Ecosystems, Biodiversity and Management GCSE Class Notes PDF

**Geography Department** **Ecosystems, Biodiversity and Management**  ***This picture is from the [Amazon rainforest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_rainforest) in [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil). The tropical rainfore...

**Geography Department** **Ecosystems, Biodiversity and Management**  ***This picture is from the [Amazon rainforest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_rainforest) in [Brazil](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil). The tropical rainforests of [South America](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America) contain the largest [diversity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity) of species on [Earth](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth).*** **GCSE Class Notes -- Completed Version** **[Key Terms]** As you progress through the course, you will encounter a number of key terms. Complete the table below with the definitions as you learn them. **Key Term** **Definition** -------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Resource The stock or supply of something that is useful to people. Biosphere The part of the earth and its atmosphere in which living organisms exist or that is capable of supporting life. Exploitation The act of using natural resources. Finite resource A resource that will eventually run out. Water cycle The closed system in which water moves between the atmosphere, the oceans and land. Mineral A solid, naturally occurring non-living substance, such as coal or diamonds. Moorland Land which is not intensively farmed. It is found in upland areas of the UK and tends to have acidic, peaty soils. The plants are small shrubs such as heather: there are few trees. Heathland Tends to be open countryside in lowland areas. The plants are small shrubs, such as heather and gorse, with a few silver birch trees. Deciduous Broad leaved trees, such as oak and ash, which lose their leaves in the Autumn and regrow them each spring. Coniferous Trees which stay in leaf all year round (ever greens) Wetlands Areas of low lying land that is predominately wet and boggy. Some wetland areas have been drained such as the Somerset levels and the Fens. The term wetland, also refers to small ponds and river estuaries. Aquaculture The breeding of fish in pens under controlled conditions. Colonise To become established in an area. Abiotic Factors The physical non-living environment such as water, wind or oxygen. Biotic factors The living organisms found in an area. Detritovore An animal that feeds on dead plant or animal matter. Organic Material Something that was once living. Inorganic Material Something that was never living material. Soil The top layer of the earth in which plants grow, it contains organic and inorganic material. Biomass The amount or weight of living or recently living organisms in an area. Nutrient cycle The movement and exchange of organic and inorganic material into living matter. Food chain A series of steps by which energy is obtained and used by living organisms. Food web A network of food chains by which energy and nutrients are passed from one species to another, it is essentially -- 'who eats who'. Biodiversity The number of species present in an area. Limiting Factors Factors that limit biodiversity/population size such as temperature, moisture, light and nutrients. These factors are in abundance in tropical rainforests which accounts for their high biodiversity. Structure The structure of a tropical rainforest is the layers of plants and animals in the forest. Function The function of a tropical rainforest is its ecosystem and how it works. Transpiration Evaporation of moisture from the leaves of a plant. Eutrophication The growth of algae on water courses due to the increase in chemical fertilisers being used on the land. Monoculture The growing of one crop of large areas of land. Overpopulation Too many people living in an area for the area to support. Favela Homes for the poor in Brazil. They are made from waste materials and have no water supply, electricity or toilets. They are usually known as shanty towns or squatter settlements. NGO Non governmental organisation, a not-for-profit organisation that is not under government control. They are usually set up by private individuals and can be funded by donations or governments. Carbon Credits A permit which allows the holder to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or another greenhouse gas. They can be traded between businesses or countries. For example, a steel producer in the USA has been allowed to emit ten tons of carbon dioxide but it knows it will emit 11 tonnes. The company could buy one credit from Costa Rica to ensure that it keeps to international law. Costa Rica has many carbon credits because of its rainforest. In this way, wealthy countries are encouraging poorer countries to protect their rainforests. Ecotourism Travel to natural areas that does no damage, conserving the environment and improving the well-being of local people. Hibernate To spend the winter in close quarters in a dormant (sleeping) condition. **[The World's Ecosystems]** The word ecosystem is a key term for this topic. Therefore, it will be crucial that you have a clear definition in your notes for this term. ***TASK -- Copy down the definition of ecosystem from the board:*** --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ***A community of plants and animals which interact with each other and with their non-living environment.*** --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- A further key idea that is linked to the concept of ecosystems is the idea of a biome. ***TASK -- Copy down the definition of biome from the board:*** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- A biome is an ecosystem on a global scale. Put together, the world's biomes make up the biosphere -- which is defined as all living things. Where biomes are located is generally as a result of climate. The tropical rainforest is an example of a biome. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Where ecosystems are located can be thought of as their distribution. The biomes that we will be focusing on are: temperate forests, boreal forests, tropical grasslands, temperate grasslands, deserts and tundra. The characteristics of each of these biomes is unique. ***TASK -- Read through the list of characteristics below. Categorise them into either: tundra, temperate forests, tropical forests, boreal forests, temperate grasslands, deserts or tropical grasslands (also known as savannah).