Edrolo VCE Psychology Units 3/4 - Chapter 5 Past Paper PDF

5 CHAPTER 5 The psychobiological process of memory LESSONS 5A Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory 5B Brain structures involved in memory 5C The role of episodic and semantic memory in remembering and imagining 5D Mnemonics KEY KNOWLEDGE the explanatory power of the Atkinson-Sh...

5 CHAPTER 5 The psychobiological process of memory LESSONS 5A Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory 5B Brain structures involved in memory 5C The role of episodic and semantic memory in remembering and imagining 5D Mnemonics KEY KNOWLEDGE the explanatory power of the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory in the encoding, storage and retrieval of stored information in sensory, short-term and long-term memory stores the roles of the hippocampus, amygdala, neocortex, basal ganglia and cerebellum in long-term implicit and explicit memories the role of episodic and semantic memory in retrieving autobiographical events and in constructing possible imagined futures, including evidence from brain imaging and post-mortem studies of brain lesions in people with Alzheimer’s disease and aphantasia as an example of individual differences in the experience of mental imagery the use of mnemonics (acronyms, acrostics and the method of loci) by written cultures to increase the encoding, storage and retrieval of information as compared with the use of mnemonics such as sung narrative used by oral cultures, including Aboriginal peoples’ use of songlines Image: GoodStudio/Shutterstock.com 231 5A Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory STUDY DESIGN DOT POINT the explanatory power of the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory in the encoding, storage and retrieval of stored information in sensory, short-term and long-term memory stores 5A 5B 5C 5D 3.2.4.1 3.2.4.2 Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store The explanatory power of the model of memory Atkinson-Shiffrin model 3.2.4.1.1 Sensory memory 3.2.4.1.2 Short-term memory 3.2.4.1.3 Long-term memory Have you ever thought about how your memory works? Why is it that you may only pay Encode attention to and remember selected things in your environment? Do you find it difficult to remember a long list of items, even after you immediately finished reading the list? How come you can only remember certain memories and not others? These questions Store all relate to the study of memory which is an area of psychology that is constantly being researched and expanded upon. In this lesson, you will learn about the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory. Retrieve In particular, you will learn about how the three different memory stores within this model (sensory, short-term, and long-term memory) are involved in the processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving memories. Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model ACTIVITY Log into your Edrolo of memory 3.2.4.1 account for activities that Memories are a central part of our daily lives, but the process of storing and using memories is support this lesson. complex and has been researched by psychologists for over a hundred years. In 1968, Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin presented a model that has been influential in our understanding of memory by considering memory as a system with three distinct stores which interact to KEY TERMS encode, store, and retrieve information. Memory the process of Theory details encoding, storing, and retrieving information Memory is the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information that has been previously that has been previously encountered. The Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory is a model of memory which encountered outlines the three separate stores of memory (sensory, short-term, and long-term) each of which Atkinson-Shiffrin multi- interact through the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval. Figure 1 provides a visual store model of memory representation of this model. a model of memorywhich outlines the three separate stores of memory (sensory, short-term, and long-term) each of which interact through the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval 232 Chapter 5: The psychobiological process of memory  Incoming Encoding Sensory Attention Short-term Long-term sensory memory memory Retrieval memory information 5A THEORY Memory lost due to Memory can be lost by Some memories lack of attention to being pushed out by new may become lost the stimuli incoming information over time (displacement) or by fading away over time (decay) Figure 1 The Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory An overview of the processes involved in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory Sensory memory 1. All incoming information enters sensory memory; a store of memory which very briefly a store of memory which stores raw information detected by the senses. If this sensory information is attended to, very briefly stores raw then it is converted into a useable form and transferred to short-term memory. information detected by 2. Short-term memory (STM) is a store of memory that temporarily stores a limited amount the senses of information that is consciously being attended to and actively manipulated. Rehearsal is Short-term memory a controlled process which involves consciously repeating or manipulating information in (STM) a store of STM. Rehearsal can increase the likelihood of information being encoded (transferred) into memory that temporarily long-term memory. stores a limited amount 3. Encoding is the process of converting information into a useable form which can be of information that manipulated and stored in the brain. Information from STM is encoded into long-term is consciously being memory (LTM), which is a store of memory in which a potentially unlimited amount of attended to and actively information is stored for a relatively permanent amount of time. Therefore, LTM is the manipulated memory store in which relatively permanent storage occurs, which refers to the retention Rehearsal a controlled of information over time. process which involves consciously repeating or 4. Information stored in LTM can also be retrieved. Retrieval is the process of accessing manipulating information information that has been stored in long-term memory and bringing it into our conscious in short-term memory awareness in short-term memory. Encoding the process of converting information Sensory memory 3.2.4.1.1 into a useable form which Your senses are constantly receiving input from the environment. Right now, you might can be manipulated and be in your classroom, reading these words. However, you might also be receiving auditory stored in the brain information from the noise around you. Hopefully you are paying attention to the words Long-term memory on this page, rather than the chatter around you, so that the words in this lesson can be (LTM) a store of memory transferred from your sensory memory to your other memory stores. in which a potentially unlimited amount of Sensory memory is a store of memory which very briefly stores raw information detected information is stored for by the senses. As such, sensory memory can be described as the entry point for memory, a relatively permanent as all information which is later stored must first be detected by the senses. At this stage, amount of time this information is an exact replica of that which is in your environment, meaning that it has Storage the retention not yet undergone the process of being encoded. of information over time Examples of the type of information that can be retained by sensory memory include: Retrieval the process of the faces of your classmates directly after looking at them accessing information, that has been stored the sound of a bird chirping outside just after you hear it in long-term memory, the tag of your clothing that you might feel rubbing against your skin and bringing it into our the scent of your deodorant when you spray it conscious awareness in short-term memory the taste of your food when you are eating lunch. Our sensory memory store has an unlimited capacity, meaning that there is no limit to how much it can hold. The duration of sensory memory, however, is extremely brief and generally varies between 0.2 to 4 seconds. Therefore, while our senses can hold a fairly unlimited amount of information, we do not pay attention to all this information. Only information that is attended to is transferred to short-term memory for