect public displays, them to an exceptional style of presenting library materials, and the like. All too of- these facts. Although CRS does not make ten, students and the public are exposed to their reports available directly, many of sound bites, which emanate from a policy them are available online through, for debate—but it is an entirely different mat- example, University of North Texas li- ter to legislate and/or govern from a sound brary’s CRS digitation project (http:// bite. Such an assignment forces students digital.library.unt.edu/explore/collections/ to consider a wide variety of viewpoints CRSR/). Depending on your students, the while attempting to create policy. use of infographics and other digital data These are by no means the only types visualization techniques to concisely share of assignments that can be used to teach information in in issue briefs may be an information policy, but the above list dem- interesting area to explore. onstrates the range of possibilities. The An Op Ed engages student in construct- driver in building a curriculum in informa- ing a persuasive argument to garner sup- tion policy is to design a set of assignments port for a particular perspective on a policy that allow students to explore different topic. Having students write an editorial, aspects of the policy-making process and particularly in conjunction with a more ways to engage it. neutral issue brief, is one way to demon- strate how policy analysis can be manipu- Conclusion: Teaching Information lated for one’s own agenda—or more pos- Policy for the Future itively, how to support one’s opinions with facts. In an assignment like this, you could Given the vastness of information pol- have students argue in favor of or opposi- icy and the size of its importance to in- tion to a particular policy or, alternatively, formation professionals and information you might give them specific assertions organizations, a paper such as this can to argue for/against. Such quotations can only serve as a primer for more detailed be found in newspaper editorials, profes- discussions about teaching information sional magazines, scholarly journals, and policy more comprehensively and effec- reputable online sources. tively to current students and current pro- A Current Topics short paper focuses fessionals in the information fields. The students on an existing and topically cur- most a course devoted to information pol- rent policy issues and helps them identify icy can do is to help students understand the core issue, the stakeholders, and im- information policy as a mosaic of soci- plications for information professionals. etal-level and more specific information-  Teaching Information Policy in the Digital Age: Issues, Strategies, and Innovation 187 related issues, and to provide students Bertot, J. C., Jaeger, P. T., & Hansen, D. 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