Cognitive Psychology PDF Past Paper

The following 22 markers are included for the summer exams: 1.​ MSM: ​ glsnzer and chintz ​ HM Milner (9) 2.​ WMM: ​ Landry & Bartling(9) ​ Quinn & MCconell 3.​ Schema theory: ​ Bartlett ​ Lotus and palmer (9) ​ Roediger as evaluative point 4.​ Dual processing...

The following 22 markers are included for the summer exams: 1.​ MSM: ​ glsnzer and chintz ​ HM Milner (9) 2.​ WMM: ​ Landry & Bartling(9) ​ Quinn & MCconell 3.​ Schema theory: ​ Bartlett ​ Lotus and palmer (9) ​ Roediger as evaluative point 4.​ Dual processing ​ Griggs and cox(9) ​ McClure 1.​ Multi-store models of memory INTRO -​ Cognitive processes refer to the internal processes of the mind, which we may not explicitly be able to see, but we know are there. -​ Memory is an example of a cognitive process -​ memory refers to a.​ Encoding - transferring of information into our memory system b.​ Storage - retention of the information c.​ Retrieval - gathering information out of storage and into conscious awareness through recall, recognition and relearning -​ Memory is an unclear concept which means that models are often used to try and map out the way in which memory works. -​ There are several different models, but one of the most well-known models is The Multistore Model of Memory (MSM) -​ the general model of memory is that it is a cognitive process involving encoding, storage and retrieval of information -​ all models expand upon this simple outline of the complex process of memory -​ it was developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968 -​ it explains that information flows from sensory to short term to long term memory -​ SENSORY MEMORY > STM > LTM  -​ Sensory memory does not process info, just detects from the environment and holds until it is either transferred to the STM or lost. Information can be held for around 1-5 seconds based on attention -​ STM can be held for no longer than 30 seconds based on maintenance rehearsal to keep in STM and elaborative rehearsal to transfer information to the LTM -​ LTM can be held for an unlimited amount of time but it is not easily retrievable. It can be brought back to STM for the moment. It is based on rehearsal which consolidates the memory trace. -​ In this essay, I will be evaluating the _____ of the MSM based on two studies, Glanzer and Cunitz and Milner BODY A.​ Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) -​ The serial position effect refers to the findings that recall accuracy varies as a function of an item’s position without a study list. -​ When asked to recall, people tend to begin with the end of the list, recalling those items best - recency effect -​ among earlier items, the first three are recalled more frequently than the middle items - primacy effect -​ The serial position effect has been used to support the idea that there are different stores for STM and LTM as proposed in the MSM by Atkinson and Shoffrin in 1968. -​ In 1966 Glanzer and Cunitz were one of the first to study primacy and recency effects in a controlled setting which would add to the theory or MSM. Aim -​ to examine whether the position of words influences recall (primacy and recency effects) and to investigate the existence of STM and LTM as two different memory stores Procedure 1.​ 240 US army enlisted males were presented lists of words, one at a time. They were asked to recall the words and could do so in order (free recall) 2.​ IV : presence or absence of the 30 second distraction task 3.​ DV : number of words correctly recalled from different positions in the list 4.​ condition 1: half of the participants were asked to recall words immediately after memorising them 5.​ condition 2 : the other half counted backwards before recalling the words (recall after distraction) Findings: -​ participants who were asked to count out loud for 30 seconds remembered fewer of the last words on the list compared to those who didn’t have this task -​ delaying the recall by 30 seconds destroys the recency effect causing recall of later words to be similar to the ones in the middle i.e. forgotten. However it does not influence the primacy effect -​ Participants had a higher probability of recall on items that were near the start of the list - primacy than the items that were near the end of the list - recency effect  Conclusion -​ this provides evidence for the existence of STM and LTM as two separate memory stores Explanation -​ recency effect is bc STM has a duration up to 30 seconds so the information is still held -​ this why the distraction task eradicates the recency effect because the information has been lost from the STM -​ the primacy effect is because the information is attended to in more detail and elaborately rehearsed in the mind, leading to the transfer to the LTM -​ the information is lost in the middle because there is too much to be elaborately rehearsed as STM can only hold 7+/-2 items and the capacity has been reached by this point Critical thinking -​ lab experiment - artificial - ecological validity -​ US army - soldier’s memories could be different -​ some words are more memorable to people than others -​ the study has real life links - teachers or those involved in training employees present the most important information at the start or end of the lesson -​ it was conducted in the US - reductionist to all cultures -​ Variables were controlled so very reliable -​ design was simple and easily repeated -​ specific to males B.​ HM & Milner study -​ HM experienced a cycle accident which led to him having seizures -​ His seizures got worse and worse over the years and by the time he was 27, he became severely epileptic -​ he would have major seizures multiple times a day -​ Dr Scoville, a neurosurgeon offered HM’S family hope in the form of an experimental brain operation -​ he told them he could take Henry’s epilepsy away by removing some structure’s in Henry’s brain -​ when HM woke up he suffered from severe amnesia -​ he could remember his childhood but couldn’t form any new memories -​ Milner researched HM by -​ Psychometric and cognitive tests -​ Observation of his behaviour -​ interviews with both HM and with family members -​ corkin used MRI to analyse the extent of damage -​ it was possible to see that parts of HM’S temporal lobe including the hippocampus had been damaged most -​ damage to the hippocampus explains the problem of transferring STM to LTM Evaluation: -​ there is evidence that MSM is not a unitary store; episodic memory is the memory of events, semantic memory is the knowledge of the world and procedural memory is actions and skills  -​ this was found with HM because he could form new procedural memories such as drawing a star but couldn’t form new episodic or semantic memories -​ the model -​ he had problems with forming new declarative long term memories (LTM), but could perform short-term memory tasks (STM), such as retrieving previously formed LTMs. -​ This can be used to support the multi-store model of memory, as the case of HM suggests that the LTM and STM are separate stores, which concurs with the model. -​ Despite not being able to form new semantic or episodic memories, HM performed in the reverse drawing task that was administered to him on a number of occasions, even though he could not remember participating in this, suggesting he could form new procedural LTMs. -​ This suggests that LTM has a number of separate stores, which the multi-store model does not account for, so is a limitation. EVALUATION OF THE THEORY -​ although the studies in some way or another support the theory of the multi-store model, they bring some question to the validity of the theory itself -​ The model is oversimplified, in particular when it suggests that both short-term and long-term memory each operate in a single, uniform fashion. We now know is this not the case. It has now become apparent that both short-term and long-term memory are more complicated that previously thought. CONCLUSION -​ I -​ - -​ - -​ - 2.​ Working model memory INTRO -​ refers to the temporary mental workplace where you hold information in the STM -​ Baddeley and Hitch observed in lab experiments that if participants performed 2 tasks simultaneously that involved both vision and listening, there was no problem. The procedure where participants carry out two tasks at once is the dual task technique. -​ if STM really is a unitary store, the two sets of stimuli should interfere with each other, so memory will be limited to 7+/-2 items which suggests that there are different stores for visual and auditory processing  -​ Baddeley and Hitch suggested that WMM should be seen as a kind of mental workplace which provides a temporary platform that holds information to use in any cognitive task -​ once the task is complete, the information quickly disappears to make room for a new round of information -​ The WMM argues that as long as we are using different STMs , then there should not be a problem with multitasking. -​ however, when we try to do two things at once that require the same STM store, we run into a problem -​ this is tested using dual technique tasks -​ Working memory is a multi-component system which includes the central executive, visuospatial sketch pad, phonological loop and episodic buffer -​ CENTRAL EXECUTIVE: drives the whole system. Directs attention into particular tasks i.e. sending sensory info to visuospatial sketch pad. It has limited capacity and deals with cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem solving -​ VISUOSPATIAL SKETCHPAD: e.g. imagining your room at home(visual memories) -​ PHONOLOGICAL LOOP: deals with spoken and written material and is subdivided into 2 systems -​ Repeating info in your head and remembering it -​ bringing sounds back to your memory -​ EPISODIC BUFFER: extra storage system added in 2000 which acts as a backup store which communicates with both LTM and the components of WM. -​ all of these make up this system of memory which is used to explain why complex reasoning and learning tasks require a mental workspace to hold and manipulate information -​ In this essay, I will be evaluating the _____ of the WMM using two studies done by Quinn and McConnell and Landry and Bartling respectively BODY A.