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EFFECTIVE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS Preparing messages that communicate 4th edition...

EFFECTIVE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS Preparing messages that communicate 4th edition EFFECTIVE BUSINESS Preparing messages that communicate EFFECTIVE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS Michael Fielding COMMUNICATION 4th edition Modern day organisations are more dependent on communication to achieve success than ever before. Rapid development and greater complexity of communication technologies, and the growing importance and popularity of social media, means that organisations can no longer rely on traditional methods alone to engage in effective business communication. Social media and new communication forms, however, come with their own challenges and pitfalls. IN ORGANISATIONS Organisations need to carefully and strategically consider the use of these new media as part of their effective communication plan. Preparing messages that communicate Effective business communication in organisations, 4th edition, builds on traditional communication forms with up-to-date theory. It discusses new communication trends and the changing nature of communication in businesses. 4th edition This edition illustrates the effective use of various new media sources and their application in the workplace, the challenges of using these media and the appropriate ways in which they can be incorporated into effective business communication practices within the organisation. Michael Fielding Effective business communication in organisations, 4th edition, provides widespread principles for communicating in the organisational context. The book has an extended online database of support material containing questions, Franzél du Plooy-Cilliers case studies and activities. This edition therefore provides students, lecturers and business communicators with a comprehensive and practical reference guide to communication in the workplace. About the editors Michael Fielding was the Founding Director of the Professional Communication Unit at the University of Cape Town. He has also worked as a consultant in business communication for the past thirty years. He has a master’s degree in Education from the University of Cape Town and another master’s degree from Leeds. Franzél du Plooy-Cilliers is the Head of the Faculty of Applied Humanities at the Independent Institute of Education (the IIE). She has worked as a full-time and part-time lecturer for both public and private higher education providers. She holds a doctorate in Interpersonal Communication and a master’s degree in Organisational Communication. Du Plooy-Cilliers has published numerous books and articles in her academic Franzél du Plooy-Cilliers fields and has presented papers at national and international conferences. She is a referee for several accredited journals and is a programme evaluator for the Council on Higher Education (CHE). www.juta.co.za  EFFECTIVE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS Preparing messages that communicate 4th edition Michael Fielding Franzél du Plooy-Cilliers 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 1 2013/12/03 10:29 AM Effective business communication in organisations: Preparing the messages that communicate 4e Previously published as Effective communication in organisations First published 2014 Print fourth edition 2014 © Juta and Company Ltd, 2014 1st Floor, Sunclare Building 21 Dreyer Street Claremont 7708 South Africa ISBN: 978 0 70219 782 6 (Parent) ISBN: 978 1 48510 417 9 (WebPDF) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Subject to any applicable licensing terms and conditions in the case of electronically supplied publications, a person may engage in fair dealing with a copy of this publication for his or her personal or private use, or his or her research or private study. See Section 12(1)(a) of the Copyright Act 98 of 1978. Project manager: Deidré Mvula Editor: Heather Thorne Proofreader: Lenore Hammond Typesetter: Fly Creative Cover designer: Eugene Badenhorst Indexer: Glenda Webster The author and the publisher believe on the strength of due diligence exercised that this work does not contain any material that is the subject of copyright held by another person. In the alternative, they believe that any protected pre-existing material that may be comprised in it has been used with appropriate authority or has been used in circumstances that make such use permissible under the law.  CONTENTS About the authors...................................................................................................... viii Preface........................................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS............................................................................................. 1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 1 Objectives...................................................................................................................... 2 Why is communication essential for business success?.............................................. 2 Reading skills................................................................................................................. 2 The subject of the book................................................................................................ 5 CHAPTER 2: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS................................................ 8 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 8 Objectives...................................................................................................................... 9 Defining communication........................................................................................... 10 Communication models............................................................................................ 12 Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 25 CHAPTER 3: INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION.......................................... 26 Introduction................................................................................................................ 26 Objectives.................................................................................................................... 28 The importance of effective interpersonal communication in organisations......... 29 Intrapersonal communication and perception......................................................... 29 Interpersonal communication................................................................................... 33 Active listening............................................................................................................ 38 Non-verbal communication in the workplace.......................................................... 42 Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 57 CHAPTER 4: SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION.............................................. 58 Introduction................................................................................................................ 58 Objectives.................................................................................................................... 59 Nature and characteristics of a small group.............................................................. 60 Reasons for the formation of a small group.............................................................. 60 Stages of group development..................................................................................... 61 Group structures and group dynamics...................................................................... 63 Types of groups........................................................................................................... 65 Leadership in groups................................................................................................... 68 Conflict in groups....................................................................................................... 75 Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 78 CHAPTER 5: COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS..................................... 79 Introduction................................................................................................................ 79 Objectives.................................................................................................................... 79 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 3 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Effective business communication in organisations What is an organisation?............................................................................................ 80 Organisational structure............................................................................................. 82 Communication in an organisation.......................................................................... 