processing. If sensory memory is not attended to, then it is completely lost. 5A Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory 233  WANT TO KNOW MORE? It is assumed that there are different subtypes of sensory memory that process stimuli from each 5A THEORY of your five senses. However, only three subtypes have been studied extensively. These include: Iconic memory (visual information) Echoic memory (auditory information) Haptic memory (information specific to physical touch) The different types of sensory memory have different durations. Iconic memory has a duration of 0.2 to 0.4 seconds, echoic memory has a duration of 3 to 4 seconds and haptic memory is believed to have a duration of fewer than 2 seconds. Short-term memory 3.2.4.1.2 Have you ever read a sentence and then had to go back and read it immediately after because you forgot what it said? Do you find it hard to remember a long list of grocery items? Do you try to remember information by repeating it over and over again in your head? These questions relate to our short-term memory store. Short-term memory (STM) is a store of memory that holds a limited amount of information that is consciously being attended to and actively manipulated. The information in your STM can come both from your sensory or long-term memory. Information from your sensory memory, which you have paid attention to will move into your STM. Similarly, information from your long-term memory that you retrieve can also move to your conscious awareness, and hence exist within your STM. Sensory Information attended to Short-term Information retrieved Long-term memory memory memory Figure 2 Short-term memory can come from information that has been attended to from sensory memory or retrieved from long-term memory STM is also known as ‘working memory’ because you are aware of all the information that you hold in this memory store and are consciously manipulating (‘working on’) it. STM has a limited capacity of 7 ± 2 items (or 5 to 9 items). This is the number of items that can be actively ‘worked on’ at any one time. The duration of STM is 18 to 30 seconds for most people. More specifically, it is believed that information generally begins to fade after approximately 18 to 20 seconds, however, it is possible for some information to remain in STM for up to 30 seconds. Manipulating information may involve updating, adding, or changing the information in some way. It also involves the process of rehearsal. Individuals can rehearse information by repeating it or by linking it to other pieces of information that were previously learnt. Rehearsal helps encode information from STM into long-term memory where it can be stored. If the information in your short-term memory is not processed and encoded in long-term memory, it can be pushed out by new incoming information (which is known as displacement) or fade away on its own after the duration of STM has expired (which is known as decay). WANT TO KNOW MORE? Your STM can be manipulated in ways that can potentially increase the capacity and duration of STM and improve your ability to remember information. These processes include chunking, maintenance rehearsal, and elaborative rehearsal. Chunking Maintenance rehearsal Elaborative rehearsal ‘Chunking’ is a process by which Maintenance rehearsal involves Elaborative rehearsal involves you can group smaller ‘chunks’ of repeating new information over and meaningfully linking new information information into larger ‘chunks’ in over again to keep the information in to information already stored in long- order to hold more information in STM. STM for as long as possible. term memory. An example of this is remembering a For example, by repeating a phone For example, you could remember mobile number, which has 10 numbers number over and over again you could the name of a new co-worker by and therefore exceeds most people’s remember it for as long as you are relating their name to somebody else STM capacity, by ‘chunking’ their able to rehearse the information. you know, such as a family member. mobile number into 3 chunks of 3–4 Each rehearsal refreshes the 18–30 Therefore, when you see them again, digits, making it easier to work with. second duration that the information you may be easily able to retrieve their can be stored in STM. name because of this connection. You should try some of these techniques when studying for your psychology exam to help you remember information! 234 Chapter 5: The psychobiological process of memory Long-term memory 3.2.4.1.3 USEFUL TIP Your brain has the capacity to hold a potentially unlimited amount of information. Think about When answering a short your first day of school, your parents’ names, or even what you did last night. All these memories 5A THEORY answer question about are stored in your long-term memory where they can be retrieved and brought into conscious short-term or long-term awareness. memory, you can only use Long-term memory (LTM) is a store of memory in which a potentially unlimited amount of the acronyms STM and information is stored for a relatively permanent amount of time. It contains all the information LTM if you introduce the you retain from past events, as well as your knowledge of facts. These memories have undergone term in full and enclose the process of being encoded from STM, and exist in a useable form. This information is further the acronyms in a bracket processed into different types of LTM and organised in different parts of the brain (which will be the first time you mention explored in future lessons). This information in LTM can be retrieved and brought into short- it. E.g. Long-term memory term memory. (LTM) is a memory store… Don’t forget to do this in The capacity of LTM is described as being potentially unlimited. Information stored in LTM every answer! is not in conscious awareness. However, whilst LTM is considered to have a potentially unlimited amount of information, this does not mean that we have the capacity to retrieve all this information. Sometimes, we are unable to retrieve and access information in LTM as we may be unaware of how to retrieve it or are not prompted by the right retrieval cues. The duration of LTM is understood as being relatively permanent, meaning that theoretically information can be stored in LTM forever. However, research on this matter is still being conducted. The explanatory power of the Atkinson- Shiffrin model 3.2.4.2 The Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory is an influential model in explaining the process of memory. Nevertheless, as with any model, it does not always accurately reflect the full complexity and experience of the phenomenon. Therefore, familiarising yourself with some of the model’s strengths and limitations will help you to consolidate your understanding of the model as a whole and to develop your critical thinking skills. Theory details The Atkinson-Shiffrin model successfully explains the three distinct stores involved in memory and how they interact with each other through encoding, storage, and retrieval. Memory experiments and case studies of patients with amnesia enhance the explanatory power of the model by providing evidence for the distinction between STM and LTM. Despite these strengths, as with all models outlining psychological concepts, the Atkinson- Shiffrin multi-store model of memory also has its limitations. These are outlined in table 1. Table 1 Strengths and limitations of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory Strengths Limitations The model distinguishes between the different The Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory may be considered stores involved in memory. to be oversimplified. The model outlines that each memory store STM is more complex than the model suggests. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) has a different capacity and duration. propose that STM is not just a singular store but rather encompasses The model provides a good understanding different components within it. of the structure and process of memory. The model ignores factors, such as motivation and strategy, which can Findings from memory studies support the facilitate learning and assist in encoding information from STM to LTM. distinction between STM and LTM outlined Initially, the model proposed that rehearsal was necessary for information in the model. The model can help explain to be transferred into LTM. However, studies show that transferring why amnesia patients may have difficulty information into LTM can occur without rehearsal. retrieving memories from LTM or encoding The model does not account for individual differences in memory information from STM to LTM. processes, storage duration, and capacity. Theory summary In this lesson, you learnt about the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory. In particular, you learnt about how the different stores; sensory memory, short-term, and long-term memory, are involved in the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. You also learnt about the strengths and limitations of this model. 