Educational Psychology Notes PDF

Educational Psychology MODULE 1: CHAPTER 1 KEY WORDS Learning, Teaching, & Educational Psychology...

Educational Psychology MODULE 1: CHAPTER 1 KEY WORDS Learning, Teaching, & Educational Psychology Classrooms today: 22% of Canadian pop. is foreign-born “visible minorities” (Mostly concentrated in Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver). Indigenous communities across Canada are young and growing (5% of total pop). Wide range of religious communities (other than Christianity) is growing (Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist). Nearly 1.2 million (approx. 25%) children live in poverty (Children represent 36% of regular users of food banks). Children have diverse abilities and disabilities. Diverse family environments/ blended Digital natives/ Digital divide families. Digital natives (have not lived without digital technologies). Digital divide (disproportionately advantages some groups over others). Teacher efficacy Teacher efficacy: (Teachers personal sense of efficacy related to a school atmosphere of high expectations for teachers and students). Teachers’ belief that they can reach even difficult students to help them learn. Teachers High self-efficacy with high self efficacy tend to work harder and persist longer (even when students are difficult to teach), in part because these teachers believe in themselves and their students. These teachers are also less likely to Sense of high self-efficacy experience burnout and are more likely to be satisfied with their jobs. Sense of efficacy is higher when teachers have high expectations for students, and when teachers receive support from principals in solving instructional/ management problems. Efficacy grows from real success with students, not just moral support Purpose of educational psychology or cheerleading of professors. One of the purposes of educational psychology is to go beyond individual experiences and testimonies, and to systematically examine the impact of teaching on the lives of students, by using designed research studies. Educational psychology The role of educational psychology: Educational psychology (discipline concerned with teaching and learning processes/ Field founded by William Jamed in 1890). 1940s and 1950s (study concentrated on individual differences, assessments, and learning behaviors). 1960s and 1970s (focus shifted to study cognitive development and learning, with attention to how students learn and remember concepts). More recently ( investigating how culture and social factors affect learning and development). Today (strive to Educational psychologists improve educational policy and practice). Educational psychologists study child and adolescent development (learning and motivation, how people learn different academic subjects, social and cultural influences on learning, teaching and teachers, and assessments (tests etc.) Common sense/ providing help Common sense: When should teachers provide help for lower-achieving students as they do classwork? (Common sense answer: Teachers should always offer help because students may not know that they might need it, or some may be embarrassed to ask for it/ Research based answer: When teachers provide help before a student asks, the student and others conclude that the student being helped may not have the ability to succeed). *research based answer= Causes the student to be more likely to attribute failures to lack of ability rather than lack of effort, thus hindering motivation*. Should a school encourage exceptionally bright students to skip grades or enter college or University early? (Common sense answer: No, as the student is not Common sense/ skipping grades physically or emotionally ready for that environment/ Research based answer: Maybe. Acceleration is the most effective curriculum intervention for gifted children, as well as has long-term beneficial effects (socially and academically). Descriptive studies Understand and improve learning: Types of studies= 1. Descriptive studies (collect detailed information about specific situations, using observation, surveys, interviews, recordings, or combined methods), Correlational studies 2. Correlational studies (statistical description of how closely two variables are related *range from 1.00 to Positive correlation -1.00 (closer to either 1 or -1, the stronger the relationship)). *Positive correlation: the two factors increase Negative correlation/ experimental studies and decrease together/ Negative correlation: as one factor increases, the other one decreases*, 3. Experimental Participant (subject) studies (allow psychologists to study cause and effect). *Participant (subject): the people or person being Random/ Quasi-experimental studies studied/ Random: each subject has an equal chance to be in any group*, 4. Quasi-experimental studies (studies that fit most of the criteria of true experiments). *Exception that participants are not assigned to groups at random, instead existing groups (classes or school) participate in the experiments/ Experimenters change some aspects of the given situation to see if the change (or treatment) has an expected effect*. Results in each Statistically significant group are then compared, and usually statistical tests are conducted. *Statistically significant: not likely to be a chance occurrence: P <.05 (happens by chance less than 5 times out of 100) & P <.01 (happens by chance Single-subject experimental studies less than 1 time out of 100), 5. Single-subject exp studies (systematic interventions to study effects with one ABAB experiment person, often by applying and then withdrawing a treatment/ Goal is to determine the effects of a therapy, teaching method, or other intervention). *ABAB experiment: Observe an individual for a baseline period (A), assess the behavior of interest, then try an intervention (B), note the results, the remove the intervention, and Field experiment go back to baseline conditions (A), and finally reinstate the intervention (B)*, 6. Field experiment (takes place in a real setting, rather than simulated in a laboratory situation). Educational Psychology MODULE 1: CHAPTER 1 KEY WORDS Learning, Teaching, & Educational Psychology Clinical interviews Clinical interviews: Clinical interviews (Jean Piaget: Use open-ended questioning to probe responses and Case studies follow up with answers). Case studies (investigate one person or situation in depth) *Ex: (Bloom, 1985) conducted in-depth studies of highly accomplished concert pianists, sculptors, olympic swimmers, tennis players, mathematicians,and neurologists, to try to understand what factors supported the development of outstanding talent. (Interviewed family members, friends, teachers, and coaches to build an extensive case Ethnography study of each individual)*. Ethnography (a descriptive approach to research that focuses on life within a group and tries to understand the meaning of events to the people involved. *ethnographies might study how students in different cultural groups are viewed by their peers, or how teachers' beliefs about students' abilities Participant observation affect classroom interactions*. Participant observation (Researcher participating in the group to understand the actions from the perspective of the people in the situation). Longitudinal studies Role of time in research: Longitudinal studies (document changes that occur in subjects over time *often Cross-sectional studies many years*/ Expensive and not always practical). Cross-sectional studies (focus on groups of subjects at Mirogenetic studies different ages rather than following the same group for many years). Microgenetic studies (detailed observation and analysis of changes in a cognitive process as the process unfolds over several days or weeks. *3 basic characteristics: researchers observe the entire period of change, from the time it starts to when it is relatively stable (1), make many observations (videotape recording, or interviews), and transcriptions of the exact words of the individual being studied (2), put the observed behavior ‘under a microscope’ to examine it moment by moment (3)/ 1 & 2: goal is to explain the underlying mechanism of change*/ Expensive and time-consuming). Qualitative