87 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 102 CHAPTER 6: INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION........................................ 103 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 103 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 104 Important definitions in intercultural communication.......................................... 104 Culture and climate in organisations.......................................................................107 Intercultural communication....................................................................................110 Understanding intercultural communication..........................................................113 How can organisations improve intercultural communication?............................114 Intercultural sensitivity..............................................................................................117 Conclusion................................................................................................................118 CHAPTER 7: THE INTERVIEW.......................................................................... 119 Introduction...............................................................................................................119 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 120 The special nature of interviews............................................................................... 120 Types of interviews in an organisation.................................................................... 121 The role of questions in interviews.......................................................................... 127 Interview preparation............................................................................................... 128 Phases of a job interview.......................................................................................... 129 The job application................................................................................................... 130 The information-seeking interview.......................................................................... 135 The performance-appraisal interview...................................................................... 136 The exit interview...................................................................................................... 136 Conclusion............................................................................................................... 137 CHAPTER 8: FORMAL MEETINGS.................................................................... 138 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 138 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 139 Differences between formal and small policy-making meetings........................... 139 Aspects of formal meetings....................................................................................... 140 Guidelines for the conduct of meetings.................................................................. 148 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 150 CHAPTER 9: GRAMMAR, STYLE AND TONE IN THE ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT..................................................................................................... 151 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 151 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 151 Parts of speech – a quick revision............................................................................ 152 Words and meanings................................................................................................ 154 Functions of words.................................................................................................... 156 Choosing vocabulary for professional messages..................................................... 159 Style, tone and jargon............................................................................................... 162 iv 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 4 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Contents Sentence structure and punctuation........................................................................ 170 Types of sentences..................................................................................................... 177 Rules for punctuation............................................................................................... 178 Writing clearly and concisely.................................................................................... 181 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 184 CHAPTER 10: WRITING SUMMARIES AND ESSAYS......................................... 185 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 185 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 185 What is a summary?.................................................................................................. 186 Essays and essay writing............................................................................................ 194 Conclusion............................................................................................................... 200 CHAPTER 11: HOW TO APPROACH A CASE STUDY........................................ 201 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 201 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 201 What is a case study?................................................................................................. 202 Example of a case...................................................................................................... 204 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 208 CHAPTER 12: REFERENCING........................................................................... 209 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 209 Objectives...................................................................................................................210 The need to reference.................................................................................................210 Avoid plagiarism........................................................................................................ 211 Using and referencing direct quotes........................................................................ 212 Paraphrasing.............................................................................................................. 214 What information to record..................................................................................... 217 Using the numbered system..................................................................................... 218 Referencing systems.................................................................................................. 219 Alphabetising references........................................................................................... 225 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 226 CHAPTER 13: THE ELEMENTS OF READABILITY............................................ 228 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 228 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 228 Reader and writer needs............................................................................................ 229 What can writers do to cater for readers’ needs?..................................................... 229 Readability indices.................................................................................................... 233 Calculating the Gunning Fog Index......................................................................... 236 Practical suggestions for writing............................................................................... 237 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 238 CHAPTER 14: PLANNING, ORGANISING AND CONSTRUCTING MESSAGES FOR ORGANISATIONS.............................................................. 239 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 239 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 239 v 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 5 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Effective business communication in organisations Planning and organising messages.......................................................................... 240 Constructing business letters for organisations...................................................... 244 Formats for letters..................................................................................................... 247 Memoranda............................................................................................................... 266 The electronic office.................................................................................................. 268 Faxing......................................................................................................................... 272 Electronic mail (email)............................................................................................. 273 Creating effective emails........................................................................................... 