*** **Characteristic** **Biome** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------- Trees lose their leaves in winter to reduce transpiration. Temperate forests Temperature range is between -34C and 12C. Tundra Rain is concentrated in 6-8 months of the year and the rest of the year has drought conditions. Tropical Grasslands Very poor surface drainage as the ground is frozen so water does not infiltrate. Tundra Trees have thick bark to protect them from the cold temperatures. Boreal forests The trees have needle leaves to reduce transpiration. Boreal forests The trees are evergreen which allows a longer growing season in the colder temperatures. Boreal forests The total annual rainfall is around 200mm, and much of this falls as snow. Tundra Shallow root systems because of the shallow soil and frozen turf. Boreal forests Trees such as pine and fur are found here. Boreal forests Short vegetation growing season of about 60 days. Tundra Total annual rainfall is 500mm. Boreal forests Temperature range is between -10 and 15C. Boreal forests Vegetation is in 4 layers -- canopy, sub-canopy, herb and ground. Many areas are dominated by the oak tree species. Temperate forests Animals exist such as the sloth and the howler monkey. Tropical forests Permafrost -- permanently frozen ground is the main surface cover. Tundra Animals such as red foxes and black bears exist in this location. Boreal forest Temperature range is between 10 and 18C. Temperate grasslands Plant species have shallow root systems and are low to the ground to cope with the harsh climate e.g. mosses, lichens, grasses and dwarf shrubs. These plants are low to the ground and have a small leaf structure so that they can repel the cold temperatures. Tundra Very unpredictable rainfall but generally very low rainfall totals. Deserts The only plants are short shrubs and other very well adapted vegetation e.g. the prickly pear cactus that stores water in its tissue. Deserts Sand is the main surface, or there may be coarse soil with good drainage. Deserts The total annual rainfall is 1000 mm. Tropical grasslands In North America, this type of biome is known as the Prairies and is very productive farmland. Temperate grasslands The total annual rainfall is 2200mm Tropical rainforests There is a large diurnal temperature range: -18C at night and 45C in the day. Deserts Animals live here such as camels -- but again they need to be very specially adapted. Deserts There are animals such as rabbits and dear. Temperate forests Total annual rainfall is 1000mm. Temperate forests The forest is evergreen Tropical forests Temperatures range between 4C and 17C. Temperate forests Animals that live here have adapted in different ways -- brown bears eat in the summer and then store the food in a thick layer of insulating fat which they live off while they are hibernating in the winter. Tundra Epiphytes grow on the trees Tropical forests Temperature ranges between 27C and 30C. Tropical forests Temperature range is between 25C and 30C. Tropical grassland Animals that live there reproduce during the wet season when there is plentiful food and water e.g. giraffes. Tropical grassland The soil quality is poor with few nutrients as these are washed down with the heavy rainfall. The nutrients are washed to a lower layer of soil known as the pan which cannot be accessed by plant roots. Tropical forests Grasses such as purple needlegrass and buffalo grass grow in these areas. Temperate grasslands Grasses grow very tall during the wet season, up to 2m high, but die off during the dry season. Tropical grasslands A few trees exist here e.g. the acacia tree, which survives due to its thick trunk which is capable of holding a large amount of water. Tropical grasslands Vegetation is in 4 layers -- emergents, canopy, under canopy, shrub/forest floor. Tropical forests Lianas wind their way up the trees Tropical forests Temperature range is between 30 and 35C. Deserts Trees do not generally grow here. Temperate grasslands The total annual rainfall is 500mm -- most falling in the summer months. Temperate grasslands It is important to know the broad locations for these biomes. There is a definite spatial pattern to the distribution of these biomes around the world. ***TASK -- Examine the map over the page showing the location of each of these biomes. In the correct box, add characteristics of that biome from the table above. Pick the 3 characteristics you feel are most important. Then draw a line to an example of each biome.*** See own notes for the map. Tundra - Temperature range is between -34C and 12C. - The total annual rainfall is around 200mm, and much of this falls as snow. - Short vegetation growing season of about 60 days. - Permafrost -- permanently frozen ground is the main surface cover. - Very poor surface drainage as the ground is frozen so water does not infiltrate. - Plant species have shallow root systems and are low to the ground to cope with the harsh climate e.g. mosses, lichens, grasses and dwarf shrubs. These plants are low to the ground and have a small leaf structure so that they can repel the cold temperatures. - Animals that live here have adapted in different ways -- brown bears eat in the summer and then store the food in a thick layer of insulating fat which they live off while they are hibernating in the winter. Temperate Forests - Temperatures range between 4C and 17C. - The total annual rainfall is 1000 mm. - Trees lose their leaves in winter to reduce transpiration. - Vegetation is in 4 layers -- canopy, sub-canopy, herb and ground. Many areas are dominated by the oak tree species. - There are animals such as rabbits and dear. Tropical Forest - Temperature ranges between 27C and 30C. - The total annual rainfall is 2200mm - The soil quality is poor with few nutrients as these are washed down with the heavy rainfall. The nutrients are washed to a lower layer of soil known as the pan which cannot be accessed by plant roots. - Vegetation is in 4 layers -- emergents, canopy, under canopy, shrub/forest floor. - Lianas wind their way up the trees - Epiphytes grow on the trees - The forest is evergreen - Animals exist such as the sloth and the howler monkey. Boreal Forest - Temperature range is between -10 and 15C. - Total annual rainfall is 500mm. - Trees have thick bark to protect them from the cold temperatures. - The trees have needle leaves to reduce transpiration. - The trees are evergreen which allows a longer growing season in the colder temperatures. - Shallow root systems because of the shallow soil and frozen turf. - Trees such as pine and fur are found here. - Animals such as red foxes and black bears exist in this location. Temperate Grasslands - Temperature range is between 10 and 18C. - The total annual rainfall is 500mm -- most falling in the summer months. - Trees do not generally grow here. - Grasses such as purple needlegrass and buffalo grass grow in these areas. - In North America, this type of biome is known as the Prairies and is very productive farmland. Deserts - Temperature range is between 30 and 35C. - There is a large diurnal temperature range: -18C at night and 45C in the day. - Very unpredictable rainfall but generally very low rainfall totals. - Sand is the main surface, or there may be coarse soil with good drainage. - The only plants are short shrubs and other very well adapted vegetation e.g. the prickly pear cactus that stores water in its tissue. - Animals live here such as camels -- but again they need to be very specially adapted. Tropical Grasslands - Temperature range is between 25C and 30C. - Total annual rainfall is 1000mm. - Rain is concentrated in 6-8 months of the year and the rest of the year has drought conditions. - Animals that live there reproduce during the wet season when there is plentiful food and water e.g. giraffes. - Grasses grow very tall during the wet season, up to 2m high, but die off during the dry season. - A few trees exist here e.g. the acacia tree, which survives due to its thick trunk which is capable of holding a large amount of water. We now need to try and explain the distribution shown on the previous page. Distribution is mainly as a result of climatic factors. Remember from our work done previously, that the climate of the earth is mainly driven by the sun's energy. ***TASK -- Read page 128 and 129 in your textbook. Complete the table below to explain the various characteristics that influence the distribution of the world's ecosystems. Some examples have been completed to help you.*** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Name of factor** | **Explanation** | +===================================+===================================+ | **Temperature and Latitude** | *HINT -- Bullet point 1 on page | | | 128.* | | | | | | Temperature decreases with | | | latitude. The equator receives | | | the most heat from the sun | | | because the sun is directly | | | overhead and therefore its rays | | | are most intense here. Further | | | away from the equator | | | temperatures decrease. This means | | | that biomes that are locate | | | further from the equator have | | | lower averages temperatures than | | | biomes located near to the | | | equator. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Global Atmospheric | As the sun is directly overhead | | circulation** | at the equator, this is where the | | | most intense heating is and thus | | | the most evaporation occurs here. | | | This rising air forms low | | | pressure and as the air rises it | | | cools and condenses to form | | | clouds. Either side of the | | | equator there is a lot of | | | rainfall and this is enough to | | | produce rainforests. As this air | | | continues to move towards the | | | poles it starts to cool. Cool air | | | sinks (but this air is now dry as | | | it has rained over the equator) | | | and this produces high pressure. | | | High pressure prevents cloud | | | formation and so precipitation is | | | very low. This happens around 30 | | | degrees north and south of the | | | equator where many of the world's | | | deserts are found. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Tilt of the earth** | *HINT -- Bullet point 2 on page | | | 129. Think back to the weather | | | hazards and climate change topic | | | -- what is the technical term for | | | the tilt of the earth?* | | | | | | The tilt of the earth's axis | | | creates seasons. The technical | | | term for the tilt of the earth is | | | either axial tilt or obliquity. | | | These seasons often have | | | different precipitation patterns. | | | The equator is least affected by | | | the tilt of the earth, so | | | precipitation is similar here all | | | year around. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **ITCZ** | The ITCZ is also known as the | | | inter-tropical convergence zone. | | | This is where the trade winds | | | from the northern and southern | | | hemisphere meet. These trade | | | winds blow across the ocean | | | bringing much moisture with them. | | | The point at which these winds | | | meet shifts slightly. Remember, | | | that around the ITCZ there is | | | much precipitation. The ITCZ | | | shifts northwards in June to | | | bring a wet season to the | | | tropical grasslands of the | | | northern hemisphere. When the | | | ITCZ shifts into the southern | | | hemisphere -- there is a dry | | | season in these tropical | | | grasslands. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Continent Centrality** | *HINT -- Bullet point 4 on page | | | 129.* | | | | | | In the interior of the | | | continents, summer temperatures | | | are much higher and winter | | | temperatures much lower than in | | | locations nearer the coast, where | | | the sea moderates temperature | | | extremes. This is because the sea | | | takes much longer to heat up and | | | cool down when compared to the | | | land. Temperate grasslands and | | | deserts are influenced by this | | | effect. Places in the centre of | | | the continents are also further | | | from wind to land breezes which | | | bring moisture and so they are | | | generally drier than places at | | | the coast. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Relief** | *HINT -- Bullet point 5 on page | | | 129. Be sure to use the technical | | | terms here -- we covered this | | | topic in the weather hazards and | | | climate change section!* | | | | | | Relief is the shape and height of | | | the land. High mountains force | | | air to rise over them. As this | | | happens, the air cools. This | | | means that precipitation is high | | | in the mountains (relief | | | rainfall). When the air has | | | passed over the mountains, it has | | | lost its moisture. This is called | | | a rain shadow effect and it | | | influences the location of some | | | desert and temperate grassland | | | ecosystems. This effect occurs in | | | the UK and explains why the East | | | side of the UK is much drier than | | | the West side where there are | | | mountains. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Local Factors** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Altitude** | Temperature drops by around 1^0^C | | | for every 100m of height gained. | | | Areas of high altitude, generally | | | have low temperatures. Areas of | | | cold environments are either | | | found at high latitude or high | | | altitude. E.g. glaciers exist in | | | the Alps at high altitude. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Soils** | The characteristics of the soil, | | | specifically how well the soil | | | can retain nutrients, will | | | influence the type of vegetation | | | that can grow there. Some soil | | | retains more moisture than others | | | and again this may influence the | | | sort of vegetation that grows | | | there. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Humans** | Humans have interacted with large | | | scale ecosystems and made | | | significant changes to them. For | | | example, tropical rainforests are | | | being cleared to make space for | | | cattle to graze. In the UK, over | | | centuries, areas of deciduous | | | woodland have been cleared to | | | create space for towns and cities | | | as well as farmland. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **[The Biosphere]** The biosphere is a vital system that provides us with some of our most essential resources: the food we eat, many of our medicines, building materials and sources of fuel. Therefore, it is important that we have the correct definition. ***TASK -- Define biosphere in the space below.*** -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The regions of the surface and atmosphere of the earth or another planet occupied by living organisms. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The biosphere is being exploited by humans for a variety of different reasons, mainly these reasons connect to our demand for energy, our need for water and the use of mineral resources. ***TASK -- Read through the notes below and use the words from the box to fill in the gaps in the notes.