research Qualitative and quantitative research: Qualitative (exploratory research that attempts to understand the meaning of the events to the participants involved/ Methods: case studies, interviews, ethnography, and observations). Quantitative (studies many participants in a more formal and controlled way/ Methods: Quantitative research experimentation, statistical analysis, tests, and structured observations). Action research Teachers as researchers: Action research (problem-solving investigation focused on a specific problem, and making systematic observations (or tests of methods) that teachers or schools conduct to improve teaching and learning for their students). Principle/ Theory Theories for teaching: Principle (established relationship between two factors: 1. Theory: (integrated statement of principles that attempts to explain a phenomenon and make predictions *Based on systematic Hypothesis research, and the beginning and end points of the research cycle*/ 2. Hypothesis: a prediction of what will Empirical research happen in a research study based on theory and previous research). Empirical research (based on Research cycle systematically collected data). Research cycle (Clear hypothesis, systematic gathering/ analyzing of all kinds of data about the questions, interpreting and analyzing the gathered data to answer the questions or solve the problem, modification and improvement of theories based on results, and formulation of new and better questions based on the improved theories). Lee & Shute, 2010 Supporting student learning: Lee & Shute, 2010 (sifted through studies of student learning conducted over the course of 60 years (to identify those who had direct measure of measures student achievement in reading and mathematics). Identified a dozen variables that were directly linked to K-12 students' achievements. Grouped these factors into two categories: 1. student/ personal factor, and 2. school and social-contextual factors. Educational Psychology MODULE 2: CHAPTER 2 KEY WORDS Cognitive Development Development Definitions of development: Development (orderly and adaptive changes that humans go through from conception to death/ temporary changes caused by brief illnesses are not considered part of development). Physical development/ Personal development Physical development (changes in body structure that take place as one grows). Personal development Social development (changes in personality that take place as one grows). Social development (changes over time in the ways in Cognitive development which one relates to others). Cognitive development (gradual and orderly changes by which mental processes Maturation become more complex and sophisticated). Maturation (genetically programmed and naturally occurring changes over time/ Unaffected by environment (except in cases of malnutrition or severe illness) *Both maturation and interaction (or nature and nurture) are important*). Nature Three questions across the theories:1. What is the source of development? (nature vs. nurture)= Nature: Nurture heredity, genes, biological processes, and maturation, etc. VS Nurture: education, parenting, culture, and social policies, etc. *Some psychologist assert that behaviors are determined by 100% by biology and 100% Coactions by environment, and cannot be separated/ Coactions: joint actions of individual biology and environment (each shapes and influences the other)*, 2. What is the shape of development? (continuity vs. discontinuity)= Continuous process Continuous process (ex): gradual improvement of your running endurance through systematic exercise/ VS Discontinuous process Discontinuous change (ex): many changes that occur in humans during puberty (Also called qualitative (example of Piaget’s theory), 3. What are the critical periods of development? (earlier vs. later experiences)= Sensitive periods Sensitive periods: times when a person is especially ready for, or, is responsive to certain experiences. different rates General principles in development: People develop at different rates (Some students may be larger, better coordinated, or more mature in their thinking and social relationships, while others may be much slower in relatively orderly maturing in these areas). Development is relatively orderly (People developed certain abilities before others/ Orderly does not necessarily mean linear or predictable *people might advance, stay the same for a period of Takes place gradually time, or move backwards*). Development takes place gradually (Change takes time). Regions of the brain/ cerebellum The brain and cognitive development: Regions of the brain (1. Cerebellum: coordinates balance and skilled Hippocampus movements, and plays a role in higher cognitive functions such as learning, 2. Hippocampus: critical in Amygdala/ Thalamus recalling new information and recent experiences, 3. Amygdala: directs emotions, 4. Thalamus: involved in FMRI our ability to learn new information). Functional magnetic resonance imaging “FMRI” (A functional MRI uses the MRI to measure the tiny changes that take place in the brain during brain activity/ shows how blood ERP flows within the brain when children or adults do different cognitive tasks). Event-related potential “ERP” (Measurements that assess electrical activity of the brain through the skull or scalp as people perform PET activities). Positron emission tomography “PET” (Method of localizing and measuring brain activity using computer assisted pictures of the brain). Neurons The developing brain: Neurons (specialized nerve cells that accumulate/ store and transmit information/ electrical activity in the brain and other parts of the nervous system. *Neurons are a grayish color) sometimes Neurogenesis called the “gray matter” of the brain). Neurogenesis (production of new neurons *Continues into adulthood). Axons and dendrites/ axons Axons and dendrites (branch-like fibers sent out by neuron cells). Axons (transmits information to muscles, Dendrites glands, and other neurons). Dendrites (receive information and transmit it to the neuron cells). Synapses (tiny Synapses spaces between the branches of axons and dendrites.*Neurons share information using electrical signals by releasing chemicals that jump across the synapses/ Communication between neurons by these synaptic transmissions are strengthened or weakened depending on patterns of use. *Strength is dynamic (always changing)/ Synaptic plasticity). Children are oversupplied with the neurons and synapses the7 need to adapt (to the environment), but only the ones that used survive. Unused neurons become pruned (necessary in cognitive development). Researchers found that some developmental disabilities are associated with gene pruning/ two kinds of overproduction defects that interfere with pruning. Two kinds of overproduction: Experience-expectant (1. Experience-expectant: overproduced in certain parts of the brain during specific development periods. Experience-dependent *Responsible for general development in large parts., 2. Experience-dependent: synaptic connections are formed based on the individual's experience. *Synapses are formed in response to neural activity in very localized areas of the brain when the individual is not successful in processing information/ Involved in individual learning (Ex: mastering unfamiliar sounds in a second language, or developing an ear for music). Simulating environments may help in the pruning process in early-life (experience-expectant), and also may Cook & Cook, 2009 support increased synapse development in adulthood (experience-dependent. *(Cook & Cook, 2009): conducted animal studies showed that rats raised in stimulating environments (with toys, tasks for learning, other rats, and human handling) developed and retained 25% more synapses than rats raised in little Glial cells simulation. Glial cells “white matter of the brain” (spaces between neurons/ Fight infections, control blood Myelination flow and communication among neurons, and provide myelin coating around axon fibers). Myelination (the coating of axon neurons with an insulating fatty glial covering. *influences thinking and learning/ Makes message transmission faster and more efficient/ Gradually continues into adolescence). Educational