279 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 284 CHAPTER 15: CORPORATE IMAGE AND CORPORATE IDENTITY.................. 285 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 285 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 286 What is identity?....................................................................................................... 286 What is corporate identity?....................................................................................... 287 What is corporate image?......................................................................................... 289 Why are corporate identity and corporate image important for business communication?.................................................................................................. 293 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 294 CHAPTER 16: GOOD CUSTOMER RELATIONS AND TELEPHONE ETIQUETTE.................................................................................................. 295 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 295 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 296 Customer relations.................................................................................................... 296 Telephone etiquette in business............................................................................... 298 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 304 CHAPTER 17: MASS COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT..................................................................................................... 305 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 305 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 305 What is mass communication?................................................................................ 306 Functions of the mass media.................................................................................... 307 Traditional mass media............................................................................................ 308 Public relations..........................................................................................................310 Advertising................................................................................................................. 315 New media................................................................................................................ 320 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 326 CHAPTER 18: BUSINESS PROPOSALS, BUSINESS PLANS AND ACADEMIC PROPOSALS................................................................................................. 327 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 327 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 328 The business plan...................................................................................................... 328 vi 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 6 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Contents Proposals................................................................................................................... 331 Writing an academic proposal.................................................................................. 336 Checklists for proposals............................................................................................ 340 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 341 CHAPTER 19: REPORTS.................................................................................... 342 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 342 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 342 Purposes of business reports.................................................................................... 342 Types of business reports.......................................................................................... 343 Characteristics of business reports........................................................................... 343 The audience for reports........................................................................................... 344 Traditional elements of reports................................................................................ 344 Letter or memorandum of transmittal..................................................................... 359 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 362 CHAPTER 20: INSTRUCTIONAL GRAPHICS.................................................... 363 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 363 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 363 What are instructional graphics?.............................................................................. 364 The purpose and function of instructional graphics............................................... 364 Types of instructional graphics................................................................................. 365 Integration of graphics into a written message....................................................... 381 Designing graphics.................................................................................................... 382 Bias in instructional graphics................................................................................... 383 Conclusion............................................................................................................... 383 CHAPTER 21: ORAL MESSAGES........................................................................ 384 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 384 Objectives.................................................................................................................. 384 Formats for a presentation and an oral report........................................................ 385 Preparing a presentation or oral report................................................................... 388 Preparing a persuasive presentation......................................................................... 389 The speaker’s credibility............................................................................................ 392 Using audio-visual aids............................................................................................ 393 Audience response and questions............................................................................ 398 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 400 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................ 401 INDEX............................................................................................................... 405 vii 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 7 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  About the authors Dr. Franzél du Plooy-Cilliers: Franzél gained her BA Communication degree at the Rand Afrikaans University (currently the University of Johannesburg). She not only graduated as top student in Communication Studies, but also as top achiever in Industrial Psychology, winner of the McCann-Erickson award for the best advertising project and the Audio-visual Production Management project and received several academic merit bursaries from both the university and the National Research Foundation. Continuing her studies, she received her Honours degree in Advertising, a Masters degree in Organisational Communication and a Doctorate in Interpersonal Communication. During this time she became a full-time lecturer in the university’s Communication department and received a Lecturer of the Year award. She then joined Monash University as Head of Section of the Communication and Media Studies section and received an award for the best female academic, a dean’s commendation for teaching excellence and was invited to present in the Vice-Chancellor’s Showcase for Teaching Excellence in Melbourne, Australia. Franzél has published several articles in accredited academic journals, presented research articles at national and international conferences and has co-authored several books. She has been a referee for accredited journals, is an external moderator and examiner for public and private higher education providers, and she also supervises numerous postgraduate students. Franzél currently holds the position of Head of Faculty of Applied Humanities at the Independent Institute of Education (IIE). Marla Koonin: Marla began her career working in both the Journalism and Public Relations industries. For the last 10 years she has worked as an academic in both public and private higher education institutions. She has managed, lectured, written and developed various qualifications and material in the fields of communication, journalism, public relations and event management. Marla is a referee for academic journals, is an external moderator and examiner for public and private higher education institutions, acts as a programme evaluator for the Council of Higher Education (CHE), and has published articles for mainstream media, public relations projects, academic journals and online platforms. She is also the managing editor of The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning. Marla is a registered