*** - The biosphere is used to provide energy. Firstly, **oil** is extracted from the ground and used to power engines and many other forms of transport. This includes using oil in **petrol** for private cars. Oil is also burned in power stations to generate electricity. Oil is a fossil fuel which means that when it is burned it produces **carbon** dioxide which contributes to the greenhouse effect. Furthermore, oil is a finite resource which means that it will eventually run out. Furthermore, coal is also extracted from the ground and burned to produce **electricity**. Coal is another fossil fuel and is particularly polluting. Many countries are trying to move away from using coal as a form of energy, but it is still a major source of energy -- particularly in **developing** countries. - Green energy also has an impact on the biosphere. Wind **turbines** are built on parts of the biosphere (land and sea) and solar panels have been constructed in fields to provide electricity using solar radiation. The sea is also exploited to provide energy through **tidal** power and wave power. - The use of water is having a profound impact on the biosphere. The demand for water around the world is **increasing** -- not least because the world wide population is growing. Water is used for drinking, washing and cleaning. Furthermore, it is also used to produce electricity. In essence, some form of fuel is used to heat water and produce steam. This steam then turns turbines to generate power. Farmers use water to **irrigate** their crops and in the USA this accounts for 37% of all water use. Water is also used in many industrial processes e.g. the making of paper. In Canada, paper production accounts for 45% of all water used by industry. Human's increased use of water is having an impact on the water **cycle**. - Minerals are defined as solid, naturally occurring non-living substances such as coal or **diamonds**. The removal of minerals has an impact on the biosphere e.g. trees may be removed to gain access to mineral sources. Minerals are used in the manufacture of many products e.g. silver is used to make mirrors, zinc is used to manufacture cars and **copper** is used in electrical wiring. **[The UKs Ecosystems]** The UK contains a variety of ecosystems, but remember the climatic factors discussed previously -- there is not a huge number of different types found within the UK. ***TASK -- Examine the bar chart below. Complete the bar chart with the following data: Moorlands and mountains 4% and woodlands 7%.*** [\[CHART\]]{.chart} The above data can also be shown in map form. Examine the map below. Image result for uk ecosystems map You need to know about the following ecosystems in detail: moorland, heathland, woodland and wetland. ***TASK -- Complete the table below, using the information on the following pages. Each ecosystem will need a description adding from the list, as well as examples of typical animals, plants and birds.*** +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ | **Type | **Locat | **Distr | **Descr | **Typic | **Typic | **Typic | | of | ed | ibution | iption* | al | al | al | | Ecosyst | Example | -- | * | Plants* | Animals | Birds** | | em** | and | Where | | * | ** | | | | Picture | is it | | | | | | | ** | found?* | | | | | | | | * | | | | | +=========+=========+=========+=========+=========+=========+=========+ | Moorlan | Moorlan | Found | These | Bell | Red | Buzzard | | d | d | in | areas | heather | deer | s | | | in | highlan | have | and | and | and | | | North | d | been | bracken | foxes. | grouse. | | | Yorkshi | areas | created |. | | | | | re | with | by | Plants | | | | | | heavy | people. | need to | | | | |  | re, | d | | | | | | | the | ecosyst | | | | | | | Pennine | em | | | | | | | s, | has | | | | | | | Dartmoo | develop | | | | | | | r, | ed | | | | | | | Exmoor | through | | | | | | | and Mid | the | | | | | | | Wales. | grazing | | | | | | | | of | | | | | | | | sheep | | | | | | | | and the | | | | | | | | managem | | | | | | | | ent | | | | | | | | of the | | | | | | | | vegetat | | | | | | | | ion | | | | | | | | for | | | | | | | | grouse | | | | | | | | shootin | | | | | | | | g. | | | | | | | | In many | | | | | | | | areas, | | | | | | | | the | | | | | | | | moors | | | | | | | | are | | | | | | | | burnt | | | | | | | | to | | | | | | | | control | | | | | | | | the | | | | | | | | growth | | | | | | | | of | | | | | | | | plants. | | | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ | Heathla | Heathla | Much of | Dry and | Small | Rabbits | Nightja | | nd | nd | lowland | sandy | shrubs | and | r | | | in | UK has | soils | such as | hares. | and the | | | Devon | heathla | which | heather | | skylark | | | | nd | can | and | |. | | | | e.g. | have | gorse | | | | | | Cornwal | depress | but | | | | | | l, | ions | some | | | | | | Devon | which | trees | | | | | | and | can be | may | | | | | | Dorset. | boggy | also | | | | | | | (where | grow | | | | | | | rain | such as | | | | | | | water | silver | | | | | | | accumul | birch. | | | | | | | ates). | | | | | | | | The | | | | | | | | sandy | | | | | | | | soil | | | | | | | | drains | | | | | | | | easily | | | | | | | | and has | | | | | | | | few | | | | | | | | nutrien | | | | | | | | ts. | | | | | | | | The | | | | | | | | soil is | | | | | | | | also | | | | | | | | quite | | | | | | | | acidic. | | | | | | | | These | | | | | | | | areas | | | | | | | | have | | | | | | | | been | | | | | | | | used | | | | | | | | for | | | | | | | | sheep | | | | | | | | grazing | | | | | | | |. | | | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ | Woodlan | Mixed | UK has | Trees | In | Roe | Sparrow | | d | woodlan | many | are the | additio | deer | hawk | | | d | differe | dominan | n | and | and | | | in | nt | t | to | badger. | tawny | | | Devon | types | plant. | trees, | | oil. | | | | of | Broad | there | | | | |  | are | that | canopy | | | | | | broad | they | as well | | | | | | leaved | lose | as | | | | | | such as | their | plants | | | | | | oak and | leaves | such as | | | | | | ash. 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The area used to be covered by trees and shrubs but the moorland ecosystem has developed through the grazing of sheep and the management of the vegetation for grouse shooting. In many areas, the moors are burnt to control the growth of plants. - Trees are the dominant plant. Broad leaf trees tend to be deciduous which means that they lose their leaves in the autumn and re-grow them in the Spring. This leaf fall provides rich humus for the wood (more on this later). Some areas are made up of conifers which have needle like leaves. They shed and replace their leaves throughout the year. The seeds are protected by cones. - These areas have peaty, fertile soils, hat are periodically waterlogged. There is much vegetation. Much of the land has been drained to use as farmland. - Dry and sandy soils which can have depressions which can be boggy (where rain water accumulates). The sandy soil drains easily and has few nutrients. The soil is also quite acidic. These areas have been used for sheep grazing. ***Read through the list of plants below and again add details to the table above:*** - In addition to trees, there are mosses and lichens which grow under the canopy as well as plants such as bluebells and ferns. - Bell heather and bracken. Plants need to be well adapted as the soil is acidic. - Small shrubs such as heather and gorse but some trees may also grow such as silver birch. - Reeds and bulrush grow