5A Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory 235  5A Questions 5A QUESTIONS Theory review Question 1 Which of the following are involved in the Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory? (Select all that apply) I. Encoding. II. Acquiring. III. Storage. IV. Retrieval. V. Reinforcement. Question 2 Which of the following is the first memory store? A. Short-term memory. B. Sensory memory. C. Long-term memory. Question 3 Sensory memory consists of information that has been manipulated and worked on. A. True. B. False. Question 4 Short-term memory is also known as working memory. A. True. B. False. Question 5 Long-term memories cannot be transferred to short-term memory. A. True. B. False. Question 6 The Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory is a perfect model of memory as it outlines the three distinct memory stores. A. True. B. False. Assessment skills Perfect your phrasing Question 7 Which of the following sentences is most correct? A. Encoding is the process of converting information into a useable form which can be stored in the brain. B. Encoding is the process of modifying information to a useable form which can be stored in the brain. 236 Chapter 5: The psychobiological process of memory Question 8 Which of the following sentences is most correct? 5A QUESTIONS A. Long-term memory is a store of memory in which an unlimited amount of information is stored for a permanent amount of time. B. Long-term memory is a store of memory in which a potentially unlimited amount of information is stored for a relatively permanent amount of time. Data analysis The following assessment skills type reflects the study design assessment dot point: analysis and evaluation of generated primary and/or collated secondary data Use the following information to answer questions 9 and 10. Dr Bruno wanted to investigate how individuals remember a list of words. Specifically, he wanted to see if the order in 100 which the words are presented in a list impacts the words remembered. In order to test this, a group of adults was given a list of 20 words to study and was immediately tested on Words recalled (%) their ability to recall the list of 20 words. In accordance with the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, Dr Bruno hypothesised that the adults would have a higher 50 recall of words at the beginning and end of the list in comparison to words in the middle. This is because Dr Bruno believed that words at the beginning of the list would be remembered as they have had enough time to be rehearsed and encoded from short-term memory to long-term memory. He also believed that words from the middle of the list are presented too late to 0 be rehearsed and transferred to LTM and too early to remain in First words presented Last words presented STM at the time of retrieval. Furthermore, he believed that items Position in sequence at the end of the list would be remembered as they are still in short-term memory at the time of recall. Question 9 Which of the following statements regarding Dr Bruno’s hypothesis is most correct? A. Dr Bruno’s hypothesis was supported as the percentage of words recalled was highest for words at the beginning and end of the list, and lowest for words in the middle. B. Dr Bruno’s hypothesis was proven correct as the percentage of words recalled was really good for words at the beginning and end of the list, and really bad for words in the middle. C. Dr Bruno’s hypothesis was not supported as the percentage of words recalled was highest for words at the beginning and end of the list, and lowest for words in the middle. D. Dr Bruno’s hypothesis was supported as the percentage of words recalled was lowest for words at the beginning and end of the list, and highest for words in the middle. Question 10 How might this study enhance the explanatory power of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory? A. This study may enhance the explanatory power of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model by providing evidence for the complexity of short-term memory and its different components. B. This study may enhance the explanatory power of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model by providing evidence for the distinction between long-term and short-term memory stores. C. This study may enhance the explanatory power of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model by providing evidence for sensory memory. D. This study may enhance the explanatory power of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model by providing evidence for why amnesiac patients may have difficulty retrieving memories. 5A Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory 237  Exam-style 5A QUESTIONS Remember and understand Question 11 (1 MARK) Which of the following is the correct sequence of memory stores involved in forming a new memory as described by the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory? A. Long-term memory, sensory memory, short-term memory. B. Sensory memory, echoic memory, long-term memory. C. Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory. D. Short-term memory, long-term memory, iconic memory. Adapted from VCAA Psychology exam 2012 Q18 Question 12 (1 MARK) Retrieval is the process of A. accessing information, which has been stored in long-term memory, and bringing it into our conscious awareness in short-term memory. B. accessing information, which has been stored in sensory memory, and bringing it into our conscious awareness in short-term memory. C. accessing information, which has been stored in long-term memory, and bringing it into our conscious awareness in sensory memory. D. accessing information, which has been stored in short-term memory, and bringing it into our conscious awareness in long-term memory. Question 13 (1 MARK) Which of the following statements about memory is correct? A. The duration of short-term memory is five to nine seconds. B. The capacity of short-term memory can be increased by rehearsal. C. Short-term memory receives information from both sensory memory and long-term memory. D. In short-term memory, information is an exact replica of its original form. Adapted from VCAA Psychology exam 2020 Q22 Question 14 (2 MARKS) Outline how information from sensory memory is transferred to short-term memory. Apply and analyse Use the following information to answer questions 15 and 16. Faye’s dad asked her to pick up the groceries on her way home from work. She quickly glanced at the list which included three items before running into the shop to grab them. While running to the shop, she consciously repeated the list in her mind. When she arrived at the shop, she immediately spotted the first item on her list. Question 15 (1 MARK) According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, which of the memory stores was involved when Faye initially saw the first item on her list? A. Working memory. B. Sensory memory. C. Short-term memory. D. Long-term memory. 