​ Quinn and McConnell(1996) Aim: to find evidence for the WMM Procedure: -​ The researchers asked participants to learn a list of words, by either imagery or rehearsal. -​ The task was performed on its own or with a concurrent visual or verbal task -​ Told to look at dot patterns while rehearsing vocabulary OR listen to someone speaking in a foreign language while rehearsing vocabulary Findings: -​ The participants who learned the list by imagery were unaffected by the verbal noise but were by the visual task -​ the opposite is true of the rehearsal group -​ this shows there is separate stores for different types of STM Conclusion  -​ indicates that imagery processing using VISUOSPATIAL SKETCH PAD whereas verbal processing using the phonological loop -​ if the two tasks used the same component, performance deteriorated -​ the study thus lends support to different systems of WMM Evaluation -​ Limitations in Task Design: The tasks used to assess working memory in the study might not fully capture the complexity of real-world working memory demands. This could lead to an incomplete understanding of how working memory functions in everyday situations. -​ Ecological Validity: The tasks used in the study might lack ecological validity, meaning they don’t accurately represent the cognitive demands people face in their daily lives. For example, a working memory task conducted in a controlled laboratory setting might not reflect the distractions and multitasking that occur in real-world settings. -​ The model has been useful in understanding which parts of the memory system may be linked to underlying problems in reading and mathematical skills. -​ There is little direct evidence for how the central executive works, and what it does, and its processing capacity has never been measured. i.e. serious limitations! -​ Dual-task studies (where participants do 2 things at the same time) give empirical support for the existence of a separate phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad Differences: The models differ in the way that they represent the sequences of events in the memory process. The multi-store model shows memory as a linear sequence of events, as the information passes through the different stores to finally arrive at the LTM. In this model, only the STM interacts with the LTM to retrieve information. In this model, if it is not passed onto to the next memory store, it is lost though decay or displacement. In the multi-store model, information enters the system through the senses, is stored in the sensory memory store, it is either passed on to STM or lost, then either rehearsed in STM and passed on to LTM, where it is stored and can be retrieved, or displaced. On the other hand, the working model presents a model that is interactive between the STM stores and the LTM store, where both stores interact to function effectively. In the working memory model, the different STM stores interact with each other bidirectionally, and the individual STM stores interact with LTM bidirectionally. The subsystems interact bidirectionally, as well as with the central executive, to create a dynamic idea, which then interacts bidirectionally with the LTM store to add meaning for semantic encoding and retrieval. This model shows that both LTM and STM stores actively interact so for retrieval of information to add meaning, unlike the multi-store model, which is linear. SCHEMA THEORY INTRO -​ A schema is a mental representation of an individual’s pre-existing knowledge about the world and experiences in the world. They are derived from prior knowledge and experience -​ Frederic Bartlett was the first to coin the term schema to describe the phenomenon of reconstructive memory -​ reconstructive memory is your memory of an event after it has happened and it may be reconstructed accurately or inaccurately depending on factors such as leading language and cultural schemas -​ schemas help to predict what to expect based on what has happened before -​ they are used to organised our knowledge, assist recall and guide our memory and help us make sense of current experiences -​ Schemas are formed by process of assimilation and accommodation -​ assimilation is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or event -​ accommodation is changing an existing schema or developing a new schema when it cannot adequately explain a new object or event -​ the theory of schema can be described using two studies, Bartlett and Loftus and Palmer BODY a.​ Bartlett Aim: to investigate how memory of an unfamiliar story is affected by previous knowledge Procedure -​ serial or repeated reproduction of a story - the war of ghosts - done by students at Cambridge -​ they were then asked to rewrite the story from memory several times after a period of days, weeks and even months and ywars -​ serial reproduction: person reads the story and writes it down. Next person reads the previous person’s account and writes it down from memory and this repeats. -​ repeated reproduction: person reads the story and writes it down. They then come back several times in the future, writing the story down from memory Findings: -​ participants changed the story in several different ways as they tried to remember it -​ the story was subject to three types of reconstruction -​ Familiarisation : canoes become boats , paddling becomes rowing - bc more consistent with British culture -​ omission of irrelevant, unfamiliar or unpleasant information : ghosts are not consistent with British culture which doesn’t place much emphasis on superstition so many references to ghosts were dropped  -​ transposition of details from one part of the story to another -​ these child have helped make sense of a culturally unfamiliar story Conclusion -​ Bartlett was one of the first to show how cultural schema influences remembering. He found that people had problems remembering a story from another culture, and they actively reconstructed the story to fit in with their own cultural experiences. evaluation -​ Although it was technically an artificial situation, the results have ecological validity as remembering and repeating what you have read is a natural activity. -​ However, nonsense material was used which is unlike real life. -​ Bartlett has been criticised for not being specific enough which has made it difficult to replicate his findings e.g. he did not standardise the intervals at which participants reproduced the material they had learned in the repeated reproduction condition. -​ There were few controls. -​ an experiment by Roediger et al in 2014 confirmed Bartlett’s observation that serial reproduction leads to greater forgetting of the original material and to greater distortion of the material that actually is recalled b.​ Loftus and Palmer (1972) -​ Loftus and Palmer investigated eyewitness testimony and the reconstructive nature of memory. -​ Relating to Schema Theory, L&P stated that “it is natural to conclude that the label ‘smash’ causes a shift in the memory representation of the accident in the direction of being more similar to a representation suggested by the verbal label”. I -​ t can be argued that ‘smashed’ suggests a serious accident schema that leads to a higher speed estimation the cars were travelling at. -​ Loftus and Palmer set out to study how subsequent information can affect an eyewtinesses’s account of an event. The main focus was the influence of misleading information when it came to visual imagery and wording of questions towards the eyewitness testimony. Aim: -​ The goal was to test the hypothesis that language used in eyewitness testimony can alter memory. They did this by asking the participants to estimate the speed of cars using different forms of questions. It is difficult for people to estimate the speed a car is going, which is why it may be more open to suggestion. Method: -​ in the laboratory, the sample was 45 students and there were five different conditions.  -​ Each participant only experienced one condition. -​ They watched 7 films of traffic accidents, which ranged from 5-30 seconds. -​ They were presented in random order to each group. -​ The participants were then asked to describe what happened as if they witnessed the event. -​ They were asked specific questions, such as “About how fast were the cars going when they (smashed/collided/bumped/hit/contacted) each other?” Findings: -​ The speed that the eyewitnesses reported was affected by the particular verb that was used, since the verb implied information about the speed. -​ This in turn, affected the participants’ memory of the accident. -​ The following average speed was reported for each word: -​ Smashed: 40.8 mph -​ Collided: 39.3 mph -​ Bumped: 38.1 mph -​ Hit: 34 mph -​ Contacted: 31.8 mph Conclusion -​ This study shows that the verb gave an impression regarding the speed of the car, which altered the participants’ perceptions. -​ This means that eyewitness testimony could be biassed by the way questions are asked after the crime is committed. Evaluation -​ Perhaps the greatest strength of Loftus and Palmer’s experiment is the degree of control over confounding variables. As the study was lab-based, the researchers could ensure a range of factors (age of participants, incident viewed, environment, etc). -​ Consequently, they could ensure that these factors did not affect the respondents answers – and that only the verb-condition was causing the participants to re-evaluate their memories -​ there were two similar experiments they conducted which supports the same conclusion - reliability -​ One limitation of the research is that it lacked mundane realism / ecological validity. Participants viewed video clips rather than being present at a real-life accident. As the video clip does not have the same emotional impact as witnessing a real-life accident the participants would be less likely to pay attention and less motivated to be accurate in their judgements. -​ Overall, we can probably conclude that this laboratory experiment had low ecological validity and thus may not tell us very much about how people’s memories are affected by leading questions in real life. -​ A study conducted by Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conflicts with the findings of this study. They found that misleading information did not alter the memory of people who had witnessed a real armed robbery. CONCLUSION  -​ Both Bartlett and Loftus and Palmer’s studies are low in population validity. This is because they used students -​ Mention YAVIS(but specific parts of YAVIS that might apply to studying -​ Westernised, reductionist -​ Thus schemas affect our cognitive processes and are used to organise our knowledge, assist recall, guide our behaviour, predict likely happenings and help make sense of current experiences helps us understand how we organise our knowledge. -​ In conclusion, strengths of schema theory: -​ Provides an explanation for how knowledge is stored in the mind something that is unobservable and remains unknown in psychology -​ There is much research that supports schema theory -​ But its limitations are that, -​ It is unclear exactly how schemas are acquired and how people choose between schemas -​ It does not account for new information without a link to existing schemas -​ Overall, with the amount of evidence, schema theory should be considered an important theory that provides insight into information processing and behaviour. -​ It has contributed largely to our understanding of mental processes. -​ But the theory requires further research and refinements to overcome its limitations and uncover its unclear aspects MODELS OF MEMORY Psychologists use the term memory to refer to the following three processes: 1.​ ENCODING - transferring/processing of information into our memory system 2.​ STORAGE - retention of the information 3.