along the sides of the streams. ***Read through the list of animals below and again add details to the table above:*** - Red deer and foxes. - Roe deer and badger. - Otters - Rabbits and hares. ***Finally, read through the list of birds below and again add details to the table above:*** - Nightjar and the skylark. - Buzzards and grouse. - Sparrow hawk and tawny oil. - Mallard and teal. **[The UKs Marine Ecosystems]** Marine ecosystems around the UK together make up an area that is three and a half times as big as the whole of the UK's land area and so studying them is therefore important. Marine ecosystems consist of estuaries, lagoons, salt marshes, seaweed beds, deep sea beds, beaches, coral reefs, oyster beds, seagrass beds and sea caves. Marine ecosystems can be further categorised by inshore habitats and offshore habitats. - Inshore habitats are those close to the shore. These ecosystems are the ones that are important for tourism and recreation e.g. beaches. - Offshore ecosystems are found away from the shoreline and are important for commercial fishing and energy production. Marine ecosystems have many benefits to people. ***TASK -- In the space below, produce a mind map that explains how marine ecosystems can benefit people. Page 133 in the textbook may help you.*** **Tourism** - Over 250 million people visit the UK's coasts. This creates around 200,000 jobs in tourism in coastal locations. - This creates around £3 billion for the UK's economy. - Many of these benefits are through positive multiplier effects -- so for example, if more people visit a hotel on the coast, then the food companies that supply that hotel in other parts of the country will also benefit. **Fishing** - The UK has around 6400 fishing boats, which makes it the 7^th^ largest fleet in the European Union. - 12,000 people are employed directly as fisherman, with a further 14,000 more working in fish processing. Again, these jobs generate money for the country through the UK's tax system. **Energy -- Oil** - The UK has many oil supplies off the coast of the North Sea -- there are around 24 billion barrels of oil still here. - This is enough oil for another 30 years of oil extraction. - The oil industry creates many jobs -- around 450,000 people. **Energy -- Offshore Wind Farms** - The UK has many offshore wind farms. Having wind farms off shore is popular as they generate more electricity. Also the farms can be noisy and so locating them out at sea away from people is popular. - The London Array in the Thames Estuary is the world's biggest wind farm with 175 turbines. It is 20km from the coast of Kent. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ***EXTENSION TASK -- Can you use the internet to research further benefits of the marine ecosystem and add these to your mind map?*** --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- As you would expect, human activities can damage the marine ecosystem. There are many ways that this can happen, however, some of the main ways are discussed in the table below. ***TASK -- Complete the table below using page 133 in your textbook.*** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Human Activity** | **Details** | +===================================+===================================+ | **Over-fishing** | The UK has many small fishing | | | boats. However, half of all fish | | | caught in the UK are caught by | | | just 4% of the boats. These boats | | | are very efficient at catching | | | fish. In 2011, the numbers of cod | | | species declined completely. The | | | removal of such a species has | | | impacts upon the whole ecosystem | | | through food chains. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Eutrophication** | *Ensure you include a definition | | | of this term from the textbook | | | glossary.* | | | | | | Eutrophication is when too many | | | nutrients get into rivers and | | | water bodies (e.g. lakes) causing | | | extensive plant growth which | | | absorbs oxygen and damages other | | | organisms in the water. This is | | | mainly caused when farmers use | | | too many fertilisers and these | | | get washed into the sea. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Ports** | Global trade has increased over | | | the course of the last 100 years. | | | This has meant more | | | transportation of goods by sea | | | and this means more ports need to | | | be constructed. Increasingly, | | | ships are getting larger and | | | larger and this means bigger | | | ports and deeper channels which | | | damage the marine ecosystem. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Economic Development** | Economic development refers to | | | how we can make money from the | | | coastline. Tourist activities | | | need infrastructure e.g. hotels | | | and facilities and this often | | | means that coastal ecosystems are | | | destroyed e.g. salt marshes are | | | removed. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Windfarms** | The construction of large wind | | | farms offshore interferes with | | | bird migration routes and the | | | noise they make may disturb | | | animals that rely on sound such | | | as dolphins. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ***EXTENSION TASK -- Can you think of any further human activities | | that may damage the ecosystem? Research some of document these in the | | space below.*** | | | | - Pollution from tourist activities e.g. hotels etc, in some | | regions can mean that sewage and waste water enters the sea that | | is untreated. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **[Tropical Rainforests and the Nutrient Cycle]** The tropical rainforest biome is the most productive biome on earth and has the greatest variety of lifeforms. The rainforest has perfect conditions for plant growth and so vegetation is very dense. The rainforest climate is unique -- as you will see below. ***TASK -- Examine the climate data for Manaus which is located within the Amazon rainforest in Brazil (see map). Describe the data in the space underneath.*** Image result for manaus brazil **Jan** **Feb** **Mar** **Apr** **May** **Jun** **Jul** **Aug** **Sep** **Oct** **Nov** **Dec** ------------------------------ --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- **Average temperature/^o^C** 26 27 27 27 27 27 28 28 28 28 27 27 **Rainfall/mm** 267 261 295 282 210 109 76 56 77 125 165 222 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The general trend in reference to temperature is that it is high all year. There is very little seasonal variation. The range of temperature is just 2^0^C which is very small. In reference to rainfall, there is more seasonal variation. The wettest month of March is 239mm wetter than the driest month of August. The driest months occur during June, July and August. There is little connection between temperature and rainfall since temperature is always high. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Before we gain a greater understanding of the rainforest -- we need to understand the idea of the nutrient cycle. There are two key terms associated with this: - Abiotic factors -- These are the physical and non-living environment such as water, wind and oxygen as well as rocks which make up the ecosystem. - Biotic factors -- These are the living organisms which make up the ecosystem. ***[Nutrients are chemical elements and compounds that are needed for organisms to grow and live]***. The nutrient cycle is the movement of these compounds from the non-living environment to the living environment and back again. The nutrient cycle can be expressed in diagram form. ***TASK -- Make a copy of the nutrient cycle diagram on the board in the space below. Ensure your circles are the correct size! NB this model is sometimes called the Gersmehl model.*** ------------------------  ------------------------ Remember, the definitions to the following key words contained in the diagram: - Biomass -- The amount or weight of living or recently living organisms in an area. - Litter -- Leaves, twigs and other dead organic material which falls onto the surface of the soil. - Precipitation -- Water vapour condensed in the atmosphere which falls as rain, snow, sleet or hail. - Run off -- water running across the land surface - Leaching -- Chemicals in the soil are washed away by rainfall. - Weathering -- The breakdown and decay of rocks by natural processes acting on rocks, on cliffs and valley sides. - Soil -- The top layer of the earth in which plants grow. It contains organic and inorganic material. ***TASK -- Read through and highlight the notes below on how the nutrient cycle relates to the tropical rainforest.*** - The nutrient cycle in the rainforest in practice works something like this: a tree will lose its leaves, and the leaves fall to the forest floor. The conditions in the rainforest are hot and damp and so the leaf decomposes quickly. This produces litter which is then used by the tree as nutrients for the tree to grow further. - In the rainforest, most nutrients are stored in the biomass with small amounts stored in the litter and the soil. - This is because there is very heavy rainfall which leaches nutrients down through the soil to an area where the plants cannot reach them. - Something to remember for later is that the rainforest has very few limiting factors and so there are a great variety of plants and animals. Limiting factors are factors which influence biodiversity and population size such as temperature, moisture, light and nutrients. The tropical rainforest has a few key characteristics, a number of these relate to climate. ***TASK -- Read through the characteristics below and highlight the key points and phrases.*** - The rainforest trees are deciduous, however, different species lose their leaves at different times and so the rainforest always looks green. This is especially true since trees only lose their leaves for a very short period. - Trees grow very tall and straight. They grow to around 30 -- 40m. This is because trees are competing for light. Trees do not waste energy on growing branches further down the tree as there is little light here. Despite the height of the trees, the roots are shallow since there are few nutrients in the top layer of soil (as discussed above). The trees develop buttress roots -- more on this later. - The rainforest has different layers and this is known as stratification (see diagram below). The top layer is the emergent trees and these are trees that rise above the canopy. Only about 3% of light reaches the layers under the canopy. - Humans influence tropical rainforests -- they hunt for animals and food as well as using fire to clear areas of the forest. Humans are also responsible for deforestation (more on this below). - The warm temperatures and moist conditions are perfect for the chemical weathering of the bedrock -- and this releases minerals into the soil. Remember, tropical rainforests soils are around 30-40 meters deep and so the nutrients do not reach the upper layers of the soil where the root systems are. The constant rainfall means that nutrients are leached out of the soil. We now need to understand about how there are interactions between plants and animals in the tropical rainforest. Every organism needs energy to live and grow. A food chain is the sequence of who eats who in an ecosystem in order to obtain the energy it needs to survive. A network of food chains together is known as a food web. ***TASK -- Copy down from the board in the space below the bullet points about the food web diagram:*** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | - The food web starts with plants which are known as **producers** | | who gain their energy from the sun. | | | | - Plants are eaten by herbivores, or primary consumers. | | | | - Primary consumers are eaten by secondary consumers. | | | | - Secondary consumers may be eaten by tertiary consumers. | | | | - When an organism dies, it is eaten by tiny microbes which are | | known as detritivores. The nutrients are recycled within the | | system. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ ***TASK -- Copy down from the board the example food web diagram for a typical tropical rainforest in the box below.*** -- -- The tropical rainforest is the most biodiverse ecosystem on Earth. Remember, that biodiversity is the variety of animal and plant species in an area. This is because: - The rainforest has ideal conditions for plant growth and this then supports very high animal biodiversity. - Rainforest are usually very old, as they take a long time to develop. This means that there is a lot of evolutionary variation between species. Plants and animals have adapted to the rainforest conditions -- this means they have changed some physical characteristics in order to better survive in the unique conditions found in the rainforest. ***TASK -- Examine the diagram below showing the tropical rainforest vegetation structure. You need to know about the following adaptations -- drip tips, buttress roots and the layers of the rainforest. Use the following resources to annotate the diagram below to explain these adaptations.*** - ***Page 135 in your textbook*** - ***Page 100 in the photocopied textbook*** - ****** **Drip Tips** - As a result of the very heavy rainfall, plants have developed leaves with drip tips. These help shed the heavy rainfall and prevent the plant from being damaged as a result of the intense precipitation. Furthermore, this prevents moss and algae forming on the leaf surface which would cut off the supply of light to the plant. **Buttress Roots** - The soil only contains nutrients at the very top of the soil and so the trees do not put down deep roots. However, the trees need to grow tall in search of light. Therefore, they develop buttress roots the base to anchor the tree and hold it upright. **Layers of the Rainforest** - The rainforest is made up of many layers. These provide a range of habitats for animals and plants and contribute to the high biodiversity. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ***EXTENSION TASK -- Can you research any further vegetation adaptations and add these to your diagram?*** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ As with the vegetation, animals also need to adapt to the unique conditions found in the rainforest. We are going to examine 5 animals: the sloth, the spider monkey, the flying frog, the toucan and the Madagascan serpent eagle to gain an understanding of how these creatures are coping in the rainforest. ***TASK -- Complete the table below, based upon the discussion in class, as to how each of these creates has adapted to the rainforest environment.*** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Name of creature** | **Picture** | **Details on how the | | | | create has adapted to | | | | the rainforest | | | | environment** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | Sloth | A sloth hangs from a | - The sloth has a | | | tree | coat that fits in | | | | well with the | | | | rainforest | | | | background -- the | | | | animal is well | | | | camouflaged. | | | | | | | | - The sloth moves | | | | slowly to make it | | | | difficult for | | | | predators to spot | | | | in the dense | | | | rainforest | | | | vegetation. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Spider Monkey |  | that are very | | | | strong. These | | | | enable the monkey | | | | to climb through | | | | the rainforest | | | | trees. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Flying Frog | A flying frog | - The flying frog | | | | has fully webbed | | | | hands and feet. | | | | | | | | - It has a loose | | | | flap of skin that | | | | stretches between | | | | its limbs which | | | | allows it to | | | | easily land and | | | | take off from the | | | | branches of | | | | plants. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Toucan |  | However, it has a | | | | large long bill | | | | that allows it to | | | | reach and cut | | | | fruit from | | | | branches that are | | | | too weak to | | | | support its | | | | weight. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Madagascan serpent | | - The wings of this | | eagle | | bird are adapted | | | | for fast | | | | manoeuvring. | | | | | | | | - The legs of this | | | | bird are very | | | | powerful and its | | | | uses these to | | | | grab lemurs, | | | | frogs, birds and | | | | snakes that it is | | | | able to spot with | | | | its very powerful | | | | eyesight. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ As you have hopefully learnt, the tropical rainforest is a valuable place on account of its biodiversity alone. However, there are further reasons why the rainforest is so valuable. The rainforest provides goods and services which we can use: - Goods are physical things - Services are intangible things ***TASK -- Read through the table below of goods and services. Decide which are most important through to least important and then summarise these in the thought triangle underneath. Thought triangle removed in completed notes and key points highlighted below.*** **Tropical Rainforest Goods** **Tropical Rainforest Services** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- More than 7000 medicines have their origins in tropical rainforest plant and animal products. For example, the rosy periwinkle which is the basis for a drug used to treat childhood leukaemia. There may be further medicines in areas of the rainforest yet to be explored. Tropical rainforest are the most biodiverse ecosystems on earth and without them life would be much less varied. The rainforest of the planet have been called the lungs of the earth -- as a result of the amount of vegetation present there is a significant amount of photosynthesis occurring. This takes in Carbon Dioxide and releases oxygen which is vital for life. The Amazon rainforest alone soaks up 2 billion tonnes of Carbon dioxide a year. Without this, the impacts of climate change would probably be much more severe. Timber is plentiful in the rainforest. Hardwood such as ebony and rosewood is valuable for furniture manufacture. Timber is also used for construction, wood for fuel and paper. Rainforest are popular tourist destinations and this provides income as well as many employment opportunities. The roots of plants hold the soil together. Without the trees, there would be much more sediment in local rivers. This would be a problem for water supplies as the silt would need to be removed. Flooding would also be more common as the trees take up water. For the indigenous people who live in the rainforest, the forest is their home and the basis of their culture and sense of identity. See photo below of un-contacted tribes in the Amazon rainforest, Brazil. The rainforest is also a source of food for people who live near the forest and its soils are places where crops can be grown in small clearances. As you learnt about in the weather hazards and climate change topic, climate change could have serious consequences for the planet. There is some evidence that climate change is making areas of tropical rainforest hotter and yet drier. These changes could have serious impacts on the rainforest structure, function and biodiversity. ***TASK -- Using pages 136 and 137 of your textbook, explain how the structure, function and biodiversity of the tropical rainforest may change in the future as a result of climate change.*** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Changes to structure:** | | | | The vegetation cover in many areas of tropical rainforest is likely | | to change to seasonal tropical forest, similar to that in the more | | wooded areas of tropical grasslands. This will happen as the dry | | season will start to last for several months. This is obviously very | | different from the situation at present whereby rain falls every day | | in the tropical rainforests. | | | | Copy down the 5 bullet points below. Remember, these points explain | | how the rainforest is likely to change with climate change in the | | future. | | | | - Most trees drop their leaves in the dry season to avoid water | | loss through transpiration. | | | | - There is no canopy in the dry season and thick underbush can grow | | among the trees. | | | | - The lack of vegetation in the dry season means animals are | | adapted to live on stored food or go into a sort of hibernation. | | Biodiversity is still high but much lower than in the tropical | | rainforest. | | | | - Trees have deep roots to reach groundwater. They do not have | | buttress roots. Some trees may be adapted to store water for | | example the baobab trees which have swollen trunks. | | | | - The falling leaves make a deep litter layer, but decomposition is | | very slow in the dry season so the soil becomes a bigger store of | | nutrients and the biomass store becomes smaller. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Changes to function:** | | | | The ability of the rainforest to do certain things could be | | influenced by a hotter and drier climate. Copy down the 4 bullet | | points below: | | | | - Less vegetation cover means that when it does rain, surface run | | off will increase because of a reduction in infiltration. | | Infiltration is the movement of water from the ground surface | | into the soil. Vegetation slows down this process because it | | intercepts some of the rainfall and stops it reaching the ground. | | As a result of less vegetation to hold the soil together, more | | sediment will be washed off into drainage systems and this will | | pollute the water. There will be an increase in silt in the river | | and this may harm fish species. | | | | - Currently, tropical rainforests create precipitation. This is | | because water is taken up by plants and is then converted into | | water vapour directly. This is known as transpiration. If trees | | are removed, this will happen less and so there will be less | | rainfall. | | | | - Some tropical rainforests are found on mountains. This is known | | as 'cloud forest'. These forests undertake a function known as | | cloud stripping. This is where they soak up moisture from passing | | clouds like a giant sponge. The slow release of this water into | | the drainage basin provides areas downstream with a steady supply | | of water all year. If there were drier conditions, this could | | prevent cloud stripping from occurring. | | | | - Drier forest emits more CO2 than it soaks up. If forest fires | | occur, then there is vast increase in CO2. Droughts in the Amazon | | rainforest in 2005 and 2010 are estimated to have added 5 billion | | tonnes of CO2 to the atmosphere. | +=======================================================================+ | **Changes to the biodiversity:** | | | | - Plants found in the tropical rainforest cannot tolerate drier | | conditions -- they are unable to survive during periods of | | drought or forest fires. | | | | - Temperatures are very consistent year round and species cannot | | cope with fluctuations | | | | - As conditions become drier and warmer, other plants species that | | are well adapted to these new conditions would spread out and | | out-compete the existing rainforest species. This may include the | | spread of pests and disease that tropical rainforest species are | | not immune to. | | | | - Temperature drops by 1 degree C per 100 m in height gained. | | Therefore, tropical rainforests at greater altitudes will be | | influenced less. Some biodiversity would be preserved if species | | were able to migrate to higher altitudes. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **[Deforestation in the Tropical Rainforest]** Deforestation is when trees are cut down. This happens for a variety of reasons. Deforestation needs to be managed because the rainforest is unique and a special ecosystem, that also provides many goods and services which would not be present if there was too much deforestation. Around the world, 7.3 million hectares of rainforest are cleared each year. We need to understand three major causes of deforestation: - Use of forest areas for agriculture - Mineral extraction - Population growth We are going to examine deforestation in Madagascar. Madagascar is the world's fourth largest island and is located off the east coast of the African continent. Deforestation has been occurring here since the 1950s and now only around 20% of the island is forested and each year 1400 hectares are deforested. ***TASK -- Use page 138 in your textbook to annotate the image below to explain the 3 major causes of deforestation in Madagascar. You need to detail 'Tavy and deforestation', 'population growth and deforestation' and 'logging and deforestation'.*** **Deforestation in Madagascar** - Extensive deforestation since the 1950s. Now only about 20% of Madagascar's land is forested. - Each year 1400 hectares is deforested. **Cause of deforestation -- Tavy** - 80% of deforestation is due to tavy. - This is a type of 'slash and burn' agriculture. - This is where trees are chopped down in a small area. The trees are then burnt and the nutrients from the trees goes into the soil. Crops are then planted. - However, the nutrients in the soil quickly run out and weeds start to grow instead of useful crops. At this stage, farmers will often leave this area and chop down another area of forest. The forest is slow to regrow (but will do eventually). **Cause of deforestation - Population growth** - 1940s in Madagascar, improvements in healthcare meant that infant mortality rates declined. This led to a large increase in populations. - 4 million in 1950 to 20.7 million in 2010. - In the next 10 years, population will be over 30 million. - This puts pressure on the forest as land is needed for agriculture to feed the growing numbers of people. - This means more people clear land for tavy, but it also means that people try to grow more food on their existing plots of land and so the soil fertility is reduced even more quickly. This means that more forest is cleared over time. **Cause of deforestation -- logging and deforestation** - 2^nd^ main cause of deforestation is commercial logging. - In the 20^th^ century, Madagascar as a country was in debt. The government sold rainforest timber as a way of clearing this debt. - There are now strict controls on logging, but there is still some illegal logging because: - There is a high demand for rosewood -- this is grown in the forest and is very dense, pink coloured and fragrant. - People who live on the island are generally poor and illegal logging pays well. - Police and government officials can be corrupt -- this means that they allow illegal logging in return for a bribe. Image result for madagascar island rainforest --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ***EXTENSION TASK -- Can you research any further causes of deforestation and add these to your map?*** --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- You need to know about how the authorities in Madagascar have tried to manage the problem of deforestation. There are a number of things that have been done and many of these involve local people. Rainforest management needs to be sustainable. Simply banning people from chopping trees down would not be sustainable since people need to do this in order to survive and so people would simply chop trees down illegally. Rather, sustainable management needs to be about allowing people to chop trees down but in such a way that the rainforest is not permanently damaged and so their children will also be able to use the forest. ***TASK -- Read page 138 and 139 in your textbook and summarise in the box below the case study of rainforest management in Madagascar.*** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Government Policies (Governance)** | | | | - Most rainforest is owned by the government. | | | | - 20 years ago, government created a system whereby local people | | managed their own rainforest resources. | | | | - Association Mitsinjo is sustainable rainforest management | | conducted by local people. | | | | **Ecotourism** | | | | - Association Mitsinjo (AM) started with a group of wildlife guides | | were employed to take tourists around the Analamazoatra reserve. | | | | - Ideas developed and a community based nature tourism association | | was created. | | | | - Money from tourism contributes around a 1/3 of the income. | | Members of the association patrol the reserve area and look out | | for illegal logging and snares for animals. This has been very | | successful in preventing illegal logging and hunting. | | | | **Rainforest services** | | | | - AM manages a rainforest restoration project -- started in 2002. | | | | - Local farmers get help improving the amount of food they grow. In | | return, they agree to set aside some of their land to grow young | | rainforest trees. | | | | - More than 1 million new trees have been planted. | | | | **Sustainable Agriculture** | | | | - AM has educated farmers on how to grow food in ways other than | | tavy. This is known as System of Rice Intensification (SRI). | | | | - Using SRI, more food is grown and no new land needs to be | | cleared. | | | | **Benefits:** | | | | - AM has also provided healthcare for residents as well