Chartered Public Relations Practitioner (CPRP) and holds a BA Communication degree, an Honours majoring in Journalism and Communication and a Masters 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 8 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  About the authors degree in Journalism, receiving both her Honours and Masters cum laude. She also won the Beeld prize for the top Journalism student at the Rand Afrikaans University (currently the University of Johannesburg) both at undergraduate and postgraduate levels, earned membership of the Golden Key Honours Society and received the Dean’s award for her Masters. She is currently busy with her Doctorate in Organisational Communication through the University of South Africa (UNISA). Marla holds the position of Senior Head of Programme for the Faculty of Applied Humanities at the IIE. Gerald Pascoe: Majoring in Communication and Media Studies and Psychology, Gerald graduated top of his class at Monash University. His academic accomplishments earned him membership of the Golden Key Honours Society. After gaining his Honours degree in Communication and Media Studies, also at Monash University, Gerald joined a public relations and events management company, where he took on a range of responsibilities including managing events, public relations, writing press releases and magazine publishing for both local and international clients. After gaining invaluable and extensive industry experience, Gerald decided to pursue an academic career and further his studies. He then joined the Communication and Media Studies department at Monash University where he lectured and tutored Communication and Media students. He has recently submitted his Masters in Communication Science at UNISA. Gerald currently holds the position of a Head of Programme at the IIE overseeing programmes within the Marketing, Communication and Branding fields. Cheryl Howes: After completing a BA Honours degree and Higher Education Diploma at the University of Pretoria, Cheryl began teaching English and Life Skills in England and then South Africa. Cheryl lectured for six years on a variety of Communication, Journalism and English Programmes for UNISA and the IIE. Here she developed her understanding of the challenges associated with curricula and their relationship to the working world. Subsequently, development for various SAQA unit standard-based courses at management, ABET and FET-levels, and further development for the IIE on Journalism and Short Learning Programmes, provided her with an appreciation of the opportunities and challenges in these environments. In addition to this, Cheryl has worked as an editor and copywriter on various Educational and Corporate Best Practice documents, academic articles, dissertations, websites, promotional material and other copy. Cheryl currently holds a Head of Programme position at the IIE and is studying towards an undergraduate ix 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 9 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Effective business communication in organisations degree in Environmental Sciences. She also holds a diploma in Human Resources Management and Training from the IIE. In order to combine her passion for teaching and for the environment, Cheryl has embarked on her Masters degree in Education, which will be followed by a Masters degree in Environmental Education. Erna Kruger: Erna started her career in private education as a Graduate Placement Services Officer at College Campus, specialising in the recruitment and placement of graduates in industry. Her hands-on approach and interest in the role of quality education in creating employable graduates earned her an academic position as Head of Department in the Business faculty of College Campus. She was then promoted to Principal (College Campus) where she received an HEQC commendation for quality management of the campus. To develop and enhance the scope of her management experience, she joined the ADCORP group where she consulted clients such as ABSA and Nedbank. She then went on to start her own consultancy specialising in the development of private educational institutions. She has written and developed various qualifications, training material, policy and procedural documentation in the fields of Business, Human Resource Management, Organisational Development and Organisational Psychology, as well as advising and consulting various colleges in the fields of Organisational Development and Human Capital Development. Erna holds a BA Psychology degree and an Honours degree in the field of Psychology and Industrial Psychology (University of Potchefstroom). She also completed her postgraduate certificate in higher education (PGCHE) at the University of Pretoria. Erna currently holds the position of Head of Programme for the Faculty of Business at the IIE. x 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 10 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Preface This exciting new fourth edition of Effective Business Communication in Organisations builds on twenty years of use of Effective Communication in Organisations by many thousands of students. The focus on business communication, rather than on communication alone, gives the book a far sharper focus on what students of business communication need to know and do, as they prepare for the world of work. The contributions by a team of dynamic experts have made this an outstanding textbook in the field of business communication. I would like to thank the authors, and especially the editor, Dr Franzél du Plooy-Cilliers, for her creative work to ensure that this is a well-focused book with the correct advice for students. Marla Koonin, Gerald Pascoe, Cheryl Howes and Erna Kruger have also made valuable contributions to this fourth edition. Although English is a key business language, many students who use this book are second-language speakers. Keeping this in mind, Effective Business Communication in Organisations 4th edition has been written in a clear, highly readable style. In addition, by means of a range of examples, students are shown how to create well-planned, readable messages in the latest internationally recognised business formats. With its combination of theory and practice, this book will help students to bridge the gap between the educational and professional environments in which they live. While the fourth edition of Effective Business Communication in Organisations maintains the essential core that has made this book popular over the past twenty years, it also embraces the challenges that effective communicators face in this technological and rapidly changing business environment. As such, this edition pays special attention to intercultural and multicultural communication, corporate identity and image, the role and function of instructional graphics in communication and the effective use of the correct language in all communication processes. A new feature that has been introduced into this fourth edition is the interactive support material that is available online, instead of in a static format at the back of the book, as in previous editions. The combination of 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 11 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Effective business communication in organisations multiple-choice questions, theory-based questions, activities and case studies based on real-life examples, has been designed to help students apply the theory studied in this book to situations they are very likely to encounter in their working lives. The student-support material focuses on the student’s ability to plan and create messages and to help students to revise and implement essential knowledge they will need to become effective communicators. The use of various media and technology stresses interactive learning, rather than simply learning theory by rote. This dynamic textbook with its up-to-date content and format will prepare students for successful careers in any and all business environments on the world stage. Michael Fielding Consulting editor November 2013 xii 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 12 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS Introduction Developing good communication skills is the key to personal and business success. Organisations can only function effectively if people are able to share their knowledge and ideas, which means that organisations can only reach their goals through effective communication. Possessing effective communication skills is therefore an essential aspect of being successful in a work context. As human beings we spend the majority of our lives within and as part of an organisation. Effective communication is vital for an organisation to survive because everything that happens within an organisation involves some form of communication. From the informal exchange between colleagues in the canteen right up to the interaction with customers and major advertising and public relations campaigns, we will always be engaged in some form of business communication. It is this communication that enables an organisation to coordinate its activities and reach its business goals. Whether we are average, good or brilliant communicators, we all have a need to communicate. And we have this need because we all instinctively know that communication is the binding force that holds together every relationship we have. Our relationship with our family, friends, colleagues, partner, lecturers or anybody else can only function because we are able to communicate with these people. In the same way that our personal relationships are formed and maintained through communication, so businesses are also formed and maintained through communication. Communication consequently forms the foundation of all business. 