238 Chapter 5: The psychobiological process of memory Question 16 (1 MARK) According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, which of the memory stores was involved when Faye was 5A QUESTIONS consciously repeating the list in her mind? A. Encoded memory. B. Sensory memory. C. Short-term memory. D. Long-term memory. Question 17 (2 MARKS) Aristotle was having a conversation with his school friend, Plato, about their experiences together at primary school, which they attended more than 10 years earlier. While talking, he remembered a funny story from year four and started to tell the story. Identify and explain the process of memory which is involved in Aristotle remembering and telling his story from primary school. Question 18 (4 MARKS) Shayla is a year six student who has been learning her times tables. To help her remember her time tables for an upcoming quiz, Shayla has been listening to a voice recording which reads out time tables. After she listens to the voice recording, she repeats the information to herself over and over again. Discuss how the relevant stores of memory are involved in Shayla storing information about time tables. Adapted from VCAA Psychology exam 2017 Q11 Question 19 (7 MARKS) Caterina wanted to investigate whether listening to classical music enhanced the ability of high school students to recall information. As part of her VCE Psychology practical investigation, she decided to use 30 of her friends in her experiment. She randomly allocated her friends to either the control group, who did not listen to music while they read a list of word pairings, or the experimental group, who listened to classical music while reading a list of word pairings. All participants had the opportunity to read the words for five minutes while either listening or not listening to music. After this, they were asked to verbally recall as many of the word pairings as they could remember. The number of word pairings they could recall was then recorded. Adapted from VCAA Psychology exam 2017 Q7 a. Identify whether the data Caterina collected was quantitative or qualitative. (1 MARK) b. Identify the independent and dependent variable in Caterina’s research investigation. (2 MARKS) c. Explain whether the results of Caterina’s study could be generalised to the population of high school students. Justify your response. (2 MARKS) d. Identify the memory store that is the entry point of the music and the memory store involved in verbally recalling the word pairings. (2 MARKS) Evaluate Question 20 (3 MARKS) Evaluate the explanatory power of Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory. 5A Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory 239  Questions from multiple lessons 5A QUESTIONS Use the following information for questions 21 and 22. Johnnie was recently in a car crash. Even though the crash occurred three weeks earlier, he is still able to remember vivid details of the crash, including that the driver of the car who crashed into them was wearing a purple jacket with small sunflowers on it. After the crash, Johnnie was quite shaken up and has been scared to get in a car ever since. Question 21 (1 MARK) Johnnie’s ability to remember vivid details from the scene of the crash is due to A. the process of sensory memory, which involves storing memory for future use. B. the process of long-term memory, which involves paying attention to certain stimuli in your environment and processing this information for future retrieval. C. the store of long-term memory, which contains information which has been encoded into a useable form and stored for future use. D. the store of long-term memory, which involves paying attention to certain stimuli in your environment and processing this information. Question 22 (1 MARK) Johnnie’s fear of now getting into cars is due to A. the creation of an association due to observational learning. B. the process of classical conditioning as the car is the UCS. C. the process of operant conditioning as the car crash was the antecedent. D. the creation of an association due to classical conditioning. Question 23 (4 MARKS) Explain how long-term depression may impact the information stored in long-term memory. 240 Chapter 5: The psychobiological process of memory 5B Brain structures involved in memory STUDY DESIGN DOT POINT the roles of the hippocampus, amygdala, neocortex, basal ganglia and cerebellum in long-term implicit and explicit memories 5A 5B 5C 5D 3.2.5.1 3.2.5.2 3.2.5.3 3.2.5.4 Types of long-term memory Explicit memory Implicit memory Brain structures involved in memory 3.2.5.2.1 Semantic memory 3.2.5.3.1 Procedural memory 3.2.5.4.1 Hippocampus 3.2.5.2.2 Episodic memory 3.2.5.3.2 Classically 3.2.5.4.2 Amygdala conditioned memory 3.2.5.4.3 Neocortex 3.2.5.4.4 Basal ganglia 3.2.5.4.5 Cerebellum Your brain is a massive processing and storage unit for new information, such as what your friend texted you, new facts you learnt at school, how to play a new song on a guitar, or your recent scary encounter with a snake. These memories are constantly being processed and stored in different parts of your brain for later use. In this lesson, you will learn about the different types of long-term memory: implicit and explicit memory. You will also learn about how different brain structures are involved in the encoding and storage of these memories. In particular, you will learn about the roles of the hippocampus, amygdala, neocortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Types of long-term memory 3.2.5.1 Our long-term memory is integral to who we are. It consists of countless memories and ACTIVITY experiences, as well as an incredible amount of information, that enables us to go through the motions of our everyday lives. In this section of the lesson, you will be introduced to the Log into your Edrolo different types of long-term memory. account for activities that support this lesson. Theory details Long-term memory (LTM) is a store of memory in which a potentially unlimited amount of information is stored for a relatively permanent amount of time. KEY TERMS Long-term memory can be categorised into two types: implicit and explicit memory. It is Long-term memory (LTM) important to understand the difference between these two types of memory, as well as the a store of memory in further types of memory that fall within these two types. This includes semantic and episodic which a potentially memory as types of explicit memory, and procedural and classically conditioned memory as unlimited amount of types of implicit memory. information is stored for a relatively permanent Types of long-term memory amount of time Explicit memory Implicit memory Classically Semantic memory Episodic memory Procedural memory conditioned memory Figure 1 Different types of long-term memory 5B Brain structures involved in memory 241  USEFUL TIP Explicit memory 3.2.5.2 To help you remember Can you name all the states in Australia? Do you remember how many there are? What memories 5B THEORY the meaning of explicit do you have from a family holiday or a concert you attended? These examples relate to explicit memory, you can memory, which will be explored in this section of the lesson. remember that you can EXplain EXplicit memory, Theory details or DEclare it because they are DEclarative. Explicit memory (also known as declarative memory) is a type of long-term memory that is consciously retrieved. These memories can be voluntarily retrieved from long-term memory and brought into conscious awareness. Explicit memories are also known as declarative memories, meaning they can be declared or stated to someone else. This may involve you Explicit memory (also remembering that you had vegetable spring rolls for lunch and telling your friend about how known as declarative delicious they were. The ability for you to verbally describe the type of spring roll, how it memory) a type of tasted, and where you ate it demonstrates that it is an explicit memory. long-term memory that is consciously retrieved Within explicit memory, there are two different types of memory you need to learn. These are Semantic memory semantic and episodic memory, which are explained in table 1. a type of explicit memory Table 1 Semantic and episodic memory are types of explicit memory that consists of general knowledge or facts Type of explicit What is it? Examples Episodic memory memory a type of explicit memory Semantic Semantic memory is a type of Knowing that: that consists of personal memory 3.2.5.2.1 explicit memory that consists there are seven continents experiences or events of general knowledge or facts. dogs bark, while cats meow These memories are declarative three multiplied by three in that they equals nine. USEFUL TIP can be verbally explained to others. A helpful way to remember episodic memory is that each Episodic Episodic memory is a type of The memory of: episodic memory is an memory 3.2.5.2.2 explicit memory that consists of getting your driver’s licence episode of your life, with personal experiences or events. details from when you went all of these life events These memories are unique to on holiday forming a series of each individual and their own what you ate for dinner last night. episodes that capture your personal experiences. personal life journey. Implicit memory 3.2.5.3 Do you know how to ride a bike? Can you remember the steps to a dance you learnt as a child? Do you feel scared every time you see a spider due to previous encounters with spiders? These examples relate to implicit memory, which will be explored in this section of the lesson. Theory details Implicit memory is a type of long-term memory that is unconsciously retrieved. These Implicit memory a type of memories are involuntarily retrieved, such as recalling the technique of how to kick a soccer long-term memory that is ball during a match or recalling how scared you were after seeing an aggressive dog. When you unconsciously retrieved retrieve these memories, the memory of how to perform a soccer technique is demonstrated by the ability to execute the technique, not by the ability to explain the technique. Additionally, the fear of the dog is retrieved without conscious effort in the presence of dogs. Furthermore, the emotional component of declarative memories is also a type of implicit memory as the emotion is retrieved unconsciously. There are two different types of implicit memory that you need to learn. These are procedural and classically conditioned memory, which are explained in table 2. 