​ RETRIEVAL - gathering information out of storage and into conscious awareness through recall, recognition and relearning The general model of memory is that it is a cognitive process involving the encoding, storage and retrieval of information. All models expand upon this simple outline of the complex process of memory Encoding: -​ Auditory -​ Visual -​ Semantic(meaning) Different types of long term memory:  1.​ Episodic memory- memory of events 2.​ Semantic memory (diff from semantic encoding)- memory of facts or people ^ These two are declarative memories i.e. they can be consciously recalled They operate in the hippocampus 3.​ Procedural memory- unconscious memory of skills and how to do things This type operates in the basal ganglia Long term memory Explicit VS Implicit memory Explicit(conscious) -​ Declarative memory(facts, events) -​ Episodic memory : experiences , events -​ Semantic memory : facts , concepts Implicit (unconscious) -​ Procedural memory(skills, tasks) A model is the visual representation of a theory, designed to explain the theory. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) multi-store memory model (MMM) is a model explaining their theory of memory. It explains how information flows through three stores, each having different capacities and durations: 1.​ sensory memory 2.​ short-term memory (STM) 3.​ long-term memory (LTM) Sensory memory -​ Does not process information , just detects from the environment and holds until its either transferred to STM or lost -​ Info can be echoic or iconic -​ Capacity : limited by perception -​ Duration : very short, 1-5 seconds -​ Condition : attention - has to be met w attention or information will not transfer to STM, will decay to make room for other info Short term memory -​ Capacity: the magic number is 7 +/- 2 -​ Duration: generally no longer than 30s -​ Condition: rehearsal is needed to increase duration of STM to transfer it to LTM. Maintenance rehearsal (repeating info over and over again) keeps it in STM for a short period of time but elaborative rehearsal is needed to transfer the memory to LTM store Long term memory -​ Capacity: unlimited , but not all info is easily retrievable , when we retrieve info we bring it back to our STM for the moment in time -​ Duration: unlimited(you could remember songs from years ago)  -​ Condition: for info to enter LTM is rehearsal, as this consolidates the memory trace and increases the probability of info permanently entering the LTM store MSM Key study - Glanzer and Cunitz(1966) The serial position effect refers to the findings that recall accuracy varies as a function of an item’s position within a study list. When asked to recall a list in any order, people tend to begin with the end of the list, recalling those items best. This is known as the recency effect. Among earlier list items, the first free are recalled more frequently than the middle items - this is known as the primacy effect. The serial position effect has been used to support the idea that there are different stores for STM and LTM, as proposed in the Multi-store Memory developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. In 1966 Glanzer and Cunitz were some of the first to study primacy and recency effects in a controlled setting. Their research would add to the theory of MSM. Aim: To examine whether the position of words influences recall(primacy and recency effects) and to investigate the existence of short term memory and long term memory as two different memory stores. Procedure: 1.​ 240 US Army enlisted males were presented lists of words, one at a time. They were asked to recall the words and could do so in any order (free recall) 2.​ Independent variable: Presence or absence of the 30 second distraction task 3.​ Dependent variable: number of words correctly recalled from different positions in the list 4.​ Condition 1: half of the participants were asked to recall words immediately after memorising them(immediate recall) 5.​ Condition 2: the other half counted backward before recalling the words(recall after distraction) Findings: -​ Participants who were asked to count out loud for 30 seconds remembered fewer of the last words on the list compared to those who didn't have this task -​ Delaying the recall by 30 seconds destroys the recency effect causing recall of later words to be similar to ones in the middle, however it does not influence the primacy effect -​ Participants had a higher probability of recall on items that were near the start of the list - this is the primacy effect -​ Participants had a higher probability of recall on items that were near the end of the list - this is called the recency effect Conclusion: -​ This provides evidence for the existence of STM and LTM as two separate memory stores. Explanation  -​ Recency effect is bc STM has a duration up to 30s so the info is still in it -​ This is why the distractor task eradicates the recency effect bc the info has been lost from STM -​ The primacy effect is bc the info is attended to in more detailed and elaboratively rehearsed in the mind , leading to transfer to LTM -​ The info in the middle is lost bc there is too much to be elaboratively rehearsed as STM can only hold 7 +/- 2 items and the capacity has been reached at this point Explaining the recency effect w the MSM -​ During the presentation of the list of words, people are trying to keep these words in their STM -​ STM is limited in size to about 7 chunks of information -​ Therefore as new words enter the STM, the older words must be bumped out -​ At the end of the task the only words that are left in STM are the words that have been just heard and not bumped out -​ This explains why people have better recall of the more recent items on the list Explaining the primacy effect w the MSM -​ According to the MSM, the transfer of information from STM into LTM depends on the amount of attention and rehearsal that the info receives -​ Words experienced earlier in the list will have more rehearsal and therefore have a greater chance of making it to the LTM , and therefore will more likely be recalled. Glanzer and Cunitz - critical thinking -​ Study was a lab experiment -​ The participants were in the US army - soldier’s memories could be different -​ Some words may have been more memorable to people than others -​ The study has real life links - teachers or those involved training employees may want to present the most important info in their lessons at the start or the end -​ Evidence there are separate memory stores -​ It was conducted in the US -​ The participants were all male -​ High control: variables were controlled so very reliable -​ Design was simple therefore easily repeated -​ Low ecological validity - memorising a list of words is artificial - may not extrapolate to real life scenarios -​ Specific to males only - cannot generalise to female memory When evaluating research : use I SCREAM 1.​ Internal validity: does the research test what it was intended to test 2.​ Sample: sampling method, gender and age 3.​ Culture: lots of research takes place in EU and US which makes it hard to generalise info elsewhere because these countries are WEIRD - westernised, educated, industrial, rich and democratic. 4.​ Reliability: has the research been replicated to test the reliability , is the method standardised enough so that replication is possible?  5.​ External validity: can these findings apply to other contexts i.e. real world, other people and other periods of time 6.​ Alternative evidence: consider what each study brings to the argument , if there has been any research to provide alternative perspective 7.​ Methodology: consider the research design, research method Research support for MSM HM & Milner -​ HM experienced a cycle accident which led to him having seizures -​ His seizures got worse and worse over the years and by the time he was 27, he was deeply epileptic. He would have major seizures, multiple times a day. -​ Dr Scoville, a neurosurgeon, offered HM’s family hope in the form of an experimental brain operation -​ He told them that he could take Henry’s epilepsy away by removing several mysterious and deep-seated structures in Henry’s brain -​ When HM woke up he suffered from severe amnesia. Henry could remember his childhood , his family , his family history etc but couldn't form new memories -​ Milner researched HM by -​ Psychometric and cognitive tests -​ Observations of his behaviour -​ Interviews w both HM and w family members -​ Corkin used MRI to analyse the extent of the damage -​ It was possible to see that parts of HM’s temporal lobe including the hippocampus had been damaged most. -​ Damage to the hippocampus explains the problem of transferring STM to LTM. Evaluating the MSM: There is evidence that MSM is not a unitary store; Episodic memories- memory of events semantic memories- knowledge of the world Procedural memories- action or skills This was found w HM as he could not form new procedural memories but not episodic or semantic. The model could be argued to be reductionist as it does not consider any biological factors that may influence memory. I.e. cortisol (stress hormone) can have an impact on memory. Newcomer(1999) found that high levels of cortisol produces impaired performance on a memory task. WORKING MEMORY MODEL(WMM) -​ Baddeley and Hitch(1974) -​ Refers to your temporary mental workplace where you hold info in the STM.  -​ Baddeley and Hitch observed in lab experiments that if participants performed 2 tasks simultaneously that involved listening and vision, there was no problem. The procedure where participants carry out two tasks at once is the dual task technique. -​ If STM really is a unitary store, the two sets of stimuli should interfere with each other, so memory will be limited to 7 +/- 2 items. This suggests that there are different stores for visual and auditory processing. -​ Baddeley and Hitch suggested that WMM should be seen as a kind of mental workplace, which provides a temporary platform that holds info to use in any cognitive task. -​ Once the task is complete, the info can quickly disappear and make room for a new round of information -​ We wouldn't be able to function as a human without multitasking. The WMM argues that as long as we are using different STMs, then there should not be a problem with multitasking. However, when we try to do 2 things at once which require the same STM store, we run into a problem. This is tested using dual technique tasks. -​ Central executive : drives the whole system. It directs attention to particular tasks e.g. sends sensory info to visuospatial sketch pad. It has very limited capacity. It also deals with cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem-solving. -​ Visual and spatial information e.g. imagine your bedroom at home(visual memories) = visuospatial sketchpad -​ Phonological loop : deals with spoken and written material and is subdivided into 2 systems -​ Repeating info in your head and remembering it = auditory control process -​ Bringing sounds back to your memory e.g. what a dog bark sounds like = phonological store -​ Episodic buffer : extra storage system added in the year 2000. Acts as a backup store which communicates with both LTM and the components of working memory. In conclusion, 1.