Psychology MODULE 2: CHAPTER 2 KEY WORDS Cognitive Development Cerebral cortex The developing brain: Cerebral cortex (Largest area of the brain, responsible for complex problem solving and language, & last part of the brain to develop/ Believed to be more susceptible to environmental Frontal lobe influences). Frontal lobe (controls higher-order thinking processes). Temporal lobes (play major roles in Lateralization emotions, judgment, and language). Lateralization (specialization of two hemispheres of the brain cortex). Brains of young children show more plasticity/ adaptability because they are not as specialized as the brains of Plasticity older children. Plasticity (brains tendency to remain somewhat adaptable or flexible). Both sides of the brain have to work together in reading. Understandings and actions How the brain works: Knowing is actively constructing understandings and actions/ knowledge is based on Cultural differences our activities. Cultural differences in brain activity provide examples of how interactions in the world shape the brain through plasticity (Ex: In one study, when adult Chinese speaker added and compared arabic numerals, they showed brain activity in the motor (or movement) areas of the brains, whereas adult English speakers performing the same task showed activity the the language areas of their brains). Also cultural differences in how language affects reading. All experiences shape the brain (play & deliberate practice, formal & informal learning). Common myths Common myths: 1. You only use 10% of your brain/ you use all of your brain, 2. Listening to Mozart will make children smarter/ learning to play a musical instrument is associated with increased cognitive achievement, 3. People can be more right brained or left brained/ it takes both sides of your brain to do most things, 4. A young child's brain can only manage to learn one language at a time/ children can and do learn two (or more) languages at once, 5. You can’t change your brain/ our brains are changing all the time, 6. Damage to the brain is permanent/ most people recover from minor brain injuries, 7. The human brain is the biggest brain/ sperm whales have brains 5x heavier than those of humans, 8. Alcoholic beverages will kill brain cells/ does not kill brain cells, but can damage nerve cells and dendrites (causes problems with communicating messages to the brain), 9. Adolescent brain is the same as an adult/ critical difference (adolescence brains have more “horse power, but poor steering). Instruction and brain development: Several studies have shown differences in brain activity associated with Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000 instruction.Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000 (intensive instruction and practice provided to rehabilitate stroke victims can help them regain functioning by forming new connections and using new areas of the Dalzer, 2005 brain). Delazer, 2005 (compared students' brain activity as they learned new arithmetic operations, either by just memorizing the answers or by learning an algorithm strategy using FMRI/ found that the students who simply memorized answers showed greater activity in the visual-spatial processing portion of their brain). Fisher, 2009 Fischer, 2009 (described a dramatic case of two children who each had one brain hemisphere removed as treatment for severe epilepsy/ Nico’s right hemisphere was removed when he was 3 (became a skilled artist) VS Brook’s left hemisphere was removed when he was 11 (was told he’d lose the ability to walk, but with strong support regained enough speaking and reading ability to finish high school and attend community college). Balass, Nelson, Perfetti, 2010 Learning to read: (Balass, Nelson, & Perfetti, 2010): study showed that less skilled readers had trouble establishing high-quality representations of new vocabulary words in their brains (indicated by ERP)/ When they encountered the new words later, less skilled readers' brains often did not recognize that they had seen the Shaywitz, 2004 word before. (Shaywitz, 2004): studied 28 children (ages 6-9) who were good readers and 49 children who were poor readers. Differences in brain activity between the two groups were visible on FMRIs. Poor readers underused parts of their brains left hemisphere and sometimes overused their right hemispheres. Over 100 hrs Willis (Neurobiologist) of intensive instruction in letter-sound combinations improved reading ability. Willis (neurobiologist): “neuroimaging and the other brain monitoring systems used for reading research offer suggestive rather than completely empirical links between how the brain learns and metabolizes oxygen or glucose, conducts Suggested reading strategies electricity, or changes in cellular density”. Suggested strategies: Use multiple approaches that teach sounds, spelling, meanings, sequences, and vocabulary through reading, writing, discussing, explaining, drawing, and modeling. Different students may learn in different ways. Emotions, Learning, and the brain:. Connections between the brain and classroom learning. If students are not challenged or interested, learning suffers Educational Psychology MODULE 2: CHAPTER 2 KEY WORDS Cognitive Development Human capabilities Lessons for teachers (general principles): Human capabilities (intelligence, communication, problems solving, etc) emerge from each person’s unique synaptic activity overlaid on their genetically endowed brain Cognitive functions are differentiated anatomy (nature and nurture are constantly working together). Many cognitive functions are differentiated Modes of processing (associated with different parts of the brain). Students are likely to have preferred modes of processing (visual or verbal), as well as variable capabilities in these modes. The brain is relatively plastic, active environments and flexible instructional strategies are likely to support cognitive development in young children and learning in adults *Some learning disorders may have a neurological basis. The brain can change (takes time). Teachers must be consistent, patient, and compassionate in teaching and reteaching in different ways. Learning from real-life problems and concrete experiences helps students conduct knowledge and also gives them multiple pathways for learning and retrieving information. The brain seeks meaningful patterns and connections with existing networks (teachers show tie new info to what students already understand and help them form new connections *Information that is not linked to existing knowledge will be easily forgotten. It takes a long time to build and consolidate knowledge *Numerous visits in the different contexts over time, help to form strings, and multiple connections. General concepts should be emphasized over small specific facts so that students can build enduring, useful knowledge categories and associations that are not constantly Stories changing. Stories should be used in teaching/ Stories engage many areas of the brain (memories, experiences, and associations) that are not constantly changing. Helping students understand how activity (practice, problem solving, making connections, inquiry, etc) changes their brain and how emotions and stress affect attention and memory can be motivating, leading to greater self-efficacy and self-regulated learning. Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development: Certain ways of thinking that are quite simple for an adult, are Influences on development not so simple for a child. Influences on development (CD is much more than the addition of new facts and ideas to an existing store of information.Piaget said “our thinking processes change radically , slowly, from Four factors (Piaget) birth to maturity because we constantly strive to make sense of the world). Four factors (Piaget) that interact Biological maturation to influence changes in thinking: 1. Biological maturation: Parents and teachers have little impact on this Activity aspect of CD (except to ensure that children get the nourishment and care they need to be healthy, 2. Activity: Increases the ability to act on the environment and learn from it/ As we explore, test, observe and eventually Social Experiences organize information, we are likely to alter our thinking processes at the same time, 3. Social experiences: Social transmission (learning from others)/ Without it, we would need to reinvent all the knowledge already offered by culture. *The amount that people can learn from social transmission varies according to their stage Equilibration of CD, 4. Equilibration: The act of searching for a balance/ If we apply a particular scheme to an event or situation and the scheme works, equilibrium exists. If the scheme does not produce a satisfying result, disequilibrium exists, and we become uncomfortable/ Level must be just right (too little = not interested in changing, too much = we may be discouraged or anxious and not change. Two basic instincts/ organization Basic tendencies in thinking: Piaget concluded that all species inherit two basic instincts: 1. Organization: the combining, arranging, recombing, and rearranging of behavior and thoughts into coherent systems/ Born with a tendency to organize their thinking and knowledge into psychological structures (or “schemes”). Schemes Schemes: mental systems or categories of perception and experience/ Organized system of actions or thoughts that allow us to mentally represent or “think about” the object/ events in our world/ System for understanding and interacting with the world/ Simple structures are continually combined and coordinated to become more sophisticated and thus more effective (Ex: very young infants can either look at and object ot grasp it, but cannot coordinate looking and grasping at the same time. As they develop, infants organize these two separate Adaptation behavioral structures into coordinated higher-level structures (can also still use them separately). Adaptation: Assimilation adjusting to the environment/ two forms: 1. Assimilation: takes place when people use their existing schemes to make sense of the world/ Fitting new information into existing schemes (Involves trying to understand something new by fitting it into what we already know/ At times we have to distort the new information to Accommodation make it fit, 2. Accommodation: occurs when a person must change existing schemes to respond to a new situation/ We adjust our thinking to fit the new information, instead of adjusting the information to fit our thinking. If people encounter something that is too unfamiliar, they ignore it. Educational Psychology MODULE 2: CHAPTER 2 KEY WORDS Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Four stages of cognitive development: 1. Sensorimotor (ages 0-2): learns through reflexes, senses, and movement (actions on the environment), begins to imitate others and remember events (shifts to symbolic thinking), comes to understand that objects do not cease to exist when they are out of sight (object Preoperational permanence), moves from reflexive actions to intentional activity (goal-directed action). 2. Preoperational (age abt 7): develops language and begins to use symbols to represent objects (semiotic function), thinks through present (has difficulty with past and future), can think logically in one direction (operations), has Concrete operational difficulties understanding the point of view of another person (egocentric). 3. Concrete operational (age abt 11): can think logically about concrete (hands-on) problems, understands conversation (principle that some characteristics of an object remain the same despite changes in appearance) and organizes things into Seriation categories and in series (classification), Seriation: arrangement of objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume), reverse thinking to mentally “undo” actions (reversible thinking), Understands compensation (apparent change in one direction can be compensated for by a change in another direction), and reversibility (students can mentally change mentally cancel out the change that has been Formal operation made), understands the past, present, and future. 4. Formal operational (adolescence to adulthood): can think hypothetical and deductively (thinking becomes more scientific/ hypothetico-deductive reasoning), solves abstract problems in logical fashion, can consider multiple perspectives *Assumption that everyone is Imaginary audience interested in one’s thoughts, feeling, and concerns (adolescent egocentrism) *Imaginary audience: feeling that everyone is watching and analyzing them, develops concerns about social issues, personal identity, and justice. *abilities are valued and taught in literate cultures, particularly in college and university* Piaget theory Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for teachers: Piaget: Believed that the main goal of education should be to help children learn how to learn, and that education should “form, not furnish” the minds of students (We can learn a lot from the way children think by listening carefully to the way that they solve problems/ By understanding children’s thinking, we can better match the teaching methods to their Building on student’s thinking abilities (differentiate instruction). Building on student’s thinking: What kind of logic do they use? Do they focus on only one aspect of the situation? Are they fooled by appearances? Do they suggest solutions systematically or by guessing and forgetting what they have already tried? What kind of thinking is behind Active learning repeated mistakes or problems? Active learning: the ability to manipulate concrete objects to help children Problem of the match understand abstract relationships such as connection between symbols and quantity. Problem of the match: students must be neither bored by work that is too simple nor left behind by teaching they cannot understand. Hunt, 1961/ active and constructing knowledge (Hunt, 1961): Disequilibrium must be kept “just right” to encourage growth. Active and constructing knowledge: individuals construct their own understanding (learning is a constructive process)/ Communicating with others makes students use, test, and sometimes change their thinking strategies. Educational Psychology MODULE 3: CHAPTER 3 KEY WORDS Self, Social, and Moral Development Gross motor Physical and motor development: Gross motor (large muscles) skills greatly improve during ages 2-5. Muscles grow stronger and their brains develop to better understand movements, balance improves and their center of gravity moves lower (able to run, climb, jump, and hop). *Children with physical problems may Fine motor need additional support to develop these skills*. Fine motor skills (ex: tying shoes) require coordination of small movements. *During this time children begin to develop a preference for left or right hand (90% right, 10% left)*. Children become taller, leaner, and stronger between ages 8-11 (girls are on average taller and Head control heavier than boys at this age). Head control= newborn: barely move head, 1 month: 45 degrees, 2 months: 90 degrees, 4 months: chest up/ puppy pose. Puberty marks the beginning of sexual maturity (a series of changes involving almost every part of the body including the brain). Earliest sign of puberty begins around 10 (girls= growth of nipples and breast, boys= testes and scrotum begin to grow larger). On average between ages 12-13 girls have their first menstrual period (menarche), and boys have their first sperm ejaculation (spermarche). Other puberty changes include skin oiliness, skin acne, and body odor. Girls reach their final height by age 15-16, and most boys grow until age 19. Early maturation Early and later maturation: early maturation has been associated with emotional difficulties (depression, anxiety, and EDs), as well as other problems (lower achievement in school, drug and alcohol use, unplanned pregnancy, suicide and greater risks of breast cancer ). *social influences are also factors of these outcomes/ possible that life stress causes early maturation and emotional difficulties. Researchers found a correlation Body mass index between age at menarche and adult body mass index “BMI” (calculates weight in relation to height) = Early maturation in boys younger mecharche results in greater adult BMI. Early maturation in males is associated with popularity (early maturers= taller, broad shoulder type/ late maturers= lower self-esteem because