242 Chapter 5: The psychobiological process of memory Table 2 Procedural and classically conditioned memory are types of implicit memory Type of implicit What is it? Examples memory 5B THEORY Procedural Procedural memory is a type of Knowing how to: Procedural memory memory 3.2.5.3.1 implicit memory that involves tie your shoelaces a type of implicit memory knowing how to carry out tasks kick a ball that involves knowing how that are facilitated by motor skills. play the guitar. to carry out tasks that are facilitated by motor skills Classically Classically conditioned Imagine that an individual was conditioned memory is a type of implicit swimming in the ocean as a Classically conditioned memory 3.2.5.3.2 memory that involves an child when they got caught in memory a type of implicit involuntary response, such as rough surf and were repeatedly memory that involves fear, to a stimulus which has dumped by waves. This may form an involuntary response, repeatedly been associated a fearful memory due to classical such as fear, to a stimulus with an emotionally-arousing conditioning. The association which has repeatedly stimulus. This response is between the ocean and this been associated with an usually emotionally charged, frightening experience, in which emotionally-arousing commonly involving strong the individual was extremely stimulus feelings, such as fear, disgust, scared, may cause them to have an or elation. involuntary fear response whenever Classically conditioned they see the ocean. This individual USEFUL TIP memories are retrieved is likely to respond reflexively (due involuntarily (without conscious to the memory being implicit and It is important to be able effort) and can be reflexive. involuntary) and be unaware that to distinguish between Classically conditioned they are activating this conditioned declarative and procedural memories may involve the fear response. memories. It is helpful to formation of an involuntary fear remember that declarative response to a particular stimulus memories often involve after it has been repeatedly ‘knowing that’, such as associated with another fear- ‘I know that Christmas day inducing stimulus. is the 25th of December’. By contrast, procedural Classically conditioned memories often involve memories may also involve ‘knowing how’, such as the formation of an involuntary ‘I know how to tie my habit, such as biting your shoelaces’. nails when you confront a nerve-racking situation or automatically pressing down on the brake when you reach a stop sign. Brain structures involved in memory 3.2.5.4 Memory is not a single process that occurs in one region of the brain. Rather, memory is a complex process that requires the involvement of and interaction between various brain structures. Theory details There are multiple structures within the brain that are involved in the process of memory, and more specifically in the encoding and storage of long-term memories. These brain structures include the hippocampus, amygdala, neocortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. These brain structures interact to encode and store long-term memories. Basal ganglia Neocortex Cerebellum Amygdala Hippocampus Figure 2 Brain structures involved in the storage of long-term memories 5B Brain structures involved in memory 243  LESSON LINK Hippocampus 3.2.5.4.1 The hippocampus (in relation to memory) is a brain structure that is primarily involved In lesson 5A Atkinson- in encoding explicit memories. The hippocampus is located in the middle of the brain. 5B THEORY Shiffrin multi-store model of memory, you learnt People who have damage to the hippocampus may experience difficulty forming new about the Atkinson- explicit memories due to the hippocampus’ role in encoding these memories. Shiffrin model of memory. Specifically, you learnt Amygdala 3.2.5.4.2 about the processes of The amygdala (in relation to memory) is a brain structure that is primarily involved in encoding and storage. encoding the emotional component of memories. The amygdala is also located in the middle Encoding is the process of the brain and is often described as the ‘fear centre’ of the brain. This brain structure is of converting information into a usable form that responsible for encoding the emotional components of classically conditioned and explicit can be manipulated memories. It is involved in strengthening the encoding of emotional components of memories, and stored in the brain. contributing to them being encoded in greater detail. Encoding can involve Once the amygdala detects an experience that is emotionally arousing, it encodes this transferring information emotional aspect of the memory. For this reason, the amygdala can be thought of as helping from short-term memory label the emotional components of memory. When this is combined with the explicit memory to long-term memory. encoded by the hippocampus, the strength of the memory is enhanced. Therefore, the By contrast, storage is the amygdala helps encode classically conditioned memories that involve distinct emotional retention of information responses, such as fear, disgust, anger, or excitement, which are often our strongest memories. over time. In this lesson, the brain structures that are involved in memory LESSON LINK will be discussed in In lesson, 3A Stress, you learnt about the role of adrenaline in the flight-or-fight-or-freeze response. terms of their roles in When you are confronted with an emotionally arousing experience, adrenaline is released from encoding information the adrenal glands, activating sympathetic nervous system responses. Furthermore, the release from short-term to of adrenaline prompts the release of noradrenaline in the amygdala. This activates the amygdala long-term memory and to signal to the hippocampus that the experience is emotionally significant, strengthening the storing different types of encoding of the memory. This may explain why you tend to remember memories in which you felt memories. very strong emotions, such as excitement or fear, as opposed to ordinary everyday memories. Hippocampus (in relation Neocortex 3.2.5.4.3 to memory) a brain The neocortex (in relation to memory) is a brain structure that stores explicit memories. structure that is primarily The neocortex consists of six layers and is part of the cerebral cortex. Once episodic and involved in encoding semantic memories are converted into a usable form in the hippocampus, they are stored explicit memories within the neocortex to be retrieved for later use. The neocortex covers most of the brain’s Amygdala (in relation to surface and consists of four lobes, with memories being stored in particular locations memory) a brain structure depending on the type of memory and where it was processed. For example, the memory of a that is primarily involved song’s melody may be partially stored in the auditory cortex, which is the part of the neocortex in encoding the emotional involved in storing some aspects of auditory information. However, other aspects of the melody components of memories may be stored in other brain regions because the brain regions are not isolated and interact to Neocortex (in relation store memories. Nevertheless, research suggests that the frontal and temporal lobes are the to memory) a brain main lobes involved in the storage of semantic and episodic memories (Graham et al., 1997). structure that stores explicit memories Due to long-term memories being stored in various locations within the neocortex, neural connections are able to be formed between different memories. These links between memories attach meaning to them and enhance your understanding of how different concepts and memories are interrelated. Amygdala Hippocampus Neocortex Signals to the hippocampus Encodes explicit to strengthen the encoding of memories Stores explicit explicit memories that have memories implicit emotional components. Figure 3 The interaction between the hippocampus, amygdala, and neocortex in memory Furthermore, there is emerging evidence that motor programming regions of the neocortex, such as the premotor cortex and primary motor cortex in the frontal lobe, may have a role in encoding, storing, and retrieving implicit procedural memories that involve executing motor movements. 