​ Working memory is a limited capacity store for retaining information for a brief period while performing mental operations on that information. 2.​ Working model memory is a multi-component system which includes the central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop and episodic buffer 3.​ Working memory is important for reasoning, learning and comprehension 4.​ Working memory theories assume that complex reasoning and learning tasks require a mental workspace to hold and manipulate information. Research support for WMM Quinn and McConnell(1996) Aim: to find evidence for the WMM Procedure: -​ The researchers asked participants to learn a list of words, by either imagery or rehearsal. The task was performed on its own or with a concurrent visual or verbal task - changing pattern of dots or speech in foreign noise Findings:  -​ The participants who learned the list by imagery were unaffected by the verbal noise but were the visual noise -​ The opposite is true of the rehearsal group -​ This shows that there is separate store for different types of STM Conclusion: -​ Indicates that imagery processing uses the Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad whereas verbal processing uses the Phonological Loop. -​ If the two tasks used the same component, performance deteriorated. -​ The study thus lends support to different systems of WMM. Landry and Bartling(2011) Aim: to investigate if articulatory suppression would influence recall of a written list of phonologically dissimilar letters(letters that don't sound the same) in serial recall. ** Articulatory suppression is the process of inhibiting memory performance by speaking while being presented with an item to remember. Procedure: MSM and WMM MSM WMM View of memory The MSM is holistic as it has WMM has more detail in all parts of memory e.g. STM - ignores detail in STM, sensory, STM, LTM. Gives a ignores sensory and LTM. better view of understanding memory as a whole. Dual processing MSM cannot account for WMM provides a much dual processing. MSM is more complete explanation unitary - it does not explain of STM, and the different subsystems independent visuospatial, required for dual processing. phonological and the executive components are much more in line with the complexity of cognitive processes in humans. Individual differences MSM doesn't account for WMM is more effective and individual differences in has more real world processing etc. evidence. E.g. KF contradicts the MSM but supports the WMM as he could access certain parts of the STM. Processing MSM emphasises rehearsal WMM doesn't explain how and explains the processes to move information that transfer information to between stores. each store e.g. attention.  Ecological validity MSM has low ecological WMM has high ecological validity as it just involves validity as you listen, see memory tasks like and solve problems in memorising words. everyday life. Description of STM MSM’s description of STM is MSM’s description of STM is unitary and passive. complex and active. Studies Landry and Bartling, Quinn HM Milner, Glanzer and and McConnell Cunitz USING PEEL Point: start your paragraph with a clear topic sentence that establishes what your paragraph is going to be about. You should support your essay argument or theory statement. Evidence: you should use a piece of evidence or an example in the study/theory that helps to confirm your initial point and develop the argument. Explain: next you need to explain how your evidence supports your point , giving further information to ensure that your reader understands its relevance. Link: to finish the para off, you need to link the point you've made back to the essay question. GENERAL 22 MARKER Intro Theory 1 Study 1 Critical thinking 1 Theory 2 Study 2 Critical thinking 2 Discussion Conclusion SCHEMA THEORY -​ A schema is a mental representation of an individual’s pre-existing knowledge about the world and experiences in the world. -​ Frederic Bartlett was the first to coin the term schema to describe the phenomenon of reconstructive memory.  -​ Reconstructive memory is your memory of an event after it has happened and it may be reconstructed accurately or inaccurately depending on factors such as leading language and cultural schemas. -​ Schemas are mental representations that are derived from prior knowledge and experience -​ Schemas help predict what to expect based on what has happened before -​ They are used to organise our knowledge, assist recall and guide our behaviour and help us make sense of current experiences. -​ Schemas are culturally specific but many even vary within a culture due to other factors such as class. -​ schemas fill the gaps in information based on previous information - this can result in mistakes known as distortions. -​ Assimilation is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or event. -​ Accommodation is changing an existing schema or developing a new schema when it cannot adequately explain a new object or event. -​ Schemas help our minds to simplify the world around us and form expectations about situations. -​ Stereotypes are an example of social schema , they are a generalisation of a group of people making it easier to think about groups of people. -​ Schemas help save our cognitive energy by allowing us to store information in generalised categories. Bartlett(1932): schema theory Aim: to investigate how memory of an unfamiliar story is affected by previous knowledge Procedure: -​ Serial or repeated reproduction of a story: students at Cambridge were told a native american legend called The War of Ghosts. -​ They were then asked to rewrite the story from memory several times after a period of days, weeks and in some cases even months and years. -​ Serial reproduction: person reads the story and writes it down. Next person reads the previous person’s account and writes it down from memory and this repeats. -​ Repeated reproduction: person reads the story and writes it down. Then they come back several times in the future, writing the story down from memory. Findings: -​ Participants changed the story in several different ways as they tried to remember it. -​ The story was subject to three processes of reconstruction:  -​ Familiarisation: canoes became boats, paddling became rowing - because these are modes of transport that are more consistent with british culture -​ Omission of irrelevant, unfamiliar or unpleasant information. Ghosts are not consistent with British culture which doesn’t place much emphasis on superstition so many references to ‘ghosts’ were dropped. -​ Transposition of details from one part of the story to another. -​ These could have helped make sense of a culturally unfamiliar story. Conclusion: -​ Memory is reconstructive in nature as people use familiar schemas to recognise unfamiliar material. -​ Remembering is an active process, where information is retrieved and changed to fit into existing schemas. This is done in order to create meaning in the incoming information. -​ Bartlett was one of the first to show how cultural schema influences remembering. He found that people had problems remembering a story from another culture, and they actively reconstructed the story to fit in with their own cultural experiences. -​ People remember things in the way that makes sense to them. -​ Bartlett suggested that schemas are complex subconscious knowledge structures is one of Bartlett's major contributions to psychology. Evaluation: -​ Pointed toward the possibility of studying cognitive processes like memory scientifically and the research resulted in support for schema theory + reconstructive memory theory, which have been useful in understanding human memory and social cognition. -​ Although it was technically an artificial situation, the results have ecological validity as remembering and repeating what you have read is a natural activity. -​ However, nonsense material was used which is unlike real life. -​ It can explain many real-life situations, including the phenomenon of two people being at the same events and having totally different recollections. -​ Bartlett has been criticised for not being specific enough which has made it difficult to replicate his findings e.g. he did not standardise the intervals at which participants reproduced the material they had learned in the repeated reproduction condition. -​ There were few controls. -​ Findings have low reliability as it was not possible to replicate. -​ Details of participants are unclear. Roediger(2014): replication and support of Bartlett’s study The lack of replication and empirical validation formed the backbone of criticisms against Bartlett’s over the years, but an experiment by Roediger et al in 2014 confirmed Bartlett’s observation that serial reproduction leads to greater forgetting of the original material and to greater distortion of the material that actually is recalled. The researchers tightened up Bartlett’s methodology to make it more empirical and scientific, by isolating participants to serial reproduction and repeated production conditions, and then testing them using standardised lists of words. It was found that serial reproduction leads to more forgetting and more distortion than repeated measures. While Roediger’s results don't support Bartlett’s finding that recall is often affected by cultural schemas, they do suggest that serial reproduction leads to greater distortion. Given the isolation of the experimental conditions, this is presumably due to the social processes involved in serial reproduction, exactly as Bartlett theorised. Loftus and Palmer(1972): schema theory Loftus and Palmer investigated eyewitness testimony and the reconstructive nature of memory. Relating to Schema Theory, L&P stated that “it is natural to conclude that the label ‘smash’ causes a shift in the memory representation of the accident in the direction of being more similar to a representation suggested by the verbal label”. It can be argued that ‘smashed’ suggests a serious accident schema that leads to a higher speed estimation the cars were travelling at. Loftus and Palmer set out to study how subsequent information can affect an eyewtinesses’s account of an event. The main focus was the influence of misleading information when it came to visual imagery and wording of questions towards the eyewitness testimony. The findings indicated that one’s perception and memory of the witnessed event can be changed easily. It was shown that when the eyewitness was exposed to new information after witnessing the event, but before recalling it, the new information affected what exactly they recalled. It showed that original memory can be modified and supplemented. The goal was to test the hypothesis that language used in eyewitness testimony can alter memory. They did this by asking the participants to estimate the speed of cars using different forms of questions. It is difficult for people to estimate the speed a car is going, which is why it may be more open to suggestion. 1.