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 1 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Effective business communication in organisations Therefore, ultimately, the organisation that understands the importance of communication in building and maintaining a healthy business, will be the organisation that flourishes and that will survive in difficult times. It will also be rewarded with happy and loyal personnel because effective communication is key to good relationships and satisfied employees. The purpose of this book is to provide you with the skills and insight that will enable you to implement effective business communication principles and practices within an organisational context. It also aims to give you a better understanding of the field of business communication. This chapter will outline the major themes presented in this book. Objectives Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to: understand the focus of the book read a range of texts with comprehension explain various academic reading skills. Why is communication essential for business success? Communication forms the foundation of any field or professional career that you may enter. If you are unable to communicate effectively, you will not get ahead. The ability to clearly and concisely communicate, to give instructions, explain a concept, deal with a difficult client, conduct meetings, resolve conflict and so on are absolutely essential if you want to succeed in business and the workplace. Reading skills In order to master the objectives set out in this book, as well as engage in effective business communication, you will need to practise various types of reading, depending on which aspects of academic or business communication you are engaged in. To deepen your knowledge on a particular subject, you often have to read texts that other people have written. This is especially true in an academic or business environment. In order to become an effective communicator, you need to be familiar with the different types of reading that you might need in your career and studies. As a guideline we will discuss the four main types of 2 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 2 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Chapter 1: Introduction to business communication in organisations reading that are most useful in academic and business contexts: critical reading study reading skimming scanning. These four types of reading all have a specific purpose. Before you start reading a particular text, it is important to know why you would want or need to read it. This will help you choose the best method for reading the text. It is also very important to practise these types of reading skills as often as possible so that you become good at them. The four different types of reading are outlined in the tables that follow. Table 1.1 Critical reading Thorough reading to enhance understanding Purpose Examine the text in depth Read through the text carefully. Highlight key words or important passages. Make comments and notes of insights you get. Draw conclusions from the contents of the text. Analyse the text by asking questions such as: Who is the author? Technique Who is the audience? What is the context in which the text was written? What are the implied values and attitudes that inform the text? What is the main focus of the text? What type of language is used? Is it objective or subjective? Are emotive words used? The more questions you ask the more comprehensive your analysis will be. Critical reading should be used to develop your understanding of a text, so it can be used for: Situation research studying agreeing or disagreeing with an argument. 3 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 3 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Effective business communication in organisations Table 1.2 Study reading Learn Purpose Understand Remember This is similar to a critical reading approach where you read through the text carefully and in detail. Cleary (2003:65) highlights some useful strategies for what she calls ‘interactive reading’. These are: Look for the topic sentence of each paragraph. Ask yourself what the main idea of each paragraph is. You may find the main idea in the introduction, middle or final sentence. The same is true for longer passages. Make notes while you read and try to find the links between the different parts. Ask yourself what kind of relationship the different parts have with one another. Technique Linking words or connectors are important because they can assist you in finding the main ideas and how they are being developed as well as point out contrasting arguments. Examples of linking words are: ‘conversely’, ‘however’, ‘in the first place’, ‘to conclude’, etc. Alert readers know how to use linking words to help them understand a passage. Make sure that you always ask questions while you read. If you come across a difficult concept, ask yourself what it means and try to find the answers to your questions as you progress through the material. After you have read everything and you still do not have the answer to your questions, consult other sources such as the Internet. Can be used for: Situation studying revision. Table 1.3 Skimming Find information quickly Purpose Revise work Go through the work quickly. Read any headings or bold/italicised words. Read through the first and last paragraphs in the text as these will Technique briefly give the main points of a text. Read the first sentence of every paragraph as this will generally supply the main point of that paragraph. Read any abstracts or summaries if provided, especially for longer texts. Can be used to: find out if texts are relevant Situation determine whether it will be worth your while to read the material get a basic idea of the content revise work that you have already mastered find the main ideas in a text. 4 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 4 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Chapter 1: Introduction to business communication in organisations Table 1.4 Scanning Purpose Find particular information in a text, such as a word, quote or number The best method of scanning is to keep an image of the item you are looking for in your mind and then run your eyes quickly over the page Technique until you find the item. Alternatively, you can use your finger or a pencil to run down the page; this will also force your eyes to move quickly over the writing. This is useful when you want to find a specific number, quote or Situation word quickly or if you want to see if a paragraph in a text has the information you are looking for. The subject of the book As mentioned before, the purpose of this introductory chapter is to place the importance of communication in organisations in context for you. Contemporary organisations are faced with many challenges, including: pressure groups, such as unions and activists; the social media and its impact on business communications; technology; environmental issues; and the global economy. Challenges such as these highlight how crucial effective communication is in the world of business today. Each chapter in this book touches on both the application and the theory that can be used by management and staff to improve communication in the organisation. The following areas will also be discussed in greater detail in each chapter. The starting point will be the process of communication with emphasis on all the components of this process. Understanding these different components forms the foundation of our studies. Because intra- and interpersonal communication is the basis of all communication, we will look first at mastering these skills before we pay attention to other forms of communication. We will then move on to study small group communication. In the work context, people often work together in teams and these small groups make up the fabric of an organisation. Understanding small group dynamics can help you to perform more optimally. After this, we look at communication within the broader context of an organisation, taking a more holistic view of communication. We will focus on some of the theories that have been formulated around the functioning of organisations, as well as the characteristics of motivation and how communication can keep employees motivated and enthusiastic. 