ED211 Lecture Notes #1 PDF

ED211 Lecture Notes # 1 24/09/24 - 09/10/24 What makes a(n) (effective) teacher? Subject matter knowledge Pedagogical content knowledge (instructional methods and strategies) Motivating students Managi...

ED211 Lecture Notes # 1 24/09/24 - 09/10/24 What makes a(n) (effective) teacher? Subject matter knowledge Pedagogical content knowledge (instructional methods and strategies) Motivating students Managing the classroom Assessing prior knowledge Communicating ideas effectively Assessing prior knowledge Communicating ideas effectively Understanding how children/students learn Knowing student diversity and differential needs (Equity in learning opportunities) Assessing learning outcomes Professional development and reflective teaching (Continually reflect on and critically examine own assumptions, inferences, and teaching practices) Believing that teachers can make a difference in students’ lives (Self-efficacy) Being intentional (having a reason for all decisions in education): Enhancing learning opportunities and supporting the development of all students by considering individual differences and differential needs. Communicate and collaborate with colleagues (Professional learning community) Being/Becoming an effective teacher is a nature or nurture issue? Born to be an effective teacher Learn to be an effective teacher Observed Practiced HENCE, teaching is a decision-making process based on applying educational research in the classroom (NEED for Educational Psychology!) What is the scope of the Educational Psychology field? Scientific study of psychological principles that are relevant to education. The scientific study of education began with the emergence of psychology as a scientific discipline separate from philosophy. William James – Talks to teachers on psychology Stanley Hall- How do children learn John Dewey- How should we educate Edward Thorndike- Principles from the lab can be applied in the classroom Page 1 of 7    ED211 Lecture Notes # 1 24/09/24 - 09/10/24 Research Methods in EdPsych What are the functions of scientific inquiry? Describing the phenomenon at hand What are the indicators of student engagement in the classroom? When are they more likely to seek help/ raise their hand? Explaining the phenomenon Why are high achievers more likely to engage with the course content? Predicting how change will occur When immediate feedback for learning is provided for low achievers, they may benefit from it and learn more. Controlling the change In a self-paced e-learning program, students can engage for extended periods when given immediate, individualized feedback. These functions are not discrete; they overlap. Scientific research is answering questions in a systematic way Where to begin? Review of the related research literature: Are there any full-blown, well-structured theories (explanations)? Or are there any significant gaps in the knowledge? What are the methods used in the EP Field? How do you answer a research question? Designs can be classified by the nature of the data collected and analyzed For instance, your question is: How is self-esteem related to academic achievement? Quantitive: Self-esteem scale and GPA (numbers and statistical analysis) Qualitative: Metaphors of achievement or memories of success or failure (content/thematic analysis) Mixed (both) The research designs can be classified by time (developmental questions) Cross-sectional: What are the indicators of student engagement in primary school classrooms? (Collecting the data once from various classrooms) Longitudinal: How do engagement trends change across school levels? (Collecting data from the same classrooms across levels repeatedly) What are the ways (specific methods) to answer the questions? Descriptive studies Aim: to describe a particular situation/environment/characteristic. Data: surveys, interviews, observations (video or audio records) Designs: ethnography, observation, surveys, and case studies How pervasive are gender stereotypes in popular children’s literature? Page 2 of 7    ED211 Lecture Notes # 1 24/09/24 - 09/10/24 What kinds of aggressive behaviors occur in schools, and with what frequencies? Correlational Studies Aim: To identify associations among characteristics, behaviors, and environmental conditions. Are students more likely to be engaged with school subjects if their parents often praise them at home? How do two or more variables covary (change together)? Correlations range from 1.00 to -1.00. Closer to 1.00/-1.00 stronger the relationship (Strength of the relationship) Positive/negative sign indicates the direction of the relationship (whether the two variables change in the same or opposite directions) Positive: Calorie intake and weight gain Negative: Attendance and number of mistakes in the exam Negative: Attendance and number of errors in the exam Zero: No relation Experimental studies Aim: Testing a hypothesis to explain a situation or phenomenon. Causality: cause and effect relationship Which of the two reading programs produces more significant gains in reading comprehension? Manipulation of one (independent) variable to observe its possible effect on another (dependent) variable Eliminate other plausible explanations for observed outcomes (especially in carefully controlled experimental studies) Measurement and Operational definitions How to collect data What will be the measurable piece of a variable? For instance: Anxiety (phsiological/behavioral/cognitive indicators), Persistence, Engagement, Happiness, Achievement Who/What will be the source of data? Self-report Observation Indirect indicators (e.g., recycle bin/ teachers’ perceptions of parental involvement) Can you ask every question to everyone? Ethics Informed consent Knowing the purpose Rights not to answer or pull the data back Well-being before and after the study Page 3 of 7    ED211 Lecture Notes # 1 24/09/24 - 09/10/24 DEVELOPMENT What is development? Development refers to how people grow, adapt, and change over the lifespan. In development, environmental and genetic factors interact with individuals’ experiences in dynamic and complex ways. Learning - long-term changes that occur due to experiences. Maturation- gradual, genetically driven acquisition of biological capabilities over childhood and adolescence. (Walking, uttering first words, etc.) There are aspects (domains) of development: personality, socioemotional, cognitive (intellectual), physical and language development. General Principles of Development There are universals in development: for instance, most children learn to walk and talk around the same age despite considerable differences in their environments. Developmental milestones occur in predictable order. Diversity in development Children develop at different rates due to genetic and environmental differences. (e.g., Learning to read at age 4 - parental support and information processing