244 Chapter 5: The psychobiological process of memory Basal ganglia 3.2.5.4.4 The basal ganglia (in relation to memory) are a group of brain structures involved in encoding Basal ganglia (in relation and storing implicit memories, specifically those related to habit formation, procedural to memory) a brain 5B THEORY sequences of movements, and reward pathways. structure involved in encoding and storing Located deep within the centre of the brain, the basal ganglia has various roles in memory: implicit memories, The basal ganglia encodes and stores memories that are unconsciously retrieved, such as specifically those related those related to habit formation. to habit formation, procedural sequences of The basal ganglia encodes and stores memories related to reward processing, supporting movements, and reward learning that is driven by feedback. pathways The basal ganglia encodes and stores procedural memories related to motor skills and Cerebellum (in relation to sequential movements through its connection with the cerebellum (Radhakrishnan memory) a brain structure et al., 2023). involved in encoding and storing implicit memories, Cerebellum 3.2.4.5.5 specifically those related to unconscious habits, The cerebellum (in relation to memory) is a brain structure involved in encoding and storing simple reflexes, or implicit memories, specifically those related to unconscious habits, simple reflexes, or procedural sequences of procedural sequences of precise movements. precise movements Located at the base of the brain, the cerebellum has various roles in memory: The cerebellum encodes and stores procedural memories. In particular, due to its role in motor control and coordination, as well as the maintenance of balance and posture, the USEFUL TIP cerebellum enables precise fine motor movements (The University of Queensland, n.d.). It is important to The cerebellum encodes and stores memories of behavioural responses that have been recognise that the neural acquired through classical conditioning (Thompson & Steinmetz, 2009). This includes mechanisms underlying memories of classically conditioned simple reflexes. memory are under continual investigation. Furthermore, it is important to understand that the cerebellum and basal ganglia are not Despite previous research distinct brain structures. They instead interact with one another, as well as motor programming contributing to our current regions of the neocortex, to encode, store, and retrieve implicit long-term memories, including knowledge, the roles and those associated with procedural movements (VCAA, 2023). relationships of the brain in memory are not yet USEFUL TIP completely understood. New research is When writing a response on the interaction between brain structures, it is extremely important constantly emerging that to pay close attention to the given scenario. As an example of this need to read closely, look at this furthers our understanding question from the VCAA 2017 Psychology exam: of memory as a complex Arlo is a keen basketballer who plays on indoor and outdoor courts. During an indoor grand final, and interactive system. she fell over and twisted her knee. Her team also lost the game. Now, whenever Arlo plays on an indoor court, she becomes emotional. The brain area that is responsible for the storage of Arlo’s implicit memory of how to play basketball is the A. cerebral cortex. B. hippocampus. C. cerebellum. D. amygdala. Reproduced from VCAA 2017 Psychology exam MCQ 27 The correct option is C, the cerebellum. Many students answered this question incorrectly, with only 46% of students choosing the correct answer. The cerebellum is correct due to the question referring to Arlo’s memory of how to play (a procedural memory) rather than the emotional component of the scenario. Procedural memories are stored via connections between the cerebellum and other brain structures. Therefore, option C is correct. This demonstrates the importance of paying attention to the parts of the scenario that the question addresses and not to get distracted by other irrelevant information. Theory summary In this lesson, you learnt about the two categories of long-term memory: implicit and explicit memory. Additionally, you have learnt that there are further types of memory within each category of long-term memory. You have also learnt about the brain structures involved in encoding and storing these memories, including the hippocampus, amygdala, neocortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. 5B Brain structures involved in memory 245  5B Questions 5B QUESTIONS Theory review Question 1 Long-term memory involves only one type of memory. A. True. B. False. Question 2 Explicit memory is also known as A. non-declarative memory. B. declarative memory. C. conscious memory. Question 3 Explicit memory consists of _ and _ memory. Which of the following best fills in the blanks? A. semantic; episodic B. procedural; classically conditioned Question 4 You do not need to think about retrieving procedural and classically conditioned memories. A. True. B. False. Question 5 The neocortex encodes and stores all explicit and implicit memories. A. True. B. False. Assessment skills Compare and evaluate The following assessment skills type reflects the study design assessment type: comparison and evaluation of psychological concepts, methodologies and methods, and findings from three student practical activities Use the following information to answer questions 6–10. H.M. suffered from severe epileptic seizures that impacted his ability to work and have a normal life. In order to reduce the severity of these seizures, H.M. underwent an experimental procedure involving the surgical removal of his hippocampus. Although the seizures decreased in severity, observations of H.M. revealed other side effects. While his short-term memory remained intact, he was unable to transfer any of this information to long-term memory. For example, although H.M. would meet new people following his surgery, he would never be able to remember them and would act as though he has never met them before when he saw them again. Despite this, H.M. remembered scenes from his childhood and some historical events that occurred before his surgery. He was also able to form new procedural memories. (Scoville & Milner, 1957) 246 Chapter 5: The psychobiological process of memory  L.P. suffered an attack of encephalitis in her early forties. Following the attack, L.P. found she had difficulty recognizing familiar faces, remembering the meaning of words, recalling facts about famous people, and finding items in her familiar grocery store. 5B QUESTIONS Despite this, she was still able to form new episodic memories and complete tasks, such as sewing and driving. (De Renzi et al., 1987) Question 6 Which of the following statements best reflects how the removal of the hippocampus impacted H.M.’s memory? A. ‘While his short-term memory remained intact, he was unable to transfer any of this information to long-term memory.’ B. ‘H.M. remembered scenes from his childhood and some historical events that occurred before his surgery.’ Question 7 Which of the following statements best reflects how L.P.’s explicit memory was affected by the attack of encephalitis? A. ‘L.P. found she had difficulty recognizing familiar faces, remembering the meaning of words, recalling facts about famous people, and finding items in her familiar grocery store.’ B. ‘She was still able to form new episodic memories and complete tasks, such as sewing and driving.’ Question 8 L.P.’s semantic memory was impaired following her attack of encephalitis. Which of the following statements best reflects which structure of her brain was impacted by the attack? A. L.P. may have experienced damage to her neocortex as her semantic memory was impaired. B. L.P. may have experienced damage to her cerebellum as her semantic memory was impaired. C. L.P. may have experienced damage to her basal ganglia as her semantic memory was impaired. Question 9 H.M. was unable to form any new long-term memories while L.P. was able to form new episodic memories. This statement suggests that A. L.P. experienced damage to her hippocampus. B. L.P. experienced damage to her neocortex. C. L.P. did not experience damage to her hippocampus. Question 10 L.P. was able to complete tasks, such as sewing and driving. Is it likely that H.M. was able to complete the same tasks? A. H.M. was likely unable to complete the same tasks as his hippocampus was removed, which is the area of the brain responsible for encoding and storing procedural memories. B. H.M. was likely able to complete the same tasks as his cerebellum was not removed, which is the area of the brain responsible for encoding and storing procedural memories. Exam-style Remember and understand Question 11 (1 MARK) Which type of long-term memory involves knowing that ‘the sky is blue’, ‘the English alphabet has 26 letters’, and ‘8 – 2 = 6’? A. Episodic memory. B. Implicit memory. C. Procedural memory. D. Semantic memory. Adapted from VCAA Psychology exam 1 2013 Q21 5B Brain structures involved in memory 247  Question 12 (1 MARK) Which of the following is not an example of an explicit memory? 5B QUESTIONS A. Knowing how to read the information on this page. B. A teacher learning the names of her new students. C. Learning a new bike route to take to work. D. Remembering the author of your favourite book. Adapted from VCAA Psychology exam 1 2013 Q43 Question 13 (1 MARK) The brain structure which encodes memories that are retrieved without conscious awareness is the A. neocortex. B. hippocampus. C. cerebellum. D. hypothalamus. Adapted from VCAA Psychology exam 2018 Q11 Question 14 (2 MARKS) Outline a difference between implicit and explicit memory. Question 15 (2 MARKS) Describe the role of the hippocampus and cerebellum in relation to memory. Adapted from VCAA Psychology exam 2014 Q1 Apply and analyse Question 16 (1 MARK) Nancy learned how to ride a bike when she was a young child and used to ride to school every morning. As an adult, she believed she had forgotten how to ride a bike until she attempted the skill. She was surprised to find that she still knew how to ride a bike 30 years later. This is due to her A. short-term memory. B. procedural memory. C. episodic memory. D. explicit memory. Adapted from VCAA Psychology exam 1 2012 Q31 Use the following information to answer questions 17 and 18. Viola is playing the viola at her school’s talent show. Viola is about to go on stage and is reading over her sheet music for the final time. She is feeling nervous about the performance and is constantly fidgeting with her bracelet, which is an unconscious habit she does when she feels anxious and apprehensive. Question 17 (1 MARK) Viola’s understanding of how to play the viola and her knowledge of the music notes are examples of A. explicit memory, implicit memory. B. implicit memory, episodic memory. C. procedural memory, non-declarative memory. D. procedural memory, semantic memory. 248 Chapter 5: The psychobiological process of memory Question 18 (1 MARK) Which part of the brain is involved in Viola’s habit of fidgeting with her bracelet? 5B QUESTIONS A. Cerebrum. B. Basal ganglia. C. Neocortex. D. Hippocampus. Question 19 (6 MARKS) Dr Tsumi wants to investigate whether she can produce a classically conditioned memory of fear of clowns in young infants. Hiro is an infant who is staying at the hospital she works at. Without asking Hiro’s mother for permission, Dr Tsumi decides to conduct her little experiment on Hiro. Dr Tsumi uses an old jack-in-the- box clown toy that makes a very loud screeching noise every time it opens and the clown pops up. When she presents the box to Hiro, he starts crying immediately when he hears the loud screeching noise after the clown pops up. Dr Tsumi continues presenting the jack-in-the-box to Hiro and he continues to be afraid of it. Later, when the hospital runs a charity day and Hiro is visited by a friendly clown entertainer, he immediately starts crying. When Hiro’s mother finds out about the experiment, she is very upset. She tries to take Hiro away from the experiment, but Dr Tsumi insists that it is a standard procedure all infants go through before they are discharged from the hospital. a. Identify the type of memory that Hiro’s emotional response to the clown represents. (1 MARK) b. Outline the role of the amygdala in the formation of Hiro’s memory. (1 MARK) c. Were there any ethical considerations breached by Dr Tsumi? Justify your response. (4 MARKS) Question 20 (4 MARKS) Theodore, a history teacher, taught his class all about the Russian Revolution. He was able to remember all the key dates, figures, and facts without even looking at his notes. a. Identify the type of memory which allowed Theodore to remember facts about the Russian Revolution. (1 MARK) b. Explain which brain structure was involved when Theodore encoded this memory. Justify your response. (2 MARKS) c. Identify where this memory would have been stored in the brain. (1 MARK) Questions from multiple lessons Question 21 (1 MARK) Emotionally arousing memories that involve fear can be created through the process of A. observational conditioning. B. classical conditioning. C. storage. D. the General Adaptation Syndrome. Question 22 (7 MARKS) Millie’s mum is a dance instructor who has been trying to help Millie increase her flexibility so she could move into the advanced dance class. After repeatedly watching her mum teach a routine to an advanced dance class, during which she successfully encoded the steps involved, she finds that she is still unable to perform the routine. a. Identify the type of long-term memory involved in the dancers learning how to perform the dance routine. (1 MARK) b. Using examples, outline the two stages of observational learning that Millie has achieved and a stage which she has not achieved. (6 MARKS) 5B Brain structures involved in memory 249  5C The role of episodic and semantic memory in remembering and imagining STUDY DESIGN DOT POINT the role of episodic and semantic memory in retrieving autobiographical events and in constructing possible imagined futures, including evidence from brain imaging and post-mortem studies of brain lesions in people with Alzheimer’s disease and aphantasia as an example of individual differences in the experience of mental imagery 5A 5B 5C 5D 3.2.6.1 3.2.6.2 3.2.6.3 3.2.6.4 The role of episodic and The role of episodic and semantic Alzheimer’s disease Aphantasia semantic memory in retrieving memory in constructing possible autobiographical events imagined futures Time travel is a concept taken straight out of science fiction novels and films. However, our brains actually have the capacity to travel through time. Mental time travel can involve travelling to the past by remembering lived experiences, and can also involve stepping forward in time by imagining future events. The ability of the mind to travel through time relies heavily on our memory system, specifically our semantic and episodic memory. In this lesson, you will learn about the role of episodic and semantic memory in retrieving autobiographical events and constructing possible imagined futures. You will also learn MS ME about Alzheimer’s disease and aphantasia, and how these conditions can impact episodic and semantic memory. The role of episodic and semantic memory in ACTIVITY Log into your Edrolo retrieving autobiographical events 3.2.6.1 account for activities that Think back to your first day of high school. Do you remember what day it was? Do you support this lesson. remember which classmates you met that day? What were your first impressions of them? Did you feel nervous or excited about starting school? These questions relate to the different types of memory involved when we recall life events. In this section, we will outline these memory types and explain how they overlap when retrieving autobiographical memories. KEY TERMS Semantic memory Theory details a type of explicit memory Semantic and episodic memories are both types of explicit memories. Semantic memory that consists of general consists of general knowledge or facts whilst episodic memory consists of personal knowledge or facts experiences or events. Episodic memory is often associated with autobiographical events, Episodic memory which refer to personally lived experiences. Examples of autobiographical events may include: a type of explicit memory that consists of personal your first day of school experiences or events memories from a family vacation Autobiographical a birthday party. events personally lived experiences These autobiographical events are stored in long-term memory and are retrieved every time Retrieval the process you think or