5 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 5 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Effective business communication in organisations Understanding why cultures differ, what makes a culture unique and why it is important to be sensitive to cultural differences within the South African context are important aspects that will be covered next. South Africa itself is a multicultural nation and as a result South African organisations are characterised by diversity. Globalisation and international business are also a reality and a thorough understanding of intercultural communication is therefore essential to survive in today’s complex multicultural business environment. We will look at the importance of conducting effective interviews within the workplace and focus on how to conduct effective meetings. Then we will cover written communication. The quality of a company’s written communication has a significant impact on how that company is perceived by the public and other stakeholders. Sloppy, badly written communication always creates a poor impression. It is therefore essential to pay attention to grammar, spelling and syntax and to understand the style and tone of writing within an organisational context. We go on to essay writing and the importance of appropriate referencing, since these skills are needed for successful academic endeavours. We also explore the elements of readability. The section on case studies not only helps with answering exam questions based on case studies, but also with analysing case studies in specific industry contexts. The next area on which we focus is the identity of the organisation. Every message that leaves an organisation reflects negatively or positively on the organisation. The perception of these messages usually becomes linked to the organisation’s identity and in this way the image of the organisation is created. We will discuss these important concepts and how they contribute to the reputation of an organisation and can affect the success or failure of a company. The image of a company is also often enhanced or maintained through proper customer relations. Without customers or clients, no organisation can exist and it is essential to maintain good relationships in today’s competitive economy. Employees therefore need to learn professional telephone and email etiquette and how to engage with customers in a helpful, supportive and friendly way. The way in which customers are treated will have an enormous impact on how they feel about the organisation and will determine whether they will continue to support that organisation. Customer service consequently is essential to effective business communication. Another important form of business communication is mass communication, such as traditional and new media. Mass communication 6 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 6 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Chapter 1: Introduction to business communication in organisations refers to communicating through press releases, advertisements, newspaper and magazine articles and events. However, new media is playing an increasingly significant role in modern organisations. For example, social media such as Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn are progressively used by organisations as business communication tools. Arguably one of the most important components of the communication process is the message. Encoding effective messages is therefore a vital function of business communication. You therefore need to know how to plan and organise a message for a particular stakeholder or audience. You also need to know what the best medium will be to reach them and also how to construct an effective message for that specific context or medium. A more strategic form of writing is writing business proposals, business plans and business reports. A good strategy is an important part of any organisation’s success and these documents contribute to that success. In the final chapters, we focus on oral and graphic communication. Companies frequently make use of presentations and the communication skills of the presenter can often make or break a deal. Since most people are drawn to material that is visually pleasing, the final chapter focuses on graphics and images and how they can be used to enhance business communication. Communication is such a complex and multifaceted concept that it is not possible to cover all of its facets in great depth in one book! However, we hope that you find the material in this book informative and useful and that it will assist you in becoming a successful communicator and a prosperous employee, manager or business owner. 7 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 7 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  CHAPTER 2 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS Introduction Communication is the lifeblood of organisations because, without it, no organisation can exist or survive. Nearly everything a company does involves some form of communication and so businesses are involved in a wide range of communication activities. Communication is one of the key elements that determine the success or failure of a company because it enables its members to coordinate their activities and reach the organisation’s business goals. People can only coordinate their actions if they follow a set of negotiated rules. In time people will follow the rules without thinking. When people deviate from the rules or what is seen as socially acceptable behaviour, it often leads to conflict. If people are unable to communicate successfully to resolve these types of problems, it will lead to more conflict and misunderstandings. As a result, communication and any barriers to effective communication deserve the attention of, and need to be understood and managed by, all organisations. If you want to better understand communication and the crucial role it plays in the functioning of organisations, a good place to start is with a definition of communication. Communication can be defined as a transaction, a process of exchange or simply giving and taking. So we can define communication as transactional in nature. When we then say that communication is a transactional process, it means that people work together to create meaning and to share this meaning. They do this by exchanging symbols. The symbols that people use, in order to exchange meaning take many forms. They may be words, non-verbal symbols or even graphic representations. The problem with symbols is that people often assign different meanings to the same symbols, which complicates the communication process since communication is ultimately about the 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 8 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Chapter 2: The communication process sharing of meaning. When people do not assign the same meaning to the same symbol, misunderstandings are often the result. In this chapter, we will look at two communication models: a linear and a convergence model of communication. These models will assist you in understanding the complex process of communication. The linear model will help you to identify and understand the major components or elements of the communication process. The convergence model on the other hand will provide you with the necessary insight to appreciate how important it is to work together to reach an understanding. You will see that feedback is needed to create a sharing of meaning and so, in this chapter, the differences between one- and two-way communication will also be discussed. Another aspect of communication that you will need to understand is that communication in organisations occurs in dyads (or one-to-one groups), small groups (between three and 12 people) and large groups (usually more than 10 people). All of these vary in the demands they place on people, especially in terms of communication. Moreover, communication within the organisation flows in upward, downward and horizontal channels, each with a different function and set of challenges. To complicate matters even further, organisations also have to communicate with customers, suppliers, government, the media and the general public. Organisations consequently have to manage both internal and external communication. In this chapter, then, you will be introduced to some of the basic principles of communication and how they apply to an organisational setting. Objectives Once you have mastered the material in this chapter, you should be able to: define communication describe the different aspects that make up communication explain what is meant by the ‘creation and sharing of meaning’ describe the differences between a linear and a convergence model of communication describe the components of the communication process describe major barriers to communication in organisations describe the differences between one-way and two-way communication describe the major contexts of communication in organisations explain what is meant by ‘downward’, ‘horizontal’ and ‘upward’ channels of communication. 