they are smaller and less muscular than the “ideal”. Early maturing boys tend to engage in delinquent behaviour and appear to have greater risk for depression, victimization of bullies, eating disorders, early sexual activity, and abusing cigarettes and alcohol. Males who mature late tend to be more creative, tolerant, and perceptive. Gender is not a continuum (not all children are born with clear gender assignments and some whose biological sex is male or female at birth later wish to be another sex. Play Play, recess, and physical activity: Montessori, Piaget, and Vygotsky “play is children’s work”. Play is essential to development (contributes to cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being). Play also helps in the process of pruning brain synapses. Sensorimotor stage (acting on their environment)/ preoperational stage (form symbols, use language, and interact with others). Cultural differences in play = some cultures the Physical activity benefits mother plays with children while in others no parent plays (siblings and peers play instead). Physical activity benefits overall health, well-being, leadership skills, and social relationships. Systematic exercise programs enhance development of specific types of mental processes. Students with disabilities Challenges in physical development: students with disabilities have limited opportunities for sport participation. Regular physical activity for students with disabilities is associated with numerous health benefits (controlling or slowing the progression of disease and disabilities, improving overall health, and amelioration of the psychological impact of having a disability, creates opportunity for these students to form Childhood obesity friendships, and develop positive self-concept and self-esteem. Childhood obesity (defined in terms of BMI) between 85th and 95th percentile= overweight/ above 95th= obese. Consequences of obesity include: diabetes, strain on bones and joints, respiratory problems, and greater chance of heart problems as adults. Eating orders Causes of obesity: poor diet, genetic factors, increased screen time, and lack of exercise. Types of eating bulimia/ anorexia disorders: bulimia (binge eating followed by purging, fasting, or excessive exercise), and anorexia nervosa (self-starvation). Students with bulimia tend to have normal weight but their digestive systems can be permanently damaged. Students with anorexia may lose 20-25% of their body fat, and some (5%) starve Characteristics of anorexia themselves to death. Characteristics of anorexia; very thin, pale, brittle nails, fine dark hairs over the body, and also often insecure, moody, and lonely). *girls with anorexia may also stop having their menstrual Indicators of binge eating period*. Two indicators of binge eating: 1. Recurring episodes of eating significantly more than average in a short period of time, 2. Episodes marked by feeling of lack of control. Educational Psychology MODULE 3: CHAPTER 3 KEY WORDS Self, Social, and Moral Development Social context for development (Bronfrenbrenner): Teacher’s, peers, and families are part of the students’ Context context. Context (total situation surrounding and interacting with individuals thoughts, feelings, and actions to Contextual effects shape development and learning). Contextual effects can be both internal and external which influence the development of behaviours, beliefs, and knowledge by providing resources, support, incentives, and Bronfrnebrenner’s model of development punishment (building blocks of learning).* context also affect how actions are interpreted*. Bronfrenbrenner’s model of development (recognizes that physical social contexts in which we develop are ecosystems, Types of microsystems constantly interacting and influencing each other/ every person lives within a microsystem). Types of microsystems: microsystem (person’s immediate relationships and activities (family, friends, or teacher, and the activities of play and school) *relationships in the microsystem are reciprocal*), mesosystem (set of interactions and relationships among the microsystem), exosystem (includes all the social settings that affect the child *even though the child is not a direct member of the system), macrosystem (values, law, conventions, and traditions *larger society*). First context of child dev’t Social context for development (families): The first context for child development is the mother womb Blended families (mother’s level of stress, nutrition, smoking, alcohol and drug intake, exercise, and general health). Blended Extended families families (two parents homes, or in foster/ adoptive homes) vs. extended families (multiple members of one’s extended family living the same household)>. Parenting styles Social context for development (parenting styles): parenting styles (ways of interacting with and Authoritative disciplining children). Four types of parenting styles: 1. Authoritative (high in warmth but exerts firm control, set clear limits, enforce rules, and expect mature behaviour, also listens to concerns, gives reasons for rules, less strict punishment, and more guidance) *children of authoritative parents are more likely to be happy with themselves and relate well to others, do well in school, and maintain positive relationships with their parents*. Authoritarian 2. Authoritarian (seems cold and controlling, children are expected to be mature and to do what the parent says, not much talk about emotions, punishments are strict, and are not openly affectionate) *children of authoritarian parents on average do less well in school, are more hostile and less popular with peers, have Permissive lower self-esteem, and lower levels of self-control*. 3. Permissive (warm but have little control, have few rules or consequences, don't expect much mature behavior) *children of permissive parents tend to be more immature and demanding, also tend to be manipulative, rebellious, aggressive and less competent and Rejecting / neglecting confident*. 4. Rejecting / neglecting (low in warmth, uninvolved, put little effort in parenting, more often focused on their own needs, may fail to set schedules, react harshly to children’s request for attention, can be depressed or have substance problems) *children of rejecting parents tend to be insecure in their relationships, noncompliant, aggressive, withdrawn, and more likely to engage in risky/ delinquent behaviour, suffer disruptions in social and cognitive development and perform poorly in school*. Parenting styles are not universal (differ across cultural, SES, and religious communities). Attachment Social context for development (attachment): attachment (emotional bond between people). First attachment is between the child and the parents/ caregivers. Quality of this bond has implications for forming Secure attachment relationships throughout life. Children who form secure attachment with caregivers receive comfort when insecure/ disorganized attachment needed and are more confident to explore their world vs children who form insecure or disorganized attachment can become fearful, sad, anxious, clingy, rejecting, or angry with interactions with caregivers. Social context for development (divorce): risk of divorce decreases the longer a couple remains married. Custodial parent Mothers are often the custodial parent after divorce (custodial parent may have to move to a less expensive home, find new sources of income, or work long hours). *divorce is apparently harder for young/ adolescent boys (leaves oy without a consistent father figure)*. Children of divorce may have problems in school, lose or gain an unusual amount of weight, have trouble sleeping, or experience other difficulties. Peer groups/ cliques Social context for development (peers): two kinds of peer groups: 1. Cliques (relatively small friendship-based groups (3-12 members), more evident in middle school, typically include peers who are the same age and sex and share common interest or engage in similar activities, serve young people's emotional Crowds and security needs by providing stable social context)., 2. Crowds (less intimate/ more loosely organized groups in which members may or may not interact with each other, students don't necessarily