speak about them. Retrieval is the process of accessing information that has of accessing information been stored in long-term memory and bringing it into our conscious awareness in short- that has been stored term memory. in long-term memory Research shows that the hippocampus is primarily involved in the retrieval of episodic and bringing it into our memories and that the frontal and temporal lobes are involved in the retrieval of semantic conscious awareness in memories (Tulving et al., 1991). short-term memory 250 Chapter 5: The psychobiological process of memory However, studies have found that the retrieval of autobiographical events involves the LESSON LINK activation of both these brain areas, suggesting that autobiographical events involve an overlap of episodic and semantic memory (Burianova et al., 2010). In lesson 5A Atkinson- 5C THEORY This may occur because autobiographical events contain information that is semantic, such as Shiffrin multi-store model of memory, you learnt the date or location of the event. Additionally, autobiographical events also contain episodic about the Atkinson- components, which are more specifically related to the personal experience of the event, such Shiffrin model of memory. as recalling the feeling of being nervous or happy during the event. The episodic component In this model, memories of autobiographical events allows for the event to be remembered in rich detail. An example are encoded from short- of the overlap between episodic and semantic memory in the retrieval of autobiographical term memory and stored events can be seen in figure 1. in the long-term memory system. Retrieval involves Conversations with people at the party accessing and using these Feeling happy during the party memories by bringing Episodic memory Dancing to the music them into short-term The taste of the cake memory. Therefore, when retrieving autobiographical Memory of the events, you are accessing autobiographical event the information from long- of a 16th birthday party term memory and bringing it into short-term memory. The location of the party What flavour the cake was Semantic memory Who was invited What music was played Figure 1 The retrieval of an autobiographical event, such as a birthday party, involves both semantic and episodic memory PSYCHOLOGY EXPLORATION When you retrieve autobiographical events from your long-term memory, you do not replay every single aspect of the event, but rather piece the memory together to create a mental representation of the event. This is known as reconstruction, which refers to the process of combining different pieces of information from memory in an attempt to create a comprehensive recollection of an event in its original order or form. However, the process of reconstruction is not always accurate and reliable. Psychologist Elizabeth Loftus discovered that individuals may falsely reconstruct their memories of events if they receive misleading information about the event. This can lead to an individual producing memories of an event that differ from what actually happened or producing a memory that did not even occur! For example, one study investigated if suggestive information could lead adults to report false autobiographical memories from their childhood. Participants were shown an altered image of themselves as a child on a hot air balloon ride. The experimenters questioned the participants about the event and encouraged them to provide any details they remembered. The results of the study showed that participants were able to construct their own narrative of this event and truly believed they had been on a hot air balloon, despite the fact that it never occurred (Wade et al., 2002). The role of episodic and semantic memory in constructing possible imagined futures 3.2.6.2 Imagine you are preparing to present a speech at a school assembly. You see yourself standing at the podium in the familiar assembly room. You know where the microphone is and mentally practice how you are going to move around the room and interact with your audience. You are also considering whether you should include humour in your speech. You remember that last time you presented in front of the school, everyone laughed at your jokes and told you that your presentation was engaging. This fictional scenario highlights how you might draw on elements of episodic and semantic memory when constructing possible imagined futures. 5C The role of episodic and semantic memory in remembering and imagining 251  Theory details Episodic and semantic memory are also involved in constructing possible imagined futures, Possible imagined which refer to hypothetical experiences and situations that an individual has the ability to 5C THEORY futures hypothetical create and conceptualise in their mind. experiences and situations that an individual has Some examples of possible imagined futures may include the ability to create and imagining what you’re going to do tomorrow conceptualise in their mind imagining how you might present a speech imagining yourself in an argument with your parents and considering how it might go and what is best to say envisioning what you might wear to a party and imagining people complimenting your outfit. The brain regions that are involved in the retrieval of autobiographical memories are also activated when people construct possible imagined futures. Schacter et al. (2008) found that patients who sustained damage to their hippocampus not only experienced difficulty remembering past events, but also struggled to imagine future scenarios. This is because when individuals attempt to mentally construct a possible imagined future, they draw on elements of past experiences from their semantic and episodic memory. Semantic memory is involved in the construction of possible imagined futures as individuals must be able to envision possible scenarios that are consistent and fit in with what they already know about the world. Episodic memory is also involved by allowing individuals to construct a possible imagined future that is subjective and includes more richly detailed elements, such as the people involved or emotional reactions. An example of how episodic and semantic memory influence the construction of a possible imagined future is depicted in figure 2. Recalling the memory of receiving compliments last time Episodic memory you wore a particular outfit Recalling feeling too warm in an outfit last time you wore it Possible imagined future of planning what to wear to semi-formal party on a 30 degree day Understanding what is meant by the dress code ‘semi-formal’ Semantic memory Knowing what kind of clothing to wear on a hot day Figure 2 The construction of a possible imagined future involves both semantic and episodic memory It’s important to note that possible imagined futures do not always become a reality and are often a mental simulation of a hypothetical event. Despite this, the ability to imagine futures is very important as mentally ‘trying out’ different scenarios can guide our future behaviours. For example, being able to imagine future scenarios can help us anticipate potential consequences of our behaviour and decide whether or not we avoid or approach certain situations (Addis et al., 2007). Alzheimer’s disease 3.2.6.3 Do you know someone who has Alzheimer’s disease? What do you notice about your Neurodegenerative interactions with them? You may have noticed that this individual tends to have trouble diseases diseases remembering details from the past. In this section, we will look at Alzheimer’s disease and characterised by the how it affects the brain. We will also look at how Alzheimer’s disease disrupts memory and progressive loss of our ability to imagine possible futures. neurons in the brain Alzheimer’s disease a neurodegenerative Theory details disease that involves the progressive loss of What is Alzheimer’s disease? neurons in the brain and Neurodegenerative diseases are diseases characterised by the progressive loss of neurons is characterised by in the brain. Alzheimer’s disease is an example of a neurodegenerative disease that is memory decline characterised by memory decline. 252 Chapter 5: The psychobiological process of memory Some symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease include: a decrease in cognitive functions, such as the ability to plan, problem-solve, and think logically. 5C THEORY personality change. changes in mood and emotion. frequently becoming confused or disoriented. difficulty with language and communication. How does Alzheimer’s disease affect the brain? Despite the present