9 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 9 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Effective business communication in organisations Defining communication Communication is very complex. Indeed, communication experts have difficulty agreeing on a single definition that covers all of the components of communication in a satisfactory manner. For the purposes of this book we will define communication as follows: Definition Communication is a functional, dynamic and transactional process where participants strive to create and share meaning through the exchange of symbols. This definition stresses seven major points, namely that communication: 1. is functional 2. is dynamic 3. is a transaction 4. involves participants 5. involves the creation and sharing of meaning 6. involves the exchange of symbols 7. is a process. Communication is functional When we say that communication is functional, we simply mean that it serves several functions. Some of these functions in organisations are to motivate and unify employees, to coordinate their activities, to ensure that the organisation’s objectives are reached and to ensure that the organisation delivers high-quality products and services. We further use communication to gather information because information allows us to reduce uncertainty and because accurate and thorough information plays an important part in good decision-making. It is also used to generate new ideas and to help staff adapt to change. But communication can also be used to control employees and manipulate customers or clients through persuasion. Communication is dynamic When we say communication is dynamic, it means that communication is always in a state of flux or change. That is, there are so many variables that influence communication that it changes all the time. Think for example how your mood can change the way in which you communicate. A person’s mood is only one of many factors that influence communication behaviour. 10 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 10 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Chapter 2: The communication process Communication is a transaction A transaction involves two or more people exchanging something. When you buy something you are involved in a transaction because you exchange money for the product you want. Communication is transactional because we exchange symbols and messages in order to create meaning. Communication involves participants Communication can only be effective when people work together to create and share meaning. The sharing of meaning is only possible through paying attention to the speaker, providing each other with feedback and having a genuine desire to understand the other person. For this reason good listening and response skills are necessary for effective communication to take place. Communication involves the creation and sharing of meaning The key to effective communication is ensuring that others understand what you are saying. Words do not have meaning in themselves. People give meaning to words. The same words may therefore have different meanings for different people. For example people have different ideas about what ‘quality work’ means. As a result, what one person sees as quality work may not be what the next person sees and this lack of a shared meaning can often lead to conflict and misunderstandings. Effective communication consequently demands that people work together to ensure that the meaning created is the same for all. A sharing of meaning is necessary for communication to be effective. Communication involves the exchange of symbols Symbols enable people to create meanings. Symbols take many forms but they usually represent specific ideas. Most of us think of symbols as pictures that represent a certain abstract concept or idea. For example a circle with a line through a cigarette means ‘No smoking’. However words are also symbols. They are verbal symbols and include both spoken and written words. Some symbols are non‑verbal symbols, such as gestures, facial expressions, the way The ‘No smoking’ sign is a familiar symbol in which people use space and time to communicate certain messages and the use of the tone of their voice. Another type of symbol is a graph where communication takes the form of a table, pie chart, line graph, bar graph or diagram. 11 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 11 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Effective business communication in organisations When and why students check their watches When you’re bored When your friends are checking theirs When someone’s yelling at you To look busy when you’re alone When you’re tired In class /during a lecture To check the time To double check the time because you weren’t looking when you first checked Figure 2.1 An example of a symbol is a graph in the form of a pie chart Communication is a process aw 2.1.5-humorous graph Initially communication was understood as a linear process where a message was sent from a sender to a receiver. In a linear approach to communication, the importance of feedback is overlooked. However feedback is vital for communication to be effective and to share meaning. Communication should therefore be understood as a process that is circular, where the participants act as both sender and receiver at the same time. When we define communication as a process, we subsequently refer to participants as opposed to a sender and receiver. This now brings us to some of the different models of communication. Communication models In the definition of communication, communication was described as a transaction, which implies that people have to work together through the exchange of messages to create a sharing of meaning. But one person does not hand over meaning to another as though it were a present to be unwrapped. Instead, communication is an unending and ever-changing process, in which meaning is negotiated between participants. This complex process is hard to analyse. Communication researchers have subsequently devised models to help them analyse and understand some of the major elements in the communication process. Two models of communication are discussed in this chapter: linear and convergence. Please keep in mind, however, that models simplify what is a very complex process. Models cannot show all the complexities of a real situation. They are nevertheless helpful in the study of communication. Think of models as 12 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 12 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Chapter 2: The communication process maps. A map tells you where you can find what and where to go but it does not look anything like the places or roads it represents. However, it is still very useful in helping you to get to an unknown destination. These models serve a similar purpose. They oversimplify the communication process and the components involved in this process, yet they help us to unpack and understand the process better. The linear model of communication helps us to analyse the major components in the communication process. The convergence model on the other hand, stresses that communication is a transaction in which meaning is created and negotiated by both sender and receiver working together. This model also stresses the idea of the meeting of minds, meaning that people need to share the same meanings of words, concepts and ideas if they are to communicate successfully. The linear model of communication The core word in linear is line. Thus, the linear model of communication represents communication as something that moves in a straight line, as can be seen in Figure 2.2 below. A major limitation of this model is that it discounts the complexity of communication by assuming that it always has a clear beginning and end, like an episode on television. As your knowledge of communication deepens, you will begin to understand that this is rarely the case and that communication is in fact a highly complex process (circular as opposed to linear), which is influenced by many variables. Another major limitation of this model is that it disregards the importance of feedback from the receiver. Nonetheless what is useful about this model is that it unpacks the components of the communication process for us, which makes it easier to identify and understand all the elements that play a role in communication. WHO SAYS IN WHICH TO WITH WHAT SAYS WHAT CHANNEL WHOM EFFECT? COMMUNICATOR MESSAGE MEDIUM RECEIVER EFFECT Figure 2.2 The linear model of communication with its different components The convergence model Whereas aw the linear 2.2 (old model 2.1) - linear modelstresses the various components of communication, the convergence model of communication stresses the transactional and continuing nature of communication. In this model, the sender and 13 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 13 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Effective business communication in organisations receiver are shown to be constantly exchanging messages until they reach an understanding or sharing of meaning. This model therefore includes feedback as an important component of the communication process. It also acknowledges that the distinction between sender and receiver is not as clear‑cut as the linear model makes it out to be. In fact, in most communication situations we act simultaneously as both sender and receiver because we are always encoding and decoding messages at the same time. This makes us participants in the communication process. As we send messages back and forth, we are constantly changing roles. And as we continue the transactions (sending and receiving messages), we eventually arrive at an understanding. Unfortunately, despite the best efforts, communication is hardly ever perfect. This is shown in the model by the partially overlapping shapes. Encode RECEIVER Decode Encode Encode SENDER Sender Receiver SENDER Decode Decode Understanding Encode RECEIVER Decode Figure 2.3 A convergence model of communication Based on these two models, we can identify the following nine elements or components of the communication process: 1. participant as sender 2. participant as receiver 3. message 4. medium 5. channel 6. feedback 7. noise 8. context 9. result. 