​ Experiment One: Method: In the laboratory, the sample was 45 students and there were five different conditions. Each participant only experienced one condition. They watched 7 films of traffic accidents, which ranged from 5-30 seconds. They were presented in random order to each group. The participants were then asked to describe what happened as if they witnessed the event. They were asked specific questions, such as “About how fast were the cars going when they (smashed/collided/bumped/hit/contacted) each other?”  Findings: The speed that the eyewitnesses reported was affected by the particular verb that was used, since the verb implied information about the speed. This in turn, affected the participants’ memory of the accident. The following average speed was reported for each word: ​ Smashed: 40.8 mph ​ Collided: 39.3 mph ​ Bumped: 38.1 mph ​ Hit: 34 mph ​ Contacted: 31.8 mph Conclusion: This study shows that the verb gave an impression regarding the speed of the car, which altered the participants’ perceptions. This means that eyewitness testimony could be biassed by the way questions are asked after the crime is committed. 2.​ Experiment Two Method: 150 students were shown a one minute film, which featured a car driving through the countryside followed by four seconds of a multiple traffic accident. They were then questioned about the film. 50 students were asked, “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?” 50 students were asked, “How fast were the cars going when they smashed each other?” And the remaining 50 participants were not asked a question at all (control group). One week later, without seeing the film again, they answered 10 questions. One of the questions was, “Did you see any broken glass?” There was no broken glass on the original film. Findings: Participants who were asked how fast the cars were going when they smashed were more likely to report seeing broken glass. Conclusion: This research suggests that memory and eyewitness accounts can be easily distorted with this questioning technique. Evaluations: -​ Perhaps the greatest strength of Loftus and Palmer’s experiment is the degree of control over confounding variables. As the study was lab-based, the researchers could ensure a range of factors (age of participants, incident viewed, environment, etc). -​ Consequently, they could ensure that these factors did not affect the respondents answers – and that only the verb-condition was causing the participants to re-evaluate their memories - As a psychological explanation, the reconstructive memory hypothesis is extremely useful; for instance, in formulating guidelines for police questioning of witnesses and suspects. - The study has also had real-world implications; based on evidence such as Loftus’, the Devlin Report (1976) recommended trial judges be required to instruct juries that it is not safe to convict on a single eyewitness testimony alone. - One limitation of the research is that it lacked mundane realism / ecological validity. Participants viewed video clips rather than being present at a real-life accident. As the video clip does not have the same emotional impact as witnessing a real-life accident the participants would be less likely to pay attention and less motivated to be accurate in their judgements. - Furthermore, when watching a real crash, there is much more context – and the participants had been cued to watch the video, whilst crashes in​ real life is largely unexpected. - In real life, there may be consequences arising from the answers that you give and this may put pressure on the witness. - Overall, we can probably conclude that this laboratory experiment had low ecological validity and thus may not tell us very much about how people’s memories are affected by leading questions in real life. - A study conducted by Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conflicts with the findings of this study. They found that misleading information did not alter the memory of people who had witnessed a real armed robbery. - This implies that misleading information may have a greater influence in the lab and that Loftus and Palmer’s study may have lacked ecological validity. He was especially interested in the characteristics of people whom he considered to have achieved their potential as individuals. -A further problem with the study was the use of students as participants. Students are not representative of the general population in a number of ways. Importantly they may be less experienced drivers and therefore less confident in their ability to estimate speeds. This may have influenced them to be more swayed by the verb in the question. A strength of the study is it’s easy to replicate (i.e. copy). This is because the method was a laboratory experiment which followed a standardised procedure. Given that it has just been argued that the study had an unrepresentative sample and had low ecological validity, you might feel that it was not very useful. However, despite the points made above, it is possible to identify a number of practical applications that arise from Loftus and Palmer’s research. The conclusion that leading questions can affect memory has important implications for interviewing witnesses, both by police immediately or soon after an event and also by lawyers in court some time later. It should also be noted that some psychologists have criticised Loftus and Palmer’s conclusions. They argue that we have no way of knowing that the participant’s original memories had been irretrievably altered by the leading questions. Instead, they suggest that participants could merely be following the suggestions of the researcher in both the original round of questions and the follow-up questions. ​ Student samples are YAVIS- young, affluent, verbal, intelligent, social ​ Western countries are WEIRD- westernised, educated, industrialised, rich, democratic Evaluating theories: U CRAP’ED Unbiased: should not show bias toward any gender or culture i.e. androcentric(experiment done on and applied to men) or ethnocentric(research was very culturally biassed and focused on western culture). Clearly defined variables: a good theory means that its variables are clearly defined so that they can be reliably measured. Reductionist: does the theory attempt to explain behaviour focusing on a limited number of factors e.g. the role of one neurotransmitter. If so, then it is not holistic as it doesn’t consider the influence of other factors on the same behaviour. Applications: does the theory apply to everyday life. Predictive validity: a good theory doesn’t just describe what’s happening but it should also predict behaviour. Empirical support: a good theory has evidence to support it. Good empirical support is not from a highly artificial situation and it is reliable. Determinist: does the theory propose that behaviour is influenced by something outside of the individual’s control? If so, it can be argued to be deterministic as it does not consider how free will influences behaviour. Example: loftus and palmer evaluation Unbiased: Schemas exist worldwide and vary based on an individual’s experiences, therefore, they will be unique to each person regardless of gender and culture. This means the theory is relatively unbiased. While there is no apparent bias in the research, most of the research was done in the West and we need more current research to validate these findings. Clearly defined variables: Cohen (1993) argued that the concept of schemas is too vague and hypothetical to be useful. They cannot be observed, cannot be spotted on fMRI. Reductionist: Schema theory is rooted in the Cognitive Approach, and so far, there are few explanations from other approaches. It may be reductionist to ignore the influence of other factors i.e. emotion, the media etc. It is not entirely clear how schemas are acquired in the first place and how they influence cognitive processes. Applications: Schema theory has been applied to help understand how memory works and also about memory distortions. It has been applied in research in abnormal psychology, relationship psychology and in health psychology. Predictive validity: This theory helps us predict behaviour i.e. what types of information will be best recalled when given a list of words. Trends such as levelling and sharpening, are commonly seen in individuals recalling a news story. However we cannot predict exactly what an individual will recall. Empirical support: Schema theory is testable. There is a lot of research that has supported schema theory as demonstrated by the studies looked at. Determinist: According to research, schemas are influenced by factors such as leading language and culture. While this doesn’t seem to acknowledge the role of free will, schemas are shaped through experiences so the individual does have some control over what these experiences are. USING PEEL FOR CRITICAL THINKING POINTS I.e. POINT: Both Bartlett and Loftus and Palmer’s studies are low in population validity EVIDENCE: This is because they used students EXPLANATION: Mention YAVIS(but specific parts of YAVIS that might apply to studying students and memory)​ LINK THINKING AND DECISION MAKING -​ DUAL PROCESS THEORY Psychologists propose that dual-process reflects the existence of two separate but interactive systems of thinking and decision making. -​ system 1 (limbic): automatic, holistic, intuitive thinking based on heuristics (mental shortcuts that involve focusing on one aspect of a complex problem and ignoring others) -​ system 2 (neocortex): analytical, logical, slower thinking -​ We use both of these systems when addressing a problem. System 1 will reach a quick conclusion and then system 2 will go into further analysis to hopefully reach a more correct conclusion. Because System 1 is activated before System 2 can do it’s work, often System 1 interferes with the effectiveness of System 2. Strengths: -​ Biological evidence that diff types of thinking may be processed in different parts of the brain -​ The Wason Selection Task and other tests for cognitive biases are reliable in their results -​ The theory has been applied to explain gambling addictions Limitations: -​ can seem overly reductionist as it doesn’t clearly explain how or even if these modes of thinking interact or how thinking and decision making could be influenced by emotion -​ defining system 1 and system 2 is unclear i.e. just because processing is fast does not mean it is a result of system 1 thinking Griggs and Cox(1982)- dual systems theory The following study looks at how we try to solve an abstract logic task and a logic task that is similar to one’s life experience. The study looks at both system 1 and 2 thinking. It is based on the previous study done by Wason. The Wason selection task is a classic in the study of thinking and decision making. Participants are shown a set of cards and asked “which card(s) must be turned over to test the idea that if a card shows an even number on one face, then its opposite face is red?” To answer this question, the following logic must be employed: -​ if the 3 card is red, that doesn’t violate the rule -​ if the 8 card is not