capacity). , Development involves relatively rapid growth (spurts) and slower growth (plateaus) periods. For instance, learning first words and months later to achieve forming sentences. There are sensitive periods in the interaction between genes and the environment. Active individual: Children’s own behaviors also influence their development. What are the debates on development? Nature vs nurture: Environmental and genetic factors interact in development. In some aspects, environment/learning precedes maturation or vice versa (sensitive periods or critical incidences). Continuity in development: Continuous development theories (e.g., information-processing models) Smooth progression Environment is more important than heredity in determining development. Stage theories of development Same sequence of stages but individual rates Qualitative differences in abilities across stages (Piaget, Erikson, etc.). Implications for effective teaching Education is an environmental factor that teachers can manipulate. There are universal trends in development, but individuals are also different (genes, behaviors, environment, personal histories). Page 4 of 7    ED211 Lecture Notes # 1 24/09/24 - 09/10/24 Differentiated instruction is the practice of individualizing instructional methods to align with each student’s existing knowledge, skills, and needs. Differentiated instruction should accompanied by regular assessment of students’ progress. Being aware of the universal/commonalities in instruction and classroom management would work for cultivating a shared culture. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development What was his initial question? Genetic epistemology- the origin of human knowledge How do people represent knowledge and understand the world? So, he began to study with children. He had a biological background, and he adapted terminology from biology. What kind of a theory is it? Stagewise theory Cognitive ability/intellectual development progress through 4 stages Each stage is characterized by operations: The emergence of new abilities /ways of information processing Qualitative differences between stages How does development occur? Every child has the innate tendency to explore and understand their environment (LITTLE SCIENTIST) Schemes/Schema/Schemata Ways to interact with and understand the world A new situation/experience/object creates “ Disequilibrium What is this? How does it work? Adaptation Adjusting the scheme (Achieving Equilibrium) Assimilation Accommodation What is the child doing? Actively interacting with the environment Making sense of it Constructing systems of meaning (CONSTRUCTIVISM) What are the stages of development? All children pass through The same stages Page 5 of 7    ED211 Lecture Notes # 1 24/09/24 - 09/10/24 In the same order But at different rates/paces, What are the stages of development? Sensorimotor Stage (birth to age 2) Preoperational stage (age 2 to age 7) Concrete operational (age 7 to age 11) Formal operational (age 11 and onwards) What is it like in the sensorimotor stage? Exploring the world by the use of sense and motor skills Reflexes are the building blocks for schemes in the beginning. e.g., Sucking, grasping, crying, rooting What is it like in the sensorimotor stage? Lacking an understanding of the principle of conservation Centration: Paying attention to one aspect of a situation/object From reflexes to goal-directed behaviors: Babies’ method of inquiry in this stage changes from trial- and-error to a planned approach. Mental representations begin Object permanence: Knowledge about objects that do exist even when they cannot be seen is limited in the first year of this stage. What about the Pre-operational stage? Between ages 2 to 7, They begin using symbols when mentally representing objects. Rapid development in language, though in some respects, thinking is limited. https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=TRF27F2bn-A&t=37s Reversibility: Mentally turning back to the starting point is limited. Egocentrism: Believing that everyone sees the world exactly as the child does (Three-mountains paradigm) is common. What about the concrete operational stage? Better ability to form concepts, see relationships, and solve problems Familiar context and concrete objects are necessary Logical thinking Ability to mentally reverse events What about the formal operational stage? Abstract thinking Hypothetical thinking How is Piaget’s theory seen, criticized, and revised? Methodological limitations in his work resulted in an underestimation of children’s abilities at different stages of development. Page 6 of 7    ED211 Lecture Notes # 1 24/09/24 - 09/10/24 New methods that are used to observe infants’ behaviors (sucking speed of pacifier, looking times of babies, habituation/surprise paradigm) directly Regarding the theory, he was criticized for not explaining the reasons for the differential operations across stages and how and why the transition between stages occurs. Alternative explanations: Neurological maturation hypothesis Inhibition hypothesis (inability to stop an already started/learned action) The stagewise nature of the theory is also questioned: Piagetian tasks can be taught to children at earlier developmental stages. Direct teaching affects the pace. Object permanence may be evident much earlier. Conservation of different aspects is achieved at various paces. Conservation of different aspects is achieved at various paces. Conservation of number is earlier than conservation of weight. In practical contexts, children can understand others’ perspectives. SO: Experience (EDUCATION) matters. What are the revisions to the theory (Neo-Piagatian Explanations)? Modifications to overcome the limitations Cognitive development in specific types of tasks instead of overall stages. Greater emphasis on the role of culture, social context, and education. How does the theory inform a teacher’s practice? The theory has a constructivist focus. Teachers should focus on the process of children’s thinking, not only its products. How does the learner/student approach the problem at hand? Formative assessment should be used. Self-initiated learning and active involvement- setting scenarios for discovery learning Showing ambiguous and curiosity-provoking results to create disequilibrium, e.g., two glasses of water and two eggs (one is floating, but the other sinks) Being sensitive to children’s thinking (the operations and the differential paces) and not trying to accelerate development. In elementary years: Rely heavily on concrete objects and activities History: photographs, timeline, characters Math: manipulatives (physical objects) Language: role-playing, storybooks with pictures, idioms In middle and high school, presenting abstract ideas more often by using the concrete examples Introduce sophisticated reasoning processes within the context of familiar situations Page 7 of 7