14 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 14 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Chapter 2: The communication process RESULT MESSAGE medium Participant channel Participant as sender feedback as receiver noise context result Figure 2.4 The nine components of the communication process Figure 2.4 above illustrates the nine components, with the sender initiating a message. The sender has to decide on the purpose of the message, for example to inform, persuade or instruct. The message then has to be encoded in a form that the receiver can understand. It then has to be sent in a specific format via a channel to the receiver, who will encode the message and send feedback to the sender. Participant as sender The sender is usually the initiator of the communication and is responsible for encoding the message. The core word in encode is code. Thus, when we encode a message, we are making use of a code to communicate a message. Language is a system of codes made up of signs and symbols that can be used to construct a message. We use this coding system to transform our ideas and thoughts into a message that can be understood by others. However, even though people understand certain messages, they do not always believe them and the credibility of the sender is therefore essential, especially within the workplace. A sender will usually be regarded as credible if he or she is knowledgeable, behaves and communicates in ethical ways and has high status. Importantly, a sender’s credibility will also be influenced by the context. For example the financial manager could be regarded as a highly credible source when it comes to financial matters, but may not be seen as a credible source when it comes to human resource management. Participant as receiver The receiver decodes the message according to his or her knowledge of the subject, ability to use and interpret language, past experience, background and needs. It is important to understand what is meant by encoding and decoding. As mentioned before, encoding is when the sender makes use of codes (such as language) and puts them together in a meaningful way to 15 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 15 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Effective business communication in organisations convey an idea or message. When the receiver receives this coded message, he or she then needs to unravel the codes in order to make sense of the message. This process is known as decoding. Decoding secret messages has been used by the military throughout the ages and it is often the topic of novels, for example Dan Brown’s The Da Vinci Code. As children many of us developed our own secret codes to communicate messages to friends that others, usually a teacher, would not be able to figure out if they did not know the meaning of the codes. The receiver will interpret the coded messages and will then decide how to react to the message. The receiver then changes roles and encodes his or her own message to send back as feedback to the sender who now becomes the receiver again. Message Communication is not a random affair. Most of our communication is conscious, purposeful, intentional and likely to be directed at a specific receiver with a specific purpose in mind. As mentioned before, we use codes to encode or construct our messages. The sender has a range of codes to choose from to get his or her message across, for example words, non-verbal codes, graphics and various other symbols. However in a business context particular attention needs to be paid to the encoding of messages, because the right message has to be communicated in the right way, to the right people, at the right time! Poorly encoded messages will lead to confusion and misunderstanding, which could ultimately result in resentment and conflict. Moreover communication managers must also ensure that employees are not overloaded with too many messages at the same time. People stop paying attention to important messages if they feel overwhelmed by the large number of messages being sent to them. Figure 2.5 Pie charts are used to communicate certain messages 16 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 16 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Chapter 2: The communication process Finally, we organise messages into an appropriate format, for example a speech, talk, presentation, written report, email or SMS. Please keep in mind however that not all messages can or will be organised into a specific format. For instance, non-verbal messages do not have a format and a lot of our communication is made spontaneously without a specific format being considered. However in the workplace much of the communication has to take on a specific format. Medium A range of media may be used to send messages. In the past humans used smoke signals and drum beats to communicate over long distances. Nowadays, the sender can, for example, send a written message in an email via a computer or in a text message via a cellphone. As a sender you can use sound waves as a medium to speak to another person or you can use light waves as a medium to communicate non-verbally. A lighthouse for example uses light waves as a medium to communicate messages to ships at sea. Channel Communication usually flows within a channel, in the same way that water flows through a waterway or a water canal. The most common channels found within an organisation are upward, downward and horizontal (sideways or lateral) and they are linked to the structure of the organisation. An organisation’s structure is typically represented by a diagram known as an organogram or organisational chart. Argyris (2011) explains that an organogram is like an X-ray of a person’s skeleton – it shows you the skeleton of the organisation and how the different parts are connected to one another (see Figure 2.6 on the next page). The lines in the organogram are lines of authority and tell us who is reporting to whom. These lines are commonly known as communication channels. The more open the communication channels are and the more freely communication can flow in all directions, the more effective the communication and, by implication, the organisation, tend to be. However there is also a point where too much communication can become counter-productive, such as when people get overloaded with information or when employees end up spending too much time in meetings debating issues and not actually getting any work done or plans implemented. Finding a perfect balance is actually very difficult to achieve. You will learn more about channels in organisations in Chapter 5. 17 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 17 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Effective business communication in organisations HR Consultant Figure 2.6 An organogram is similar to an X-ray of a skeleton Feedback In this chapter we have stressed the need for two-way communication as opposed to one-way communication. Two-way communication stresses the importance of feedback and constant interaction during communication because, as mentioned previously, the negotiation of meaning is essential. People involved in interpersonal and small group communication are in the best position to give and receive feedback. One-way communication on the other hand, is often characterised by lack of feedback, difficulty in obtaining feedback or delayed feedback. This is why advertisers spend a great deal of money on market research to establish their audience’s needs and reactions. Feedback is difficult to obtain in public communication, particularly with large audiences. Others F e e d b a ck Result Sender MESSAGE Receiver Figure 2.7 The nature of feedback includes two-way communication and constant interaction 18 1240 Effective Comm p5.indb 18 2013/12/03 10:29 AM  Chapter 2: The communication process In large organisations, obtaining feedback is difficult unless a point is made to receive feedback. Managers need to be careful about simply issuing orders as these could be interpreted as one-way communication. Companies in southern Africa are under constant pressure to survive in a volatile environment characterised by strikes,