join crowds but rather they are associated with or assigned by other students based on reputations or stereotypes). early/ middle adolescence call crowds “an identity”/ placeholder during the period between individualism from parents and establishment of coherent personal identity. Crowds become less prominent in adolescence ( become more confident with identity). Group determines which activities, music, or other students are in or Power of peers out of favour. Peer culture encourages conformity for rules. Power of peers (situations when the values and interests of parents clash with those of peers). Educational Psychology MODULE 3: CHAPTER 3 KEY WORDS Self, Social, and Moral Development Social context for development (friendships): peer relationships influence student motivation and achievement in school. Study showed that students with no friends had lower levels of academic achievement, Characteristics of friends fewer positive social behaviours, and were emotionally distressed. Characteristics of friends are also important (stable, supportive, socially competent, and mature) to enhance social development. Children who are rejected are less likely to participate in the classroom learning activities, leading to the achievement to suffer (more likely to drop out of school as adolescents and commit crimes). Popular children Social context for development (popularity): four categories: 1. Popular children (popular prosocial children= both academically and socially competent / popular antisocial children= often includes aggressive Rejected children boys, may be athletic, perceived as “cool”, may bully other children, and defy adult authority), 2. Rejected children (rejected aggressive children= high rates of conflict and hyperactivity/ impulsivity, poor perspective-taking skills and self-control, misunderstood intentions of others, assign blame, act aggressively on their anger/ rejected withdrawn children= are timid and withdrawn, often the targets of bullies, socially Controversial children awkward and withdrawn for social interactions), 3. Controversial children (both positive and negative social qualities, social status can change overtime, can be hostile and disruptive in some situations and engage in Neglected children positive prosocial behavior with others), 4. Neglected children ( most children are well adjusted, peers view Prosocial behaviour them as shy but they do not report being lonely or unhappy). Prosocial behaviour (sharing, cooperating, and friendly interactions) is associated with peer acceptance. Physical abuse Teacher and child abuse: 5 types of child abuse: 1. Physical abuse (unreasonable force by an adult or youth Sexual abuse to any part of a child’s body *harsh physical discipline, forceful shaking, pushing, grabbing, etc*)., 2. Seuxal abuse (involvement of a child by an adult or youth in an act of sexual gratification, or exposure of a child to Neglect sexual contact, activity, or behaviour *penetration, oral sex, fondling, sex talk*)., 3. Neglect (failure by a parent or caregiver to provide the physical or psychological necessities to a child *failure to supervise leading to physical or sexual harm, permitting criminal behavior, physical or medical neglect, abandonment, etc*)., Emotional harm 4. Emotional harm (adult behaviour that harms a child psychologically, emotionally, or spiritually *hostile Exposure to family violence abusive treatment, frequent verbal abuse, and direct exposure to violence*)., 5. Exposure to family violence (allowing the child to be aware of violence occurring between a caregiver and his/her partner or other family Physical indicators of child abuse members *allowing the child to see, hear, or to be exposed to signs of violence*). Physical indicators of child abuse: physical abuse (unexplained bruises and welts (marks in teh shape of belt buckles, bit marks, punctures, bald spots), unexplained burns (cigs, iron rope, immersion burns), unexplained fractures and injuries attributed to the child being “clumsy” or “accident prone”), physical neglect (abandonment, unattended physical problems or medical needs, constant fatigue/ lack of energy, little to no supervision, often hungry, dressed inappropriately for weather, poor hygiene, lice, distended stomach, etc), sexual abuse (difficulty walking/ sitting, pain/ itching in genital area, torn/ stained/ blooded underclothing, bruises or bleeding in external genital area, venereal disease, frequent urinary or yeats infections, and pregnancy). Behavioural indicators of child abuse Behavioural indicators of child abuse: physical abuse (moves awkwardly, complains of soreness, self-destructive, withdrawn and aggressive behaviour, uncomfortable with physical contact, arrives at school early or stays late, chronic runaway, wear clothing to purposely cover body, frequent absences), neglect (falls asleep in class, steals food/ begs from classmates,breports that no care taker is at home, frequently absent, self-destructive, trouble with the law), sexual abuse (doesnt want to change infront of others (P.E), withdrawn/ chronic depression, role reversal/ concerned for siblings, excessive seductiveness, peer problems/ lack of involvement, massive weight change, suicide attempts, inappropriate sex play/ prematire understanding, frequent masturbation,and sudden school difficulties). Identity and self-concept: early views of self and friends are based on immediate behaviours and Identity appearances. Children assume that others share their feelings and perceptions. Identity (view of self-concept, Psychological theory self-esteem, and self-worth). Psychological theory (emergence of the self, search for identity, individuals Developmental crisis relationships with others, and the role of culture throughout life). Developmental crisis (conflict between positive alternative and a potentially unhealthy alternative/ the way in which an individual solves a crisis has a lasting effect on that person’s self-image). Educational Psychology MODULE 3: CHAPTER 3 KEY WORDS Self, Social, and Moral Development Trust vs mistrust Erikson’s eight steps of psychological development: 1. Trust vs mistrust (age: 0-18 months/ important even: feeding/ must form a loving and trusting relationship with the caregiver, without it they develop a sense of mistrust *having a secure attachment helps children develop trust and l;earn when mistrust is appropriate*), 2. Autonomy vs shame Autonomy vs shame (age:18 months-3 yrs/ important event: toilet training/ child’s energies are directed Initiative vs guilt toward the development of physical skills but may develop shame and doubt if not handled well), 3. Initiative vs guilt (age: 3-6 yrs/ important event: school/ child continues to become more assertive and to take more Industry vs inferiority initiative but may be too forceful, which can lead to feelings of guilt), 4. Industry vs inferiority (age: 6-12 yrs/ important event: school/ child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure, Identity vs role confusion or incompetence), 5. Identity vs role confusion (age: adolescence/ important event: peer relationships/ Intimacy vs isolation teenager must achieve identity in occupation, gender roles, politics, and religion), 6. Intimacy vs isolation (age: young adulthood/ important event: love relationships/ must develop intimate relationships or suffer Generativity vs stagnation feelings of isolation), 7. Generativity vs stagnation (age: middle adulthood/ important event: parenting. Ego identity vs despair monitoring/ must find a way to satisfy and support the next generation), 8. Ego identity vs despair (age: late adulthood/ important event: reflection/ acceptance of one’s life/ culmination is a sense of acceptance of Crisis’ of erikson’s stages of adulthood oneself as one is and a sense of fulfillment). Crisis’ of erikson’s stages of adulthood: intimacy ( forming close, enduring relationships with others), generativity (sense of concern for future generations), and integrity (sense of self-acceptance and fulfillment). Identity achievement Marcia’s four stages of identity: 1. Identity achievement (strong sense of commitment to life choices after Identity crisis free consideration of alternative), 2. Identity crisis (suspension f choices