PDF Disaster Management Notes

Disaster Management Definition and Key terms in Disaster Management A sudden occurrence of an accident that causes huge loss of life and property is called as a disaster. It is also called as a calamity. A disaster ( Fr. desastre=bad star) refers to sudden serious disruption of normal functioning...

Disaster Management Definition and Key terms in Disaster Management A sudden occurrence of an accident that causes huge loss of life and property is called as a disaster. It is also called as a calamity. A disaster ( Fr. desastre=bad star) refers to sudden serious disruption of normal functioning of a society, involving large damages to life, property and environment, beyond its ability to cope with its own resources. Types of Disasters Natural Disaster: A natural disaster is a natural process or phenomenon that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage. E.g. agricultural diseases & pests, damaging winds, drought and water shortage, earthquakes, emergency diseases (pandemic influenza), extreme heat, floods and flash floods, hail, hurricanes and tropical storms, landslides & debris flow, thunderstorms and lighting, tornadoes, tsunamis, wildfire etc. Man-made disaster: Human-instigated disasters are the consequence of technological hazards E.g.hazardous materials, power service disruption & blackout, nuclear blast, radiological emergencies, chemical threat and biological weapons, cyber-attacks, war etc. Some disasters can result from combination of both Natural and Man-made causes. These are called as complex emergencies. Hazards: A hazard can be defined as a potentially damaging physical event, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation. Typical examples of hazards can be absence of rain (leading to drought) or the abundance thereof (leading to floods). Chemical manufacturing plants near settlements and incorrect agricultural techniques, can also been seen as hazards which could lead to possible disasters. Hazards can be the creation of man or the environment. EXPOSURE It is the situation of people, infrastructure, housing,production capacities and other tangible human assets located in hazard-prone areas. VULNERABILITY Vulnerability is the inability to resist a hazard or to respond when a disaster has occurred. For example, people who live on plains are more vulnerable to floods than people who live higher up. DM 1 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management Vulnerability depends on several factors, such as people's age and state of health, local environmental and sanitary conditions, as well as on the quality and state of local buildings and their location with respect to any hazards. RISK Measure of expected losses due to a hazard, occurring in a given area over a specific time period.It considers the probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses resulting from a hazard. Risk = Probability of Hazard x Degree of Vulnerability. RISK MAPPING Risk mapping is a process of analyzing the hazard, vulnerability and capacity through a scientific methodology. It is based on the risk assessment. There are 2 main components: 1) Risk Analysis. 2) Risk Evaluation: DM 2 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management 1) Risk Analysis: The use of available information to estimate the risk caused by the hazard to individuals, population. It contains the following steps: 