red, it violates the rule -​ if the red card is odd, that doesn’t violate the rule -​ if the brown card is even, it violates the rule  However, when Wason originally did his research, he found that on average, less than 10% of participants chose the correct cards. He argued that this was due to matching bias - a cognitive shortcut that tends to focus attention on evidence containing the letters and numbers mentioned in the rule. In the example above, “even number” and “red”. In other words, we rely on intuitive thinking rather than trying to employ more rational thinking. Wason(1968) found that even when he trained people how to answer this question, the same mistakes were made. Griggs and Cox, however, argue that the Wason selection task may not really show how we make decisions because it is too abstract and this type of task is outside of the experience of most people. They propose that when the context of the problem is familiar, then participants make decisions based on relevant past experience, rather than on the card’s logical status - what is known as the memory-cueing hypothesis. Aim: to see if the matching bias was less commonly used to solve the Wason Selection Task when the task was more personally relevant. Procedure: -​ Their sample was made up of 144 undergraduate psychology students at the University of Florida. The participants were randomly allocated to one of six groups in order to counterbalance the experiment. -​ Each group was given a workbook with three problems and each group had a different order of the questions. -​ For each of the following statements, they were asked which cards they would have to turn over in order to prove if the statement is true. Task 1: abstract task If a card has an A on one side, then it has a 3 on the other side. A B 2 3 Task 2: intermediate task If a person is wearing blue, then they must also be over 19 years old, Wearing blue Wearing green 22 years of age 16 years of age Task 3: memory cueing task If a person is drinking beer, they must be over 18 years old. Drinking beer Drinking coke 22 years of age 16 years of age Results: -​ abstract task: 3% solved the task correctly -​ intermediate task: 43% solved the task correctly -​ memory cueing task: 60% solved the task correctly They also found that when the participants were given the abstract task first, there was an increase in the use of matching bias in the other conditions. -​ In the abstract situation where we apply system 1 thinking, we are not sure of how to solve the problem so we use the language of the question - that is, the matching bias. -​ When we have the abstract task explained to us and learn how to rationalise and solve the problem, then we can learn to do it. -​ In the second example, this reflects day to day life, so system 1 thinking can be applied and it is correct in this case. -​ When the task cued memory of past experience, a more rational approach was taken to choosing the cards, using system 2 thinking. -​ The more abstract and less relevant the task, the more likely that cognitive biases such as system 1 thinking would be used to solve the problem. -​ This supports the Dual Processes Theory as it confirms that system 2 is used in more rational thinking. This theory is further supported by D’Andre’s study. This is another example of how memory cueing tasks may influence decision making. Participants were asked to imagine that they were managers in a department store and were responsible for checking receipts to determine whether the following rule was followed: “If a purchase exceeds $30, the receipt must be approved by the department manager”. $45 $15 Signed Unsigned On this task, the researchers found that nearly 70% of the participants chose the correct cards($45 and unsigned). This supports the argument of memory-cueing  hypothesis that when the situation is something with which participants have some familiarity and experience so the matching bias is avoided. Evaluation: -​ Both the Wason selection task and Cox Griggs’ studies have been replicated meaning that the findings are reliable. -​ Cox and Griggs used a repeated measures design, a design that consists of the same subjects that take place in all circumstances of the independent variable. This controlled for participant variability. This also counterbalanced the conditions to control for order effects. -​ This procedure is highly artificial and may not represent how we make decisions in real life situations. The studies lack of ecological validity. There are many factors that are not accounted for i.e. the importance of the decision, the role of others in making the decision. -​ Both Wason and Cox & Griggs used samples made up of undergraduate psychology students meaning that presumably, the sample is above average intelligence. This sampling bias means that the samples are not representative of the general population. -​ This is a lack of research explaining how two systems can coexist and how they interact. -​ Studies should be more cross-cultural. McClure et al(2004) - Dual Systems Theory McClure gives biological evidence to the dual systems theory. Background information: -​ The limbic system i.e. the hypothalamus, thalamus, hippocampus and amygdala, is involved in our emotions and motivation and will be activated mainly in choices involving an immediate outcome. -​ The prefrontal cortex and associated structures responsible for higher cognitive functions will be activated by delayed choices which require some thought. Aim: To use a delay-discounting experiment to examine the neural correlates of short-term and long-term preferences for money rewards. Procedure: -​ Participants made a series of choices between smaller/earlier sums of money, or larger/later sums of money while their brains were being scanned using fMRI.  -​ The sums ranged from $5 to $40 and the times for receiving the money ranged from the day of the experiment to 6 weeks later. These time frames were varied across the range of money, making some decisions more difficult to make than others. -​ “Would you rather have 1 pound now or 2 pounds tomorrow?” Or “would you rather have 20 pounds now or 27 pounds in 6 weeks?” -​ At the end of the experiment, one of each participant’s choices was randomly selected to count and they received one of the rewards they had selected at the designated time of delivery. Findings: -​ Parts of the limbic system associated with the dopamine system(reward neurotransmitter) were more activated by decisions involving rewards which were immediately available. -​ In contrast, regions of the prefrontal cortex and parietal cortex were activated more by the long-term options. The later and larger rewards resulted in the most activation of these regions, showing participants spent longer thinking about what to do in situations with larger sums of money, awarded after a longer period of time. Conclusions: -​ This confirms previous findings that higher levels of thinking and decision making comes from the prefrontal cortex, an area of the brain associated with logical, rational and slower thinking(system 2) -​ On the other hand, the activation of the limbic system in a shorter time until the reward is granted, is associated with fast, emotional and impulsive thinking. -​ this supports the idea of 2 types of thinking, 1 and 2, by providing evidence that they operate in different parts of the brain. Evaluation: -​ Demonstrates through the involvement of the limbic system, how emotion affects decision-making. -​ Has broad application to addiction : the limbic system and impatient behaviour can be triggered by the sight, sound or smell of the desired objects essential for the delay of gratification. -​ Suggests a dual-systems theory is valid because of the clear activation of the two different areas of the brain. -​ Individual differences are obscured by the results as it would be expected that different individuals had a variety of reasons for their choices. This level of meaning is missing. We know for example, that adolescents tend to be more impulsive. -​ This is a US based study and needs cross-cultural replication for wider generalisation. -​ The study has areas of uncertainty which could imply it does not provide good evidence into system 1 and 2 thinking - results do not specify a particular point at which decisions switched from system 1 to 2. So, it is possible that there is an  overlap where both areas of the brain are active, weakening the experiment and the theory of the study. ​ study conducted in 2004 : A study conducted in 2004 wouldn’t necessarily be considered bad solely because of its publication date. However, it might be seen as outdated depending on the field of study. In rapidly evolving fields, such as technology or medicine, findings from 2004 might be less relevant due to advancements since then. Additionally, methodologies or ethical standards may have evolved, potentially affecting the study’s validity or applicability to current contexts. Therefore, while the publication date alone doesn’t determine a study’s quality, its relevance and alignment with current knowledge and practices should be considered. ​ use of fMRI scans : Using fMRI scans in psychology experiments can weaken studies due to their cost, complexity of data analysis, challenges in interpretation, limited ecological validity, and ethical considerations. ​ Lab study : A lab study in psychology can be considered a weakness because it often lacks ecological validity, meaning the findings may not accurately reflect real-world behaviours or situations. Additionally, participants’ behaviour in a controlled lab setting may differ from their behaviour in natural environments, limiting the generalizability of the study’s results. THIN SLICING: observing a small selection of an interaction, usually less than 5 minutes and being able to accurately draw conclusions in the emotions and attitudes of the people interacting. Career & Gottman(1999) : contradicting evidence regarding the reliability of system 1 thinking They tested whether psychologists could accurately predict if a couple in marriage counselling would end up divorced after only a few minutes of conversation. The Specific Affect coding system has been developed by John Gottman and his team to thin slice the way married couples communicate. This system allows Gottman to predict how likely it is that couples will be together in six years based after only three minutes of the first marriage counselling conversation. Then this makes it possible to design an effective marriage counselling for these couples. In this prospective study, 124 newlywed couples were recruited from Seattle. Each couple completed a survey and then discussed the results with a researcher in order to identify one or two problematic issues in their relationship. These issues were then used as the basis for a 15 minute discussion which was video recorded and then coded using SPAFF. Couples were then checked once a year for 6 years to find out if they were still married. SPAFF scores from the originally recorded discussion were compared for husbands and wives who