because of struggle *moratorium*), Identity foreclosure/ identity diffusion 3. Identity foreclosure (acceptance of parental life choices without considerations of options), 4. Identity diffusion (un-centredness; confusion about who one is and what one wants). racial/ ethnic pride Ethnic and racial identity: special efforts to encourage racial/ ethnic pride is important so that students examining their identities do not get the message that differences are deficits (displaying bilingual and monolingual signs, provide opportunities for students to use their first language, and arrange for parents and community members (who represent ethnic minorities) to be involved in school events. Pride (self-concept about one’s racial and ethnic heritage). Self concept Self-concept: refers to an individual's knowledge and beliefs about themselves (ideas, feelings, attitude, and expectations). Self-concept is multidimensional based on academic and non-academic concepts *Marsh identified up to 17 self-concepts*. Self-concepts include both perceptions of competence (ex: I am good at Self-concept development science) and affect/ attitudes (ex: I like science). Self-concept development evolves through self-evaluation in different situations. Younger children tend to have positive and optimistic self-concepts *confidence protects Illusions of competence them from disappointment*. Illusions of competence (seriously underestimate their own competence). Study sex differences in self-concept on the sex differences in self-concept (boys felt significantly more competent in math and science, and girls in reading and developing friendships). Self-esteem Self-esteem: overall judgement of self-worth (own characteristics, abilities, and behaviours). High self-esteem= see themselves positively/ low self-esteem= see themselves negatively. Self-esteem is influenced by whether the culture around you and your values and particular characteristics and capabilities/ if a skill or accomplishment is not important, incompetence in those areas threaten self-esteem. Theory of mind: developed by age 2-3. Understanding that other people are people too. Children need theory Intension of mind to make sense of people's behaviours, and to understand that beliefs can differ from reality. Intension Perspective-taking ability (developed by age 2/ understanding that people have intentions of their own). Perspective-taking ability (understanding that others have different feelings and perspectives *important in fostering cooperation and moral development, reducing prejudice, resolving conflicts, and encouraging positive social behaviours*). Moral development Moral development (thinking process involved in judgment about questions of right and wrong). Kohlberg’s 3 stages/ preconventional level Kohlberg’s theories of moral development: kohlberg’s 3 stages of moral development: 1. Preconventional level (judgment based solely on one’s own needs or perceptions) * stage 1 (obedience orientation= obey rules to avoid punishment and bad consequences), stage 2 (rewards/ exchange orientation= right and wrongs are Conventional level determined by people's needs), 2. Conventional level (expectations of society and law are taken into account) *stage 3 (being nice/ relationships orientation= being good means being nice and pleasing others), stage 4 (law and order orientation= laws and authorities must be obeyed/ social system must be maintained), 3. Postconventional level Postconventional level (based on abstract personal principles of justice that are not necessarily defined by society’s law) *stage 5 (social contract orientation= moral choice is determined by socially agreed upon standards), stage 6 (universal ethics orientation= universal principles of human dignity and social justice that individuals should uphold, no matter what the law or people say). Educational Psychology MODULE 3: CHAPTER 3 KEY WORDS Self, Social, and Moral Development Criticism of Kolhberg’s theories Criticism of Kolhberg’s theories: stages do not seem to be separate, sequenced or, consistent. Different situations may reflect another stage. Stages are biased towards western male values that emphasize individualism. Mix up moral judgments with decisions about social conventions that overlook personal choice. 3 domains of moral development Moral development: 3 domains of moral development: 1. Moral judgments, 2. social conventions, and 3. Moral domain Personal choice. Two fundamental issues in the moral domain: 1. Justice, and 2. welfare/ compassion. Disruptive justice Disruptive justice (beliefs about how to divide materials or privileges fairly among members of a group; Conventional domain follows a sequence of development from equality to merit to benevolence). Conventional domain= children Moral realism begin by believing that rules simply exist. Moral realism *Piaget* (stage of development wherein children see Morality cooperation rules as absolute). Morality of cooperation (stage of development wherein children realized that people make Personal domain rules and people can change them). Personal domain= children must sort out what decisions and actions are 3 principles of the Social institutionalist model of moral thor personal choices and what decisions are outside of their personal choice. 3 principles of the Social psych. intuitionist model of moral psychology: 1. Intuition comes first, reasoning comes second, 2. There is more to 4 moral foundations morality than fairness and harm *4 moral foundations: 1. loyalty/ betrayal (self-sacrifice for the good of a group), 2. authority/ subversion (leadership and followership), 3. sanctity/ degradation (striving to live a more noble and clean life and avoid contamination), 4. liberty/ oppression (basis for resentment and resistance to 3 influences on moral behaviour domination)*, 3. Morality binds and blinds. 3 influences on moral behaviour (1. Modelling, Internalize 2. Internalization, 3. self-concept). Internalize (process by which children adopt external standards as their Two pillars of morality own). Two pillars of morality: 1. Reciprocity (fairness), 2. Empathy (compassion). 3 kinds of aggression Aggression: 3 kinds of aggression: 1. Instrumental (intended to gain an object or privilege without hurting Over aggression someone *hurt may happen anyway*), 2. Hostile (intentional harm either though overt aggression (threats or Relational aggression physical attacks, or through relational aggression (threatening or damaging social relationships), 3. Cyber Bandura’s “bobo doll” experiment aggression (using social media to cause harm). Bandura “bobo doll” experiment= violence in children after they were or were not exposed to it. Video games increase aggressive thoughts, feelings, and actions, and Causes of cheating decrease feelings of empathy. Cheating= 80%-90% of students cheat at some point. Causes of cheating: males are more likely to cheat, lower achieving students are more likely to cheat than higher achieving students, students focus on performance goals rather than learning goals, students with low sense of academic self-efficacy are more likely to cheat, and impulsive students are more likely to cheat. Educational Psychology MODULE 4: CHAPTER 4 KEY WORDS Cognitive Development Exceptional students Labeling: Exceptional students: students who have unusually high abilities in particular areas, or disabilities that impact learning and may require special education or other services. Labels can become self-fulfilling prophecies (may be seen as stigma that cannot be changed) / may promote false stereotypes. Labels provide access to special programs, useful information, special technology and equipment, or financial assistance. Possible bias Possible bias: useful when identifying students with disabilities (Some racial and ethnic minority students are Possible causes overrepresented in the disability category, and underrepresented in gifted programs)/ Possible causes: systematic bias in teacher, curriculum and pedagogical practices (neither represented or responsive), the referral process, and lack of opportunity for teachers to acquire knowledge for working effectively in diverse ethnic groups. Disability Disabilities & handicaps: Disability (inability to do something specific (ex: see or walk)/ some disabilities Handicap can lead to handicaps). Handicap (disadvantage in certain situations/ “cap in hand”= asking for a favor). First person language Language: person first language= “student” placed before disability (students with learning disabilities vs. learning disabled students). Intelligence Intelligence: ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting the world Nature of intelligence theories (used in placement decisions). Nature of intelligence theories (capacity to learn, total knowledge of a person General intelligence has acquired, and ability to successfully adapt to new situations and to the environment). General intelligence (general factor in cognitive ability that is related in varying degrees to performance on all mental tests/ general ability may be related to the maturation and functioning of the frontal lobe, while specific abilities may be Kanazawa’s definition related to other parts of the brain). Kanazawa’s definition: computed factor is simply an indication or measure Fluid intelligence of general intelligence. Fluid and crystallized intelligence (cattell & horn): fluid intelligence (mental efficiency and reasoning ability *neurophysiological underpinnings may be related to changes in brain volume, myelination, density of dopamine fibers, or processing abilities. Culture-free and non-verbal. increases until late adolescence (age 22), then declines gradually with age sensitive to injuries, and diseases). Crystallized intelligences Crystallized intelligence: ability to apply culturally approved problem solving methods (application to new Multiple intelligences (Gardnder) domains. includes learned skill, knowledge, and facts (ex: hail a cab), increases throughout lifespan). Multiple intelligences (Gardner): observed brain injured patients (lost spatially, but could do all verbal tasks, while other patients had the opposite abilities and problems, believed there were several separate types of Types of intelligences intelligence (theory of multiple intelligences). types of intelligences: linguistic→ verbal, musical, spatial, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic → movement, interpersonal → understanding others, intrapersonal → understanding self, naturalist → observing/ understanding natural and human-made patterns and systems. Criticisms Gardner believed that intelligence was a biological base (criticisms: intelligences are not separate (correlations Gardner’s response among the abilities, and that some intelligences are more so just talents)/ (Gardner’s response: identified a number of myths and misconceptions about multiple intelligences theory and schooling/ stresses that intelligence is not the same as the sensory system (no auditory or visual intelligence)/ intelligences are not the Teaching about evolution (6 points) same as learning styles, and does not believe that people actually have consistent learning styles). Teaching about evolution: 6 entry points (1. narrative: provide rich stories, 2. logical-quantitative: pose logical problems, 3. aesthetic: examine studies, 4. experimental: laboratories activities,.5 interpersonal: form research teams or hold debates, 6. existential / foundational: consider questions). Triarchic theory of intelligence (Sterberg) intelligence process: triarchic theory of intelligence (Sternberg): cognitive process approach to understanding 3 part of TTI intelligence. 3 parts: thinking process, coping with new experiences, and adapting to context lead to more or 3 functions of TTI less intelligent behavior. 3 functions: first function: higher order planning, strategy selection, and monitoring (performed by metacomponents “executive processes”), second function: implementing strategies selected (handled by performance components/ ex: taking notes in class), third function: gaining new knowledge (performed by knowledge-acquisition components). Metacomponents, performance components, and knowledge acquisition components allow individuals to solve problems in different situations and to develop Analytic successful intelligence. analytic: applying components to situations with relatively familiar problems. creative: Creative necessary to cope successfully with new experiences in two ways/ using insight or the ability to deal effectively with situations and find new solutions/ using automaticity (ability to become efficient and Practical automatic in thinking and problem solving. practical: highlights the importance of choosing an environment in WICS theory (Sternberg)/ goals of education which you can succeed. WICS theory (Sternberg): wisdom, intelligence, creativity synthesized. goals of education: (a) creativity to generate new ideas and problems as well as possible solutions to the problems, (b) analytical intelligence to evaluate the quality of these solutions (c) practical intelligence to implement decisions and persuade others of their value, and (d) wisdom to ensure that these decisions help to achieve a common good over the long and short terms. Educational Psychology MODULE 4: CHAPTER 4 KEY WORDS Learner Differences & Learning Needs Binet’s dilemma measuring intelligence: Binet's dilemma: believed that having an objective measure of learning ability could protect students from poor families who might be forced to leave school because they were victims of Binet & Simon discrimination and assumed to be slow learners. Binet & simon: measured the intellectual skills that students needed to do well in school (identified 58 tests (age group 3-13), to determine the mental age of a child). Mental age/ Intelligence quotient (IQ) Mental age (a score based on average abilities for an age group). intelligence quotient (iq) (score comparing IQ formula/ deviation IQ mental and chronological ages/ formula: mental age/ chronological age x 100). Deviation IQ (score based on statistical comparison of individuals performance with average performance of others in that age group. created because IQ scores calculated on the basis of mental age do not have the same meaning as children get older. tells us exactly how much above or below the average a person scored on the test, compared with others Group vs Individual IQ of the age group). Average IQ score is 100 (50% will score above and 50% will score below). groups vs The Flynn Effect individual IQ (less likely to yield an accurate picture of any one person’s abilities). The Flynn effect (a steady rise in IQ test scores of better health, smaller families, increased complexity in the environment, and more and Intelligence & achievement better schooling). Intelligence & achievement: researchers found a strong relationship (0.64) between measured iq at age 8 and achievement on standardized tests in math, english, and science, at age 14/ standard iq test measure only analytic iq, not creative or practical IQs. People with higher intelligence test scores tend to complete more years of school and to have higher-status jobs, however when the number of years is held constant, the correlation decreases between IQ scores and income and success in later life. Sex differences in intelligence sex differences in intelligence: no differences between sex in overall mental or motor development, and no Specific ability differences general intelligence on standard measures, however scores on tests of specific abilities show sex differences (scores of males tend to be more variable in general (more males than female with very high or Meta-analysis very low scores on tests/ more boys diagnosed with learning disabilities (adhd and autism)). Meta-analyses (combine data from many different studies on the same topic) have found new differences in math achievements for boys and girls. Heredity or environment: it is possible to separate intelligence “in the genes” from intelligence “due to Heredity and environment/ environmental influences experience”. *Intelligence is due to both heredity and environment. Environmental influences include everything from the health of the mother during pregnancy, to the quality of the teaching a child receives. Differences in styles Learning and thinking styles: individual differences in styles (cognitive styles , learning styles, Cognitive-centered style problem-solving styles, etc). Cognitive