were still married 6 years later and those who were not. Results below are based entirely on the first 3 minutes of the 15 minute discussion. The data clearly shows that observers using SPAFF have rated the communications between couples doomed to divorce as containing far more indications of negative emotions and far fewer signs of positive emotion. This was both true for both husbands and wives although the data suggests the system is more successful when applied to husbands. The could of course simply reflect a tendency for men to be less emotionally honest in terms of acknowledging negative aspects of their relationship. Gottman’s research with SPAFF suggests that we can learn to improve our intuitive thinking ————————————————————————————————————— RELIABILITY OF COGNITIVE PROCESSING -​ Reconstructive memory: A theory of memory recall in which the act of remembering is influenced by various other cognitive processes including perception, imagination, semantic memory and beliefs, amongst others. In other words, memory is ‘reconstructed’. -​ Reliability: if memory has been reconstructed unreliably - it would be a ‘false memory’. If memory is consistent over time, then it is reliable. Remember, reliability doesn’t necessarily mean validity. -​ We only recall the important points of a memory so in the absence of all information, we fill in the gaps to make more sense of what happened. -​ Schema processing: memory processing based on prior knowledge in the form of schemas that could result in distortion. What do we know about reconstructive memory so far? -​ Memory is an active process of reconstruction -​ Cultural schemas allow us to reconstruct remembered stories and events out of our own past experiences. -​ Every individual has a unique experience of an event and a personal way of recollecting it through their own schemas. EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY AND RECONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY -​ Eyewitness testimony: legal term referring to an account given by people of an event they have witnessed. -​ Used in legal systems as evidence in criminal trials which rely on the accuracy of human memory to decide whether a person is guilty or not. -​ 72% of overturned convictions are due to eyewitness misidentification. -​ Reliability of testimonies is important as it determines one’s future. Beforehand, EWT was considered trustworthy and convincing. -​ However research now shows that memory can be subjected to distortion and reconstruction. ​ We can reuse Bartlett’s study - fill gaps in reconstructive memory using cultural schemas  ​ We can reuse Loftus & Palmer’s study - fill gaps in reconstructive memory using leading language ​ We can use Yuille and Cutshall(also can be used for flashbulb memory theory) Yuille and Cutshall (1986) -​ Conducted a study on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony in real-life crime situations. -​ In their research, they investigated the memory recall of witnesses to a violent crime, specifically a shooting in a coffee shop. Here's a brief summary of their study: 1. **Event Description**: A thief attempted to rob a gun store in Canada. The thief was shot dead by the store owner. Witnesses were interviewed about what they saw. 2. **Methodology**: Yuille and Cutshall interviewed witnesses (13 out of 21 agreed to participate) immediately after the incident and then again after 5 months. They compared the accuracy of these testimonies with the information given by the witnesses to the police at the time of the event. 3. **Findings**: Despite the passage of time, the witnesses' recollections remained consistent and accurate. Even small details were remembered accurately, such as the color of the clothing worn by the perpetrator. 4. **Conclusion**: This study suggested that eyewitness testimony can be reliable, even over time, contrary to some beliefs that memories fade or distort with time. The accuracy of memory recall could be influenced by factors such as the level of stress or emotional involvement during the event. 5. **Implications**: The study highlighted the importance of considering the conditions under which eyewitnesses provide testimony and the potential impact of stress and emotional factors on memory recall. It suggested that eyewitness testimony should not be dismissed solely based on the passage of time but should be evaluated in the context of other factors that may influence memory accuracy. Evaluation: -​ This is a case study combining a triangulation of methods, including a field study, so it looks at a real incident with real eyewitnesses. It therefore has strong validity and credulity due to the ‘real’ nature of it. -​ Great care was taken when counting the details from the real incident to make sure that witnesses’ testimonies did not alter that which really happened -​ The scoring procedure also produced quantitative data from qualitative data which requires no subjective interpretation and is easier to base conclusions upon -​ The study is said to lack generalisation as this was a one-off incident and a case study, and the researchers themselves have suggested that this may be a case of flashbulb memory which suggests that certain ‘emotional’ events are remembered in more detail and more permanently that ‘non-emotional’ events, explaining how those were more reliable.  -​ There were some weaknesses in the scoring procedure which was set up, such as with a question based on age: the thief was actually 35 years old, and when asked to estimate the age, most eyewitnesses said he looked early 20, which was marked as an inaccurate memory even though he really did look that age. BIASES IN THINKING AND DECISION MAKING -​ Cognitive bias: A systematic error in thinking that occurs when people are processing and interpreting information in the world around them and affects the decisions and judgements that they make. -​ Illusory correlation: When a person perceives a relationship between two variables that are not in fact correlated. A cognitive bias. -​ Stereotyping is a form of generalisation where one judges an individual based on group membership or physical attributes. -​ Illusory correlation is when people perceive a correlation between two relatively rare or unusual events occurring simultaneously, and then incorrect inferences are drawn from this co-occurrence. -​ They argued that negative behaviours are relatively rare, and that people from minority groups are also relatively rare, so when one sees a minority group performing a negative act, it is more memorable than when one sees a person from a majority group performing the second act. -​ Illusory correlation biases our thinking and decision making. -​ Illusory correlations contribute to racial and gender stereotypes. -​ Since we notice the negative behaviours by anyone who is a member of a minority group, we build our own view of that group from the negative behaviours. -​ With people from the majority, their behaviours don’t reflect on the group as a whole. Hamilton & Gifford(1976) - Illusory correlations and stereotypes Background information: -​ We often make decisions based on a limited amount of information. -​ We often rely on System 1 thinking, making decisions based on heuristics i.e. cognitive short-cuts. -​ In this case, we use availability heuristic, using easily recalled pairings of people and behaviours to make a judgement. I.e. People tend to think that a change in weather leads to arthritis pains - they can easily recall when the weather change happened but there is no real correlation according to Redelmeier and Tversky (1996). However they did find a high brief in the correlation. -​ There are two types of illusory correlations: -​ Expectancy-based illusory correlation: occurs when we mistakenly see relationships due to our pre-existing expectations surrounding them. In other words, a librarian is quiet and I assume that is because librarians are in fact quiet people. This is confirmation-bias. I see what I expect to see. If  something doesn’t match that expectation, we either forget about it or rationalise it as an exception to the rule. This is the discounting principle. -​ Distinctiveness-based illusory correlations: happen when a relationship is believed to exist between two variables due to focusing too much on information that stands out. It is the type of correlation that Hamilton & Gifford investigated in their classic study. Aim: To see if people associate negative statements to the minority group by making an (distinctiveness-based) illusory correlation. Procedure: -​ h&g carried out an experiment with 70 American undergraduates(35 males and 35 females) -​ Participants were shown a series of slides, each with a statement about a member of one or two groups - simply called group A and B. -​ There were twice as many people in group A (26) as group B (13), so group B was the minority group. -​ The participants were told that group B was smaller to begin with -​ Each statement was about one individual in one of the two groups ; the statement was either positive or negative. -​ Each group had the same proportion of positive and negative comments -​ Participants were then asked to rank members of each group on a series of 20 traits e.g. popular, social, intelligent. -​ After completing the task, they were given a booklet in which they were given a statement and then asked whether the person who did this was from Group A or Group B. -​ Finally, they were asked how many of the statements for each group had been “undesirable”. Results: -​ On the trait ratings, group A was ranked higher than B for positive traits and lower negative traits. -​ In the booklet, participants correctly recalled more positive traits for group A (74%) than for group B(54%) and more negative traits for group B(65%) than for group A(55%) -​ Hamilton & Gifford argued that this was because the minority group was by nature smaller in number, their negative behaviours appeared more distinct and appear to be representative of the group. -​ So one minority male is caught stealing and it appears to be related to the fact that he is a minority. -​ This demonstrates why negative stereotypes may be more common for minority groups than for the majority -​ Such research has led to the modern practice in many countries not to report the race or ethnicity of people who have been charged with a crime. Conclusions:  -​ This supports the idea that illusory correlations explain how stereotypes form and therefore how we may produce biassed judgements and decisions about other people. -​ Group B were the minority group which stands out more as it’s smaller in number. In addition, the negative characteristics about the people in Group B stand out more than the positive ones because generally negative characteristics about people are less common. -​ When the two were paired together(minority group with negative characteristics) the two stood out more. This led the participants to form an illusory correlation which is a bias in thinking and decision making. Evaluation -​ Used hypothetical statements, so lacks ecological validity and not tell us about illusory correlations in the real world. -​ Only used 2 groups, and in reality there is a wide variety of minority groups - would the same effect have been observed with more groups? Lewis(1990) - illusory correlations and stereotypes Aim: To see how racial stereotyping may affect diagnosis and treatment. Procedure: -​ The names of 220 psychiatrists who lived in England, Wales or Scotland were randomly selected from the 1985 Membership List of the Royal College of Psychiatrists. -​ Those who were described as registrars and senior registrars, those who were retired and those listed as being child psychiatrists were excluded leaving a total of 139 psychiatrists. -​ 139 psychiatrists were shown a written case history. They were told that we were interested in attitudes to community care. -​ The real purpose of the study was not explained. -​ They received one of four case histories: -​ White woman -​ Afro caribbean woman -​ White man -​ Afro caribbean man They had to provide details of their age, sex, previous experiences, medical school of graduation, and main clinical setting. They were asked to record their views of mental illness on a biological-social continuum and their position on community care. The questionnaire included 23 questions with a 6 point scale regarding the assessment and management of the care e.g. risk of violence to staff. More of the items on the questionnaire places emphasis on management and included statements designed to examine the hypothesis that racist attitudes would lead to a more custodial, less psychotherapeutic, less sympathetic plan of management, such as medication and treatment. Each psychiatrist was asked to choose the three most likely diagnoses in order of preference from 1.​ Psychosis from cannabis 2.​ Schizophrenia 3.​ Affective psychosis 4.​ Acute reactive psychosis 5.​ Schizotypal personality disorder 6.​ Pathological grief reaction Findings: -​ Black patients were seen as the most at risk of violence to staff -​ However, schizophrenia was more commonly described when the hypothetical patient was white -​ Cannabis psychosis and more general psychosis was more commonly given to the afro-caribbean group. Conclusion: -​ This demonstrates how racial stereotypes influence diagnosis. -​ Afro-caribbean patients were perceived to be more violent and psychotic than white patients. -​ The psychiatrists may have made an illusory correlation between the afro-caribbeans i.e. the minority group, and the negative behaviour i.e. being violent. -​ This could represent what is portrayed in the media, with violent criminals often having their race mentioned if they are black. -​ It also shows how treatment of disorders differ according to race, which has massive implications for treatment of patients in the real world and whether they are treated objectively vs subconsciously biassed. -​ Overall, this indicates how the psychiatrists had a biassed judgement of the patients based on their race. This bias led to a change in their behaviour and the diagnosis given to them. Evaluation: -​ Old study and lots has changed now with regards to diagnosis, especially with better training and research -​ More multi-cultural society might mean less illusory correlations occurring -​ Used real psychiatrists so represents illusory correlations in the real field of mental health -​ Highly controlled the participants to ensure that the overall judgement couldn’t be associated with the years of judgement -​ Ignore differences of individuals and potential personal experiences which have led to that correlation. Might not necessarily be an illusion with regards to the individual’s own experiences and therefore it might not be a bias in their thinking.  -​ The theory has important real life applications to society - recognising that this is how stereotypes are formed and educating people on this makes them more aware which could improve acceptance and kindness to people who are different. EMOTION AND COGNITION THE INFLUENCE OF EMOTION ON COGNITIVE PROCESSES(flashbulb memories) Emotion is: -​ An intense mental state that arises subjectively rather than through conscious effort and is often accompanied by physiological changes -​ Emotions are private experiences -​ We cannot define them as they are intangible and cannot be seen -​ Instead we see observable behaviour which is associated with that behaviour The encoding and retrieval of emotional memories (such as flashbulb memories) versus regular memories differ. In certain cases, emotion increases the ability to remember, while in other cases the ability is decreased. FLASHBULB MEMORIES Brown and Kulik(1977) -​ A special kind of emotion, autobiographical memory, that relies on elements of personal importance, emotion and surprises. -​ Encoded in the brain like a photo -​ Extremely detailed (POOOIA) -​ Place -​ Ongoing activity -​ Informant -​ Own affect -​ Other affect -​ Aftermath -​ Highly accurate -​ Resistant to normal forgetting -​ Brown and Kulik suggest that there is a neural mechanism which triggers emotional arousal because the event is unexpected or extremely important. -​ Supported from modern neuroscience which has shown that emotional events are better remembered than less emotional events., -​ The main job of the amygdala is to regulate emotions such as fear and aggression. -​ The amygdala plays a part in how memories are stored because storage is influenced by stress hormones. -​ The amygdala is also involved in memory consolidation : the process of transferring new learning to LTM. -​ The amygdala seems to facilitate encoding memories at a deeper level when the event is emotionally arousing. Kulkofsky (2011) - Flashbulb Memory A study of the role of culture in flashbulb memory. Aim: To investigate if flashbulb memories are found across all cultures. Procedure: -​ The researchers studied 5 different countries - China, Turkey, Germany, the UK and the USA to see if there was any difference in the rate of flashbulb memories in collectivist and individualistic cultures. -​ Sample- 274 adults from 5 different countries (all ‘middle class’) -​ First, the participants were given 5 minutes to recall as many memories as they could of public events occurring in their lifetime. -​ The events had to have occurred at least a year ago and then the researchers created a “memory questionnaire” -​ They were asked 5 questions about how they learned the event that mirrored the original questionnaire used by Brown and Kulik(1977): -​ Where were you when you first learned of the event? -​ What time of the day was it and who were you with? -​ How did you learn about it and what were you doing at the time you learned about it? -​ They were then asked to answer questions about the importance of the event to them personally: -​ How nationally or internationally important was the event? -​ How personally important was the event? -​ How surprising was the event? -​ How many times have you talked about the event since it happened? -​ The survey and instructions were constructed in English and then translated and back-translated into Mandarin, Chinese, German and Turkish by bilingual research assistants. Results: -​ In a collectivist culture like China, personal importance and intensity of emotion played less of a role in predicting FBM, compared with more individualistic cultures that place greater emphasis on emotional experiences. -​ Because focusing on the individual’s personal involvement and emotional experience is often de-emphasised in the Chinese context, there would be less rehearsal of the triggering event compared with participants from other cultures. -​ Thus there is a lower chance of developing a FBM. -​ However it was found that national importance was equally linked to FBM formation across cultures. Conclusions: -​ This suggests that culture does not influence cognition, due to cultural dimensions such as collectivism and individualism, which influence participant’s memory. Evaluation: -​ A representative of the culture administered the test and the questionnaires were given in their native languages of the participants which avoids interviewer effects as  they were responding in their native language, and the language in which the memory was created, making recall more likely. -​ The study used back-translation to make sure that the translation of the questionnaires was not a confounding variable. This increases the credibility of the study. -​ There is the danger of the ecological fallacy - just because the participants come from the culture being studied, this doesn’t mean they share the traits of the culture’s predominant dimensions i.e. just because i am american doesn't mean that i process FMB like other americans. Sharot et al (2007) Aim: to determine the potential role of biological factors on flashbulb memories Procedure: -​ The quasi experiment was conducted three years after the 9/11 terrorist attacks in Manhattan -​ The sample was made up of 24 participants who were in NYC that day. -​ They were put into an fMRI -​ While in the scanner, they were presented with word cues on a screen. -​ The list of words is listed in the chart below. -​ In addition, the word “Summer” or “September” was projected along with this word in order to have the participant link the word to either summer holidays or to the events of 9/11. -​ Participants’ brain activity was observed while they recalled the event. -​ The memories of personal events from the summer served as a baseline of brain activity for evaluating the nature of 9/11 memories. -​ After the brain scanning sessions, participants were asked to rate their memories for vividness, detail, confidence in accuracy and arousal. -​ Participants were also asked to write a description of their personal memories. Findings: -​ Only half of the participants actually reported having what would be called FBMs of the event - that is, a greater sense of detail and a strong confidence in the accuracy of the memory. -​ Those that did report having flashbulb memories also reported that they were closer to the World Trade Centre on the day of the terrorist attack. -​ Participants closer to the World Trade Centre also included more specific details in their written memories. -​ Sharot and her team found that the activation of the amygdala for the participants who were downtown was higher when they recalled memories of the terrorist attack than when they recalled events from the preceding summer, where those participants who were further away from the event had equal levels of response in the amygdala when recalling both events. Conclusion:  -​ These results suggest that close personal experience may be critical in engaging the neural mechanisms that produce the vivid memories characteristic of flashbulb memory. Evaluation: -​ The study is correlational in nature and does not establish a cause and effect relationship -​ The environment of the fMRI and the task that the participants are asked to do is highly artificial and thus low in ecological validity. However, because of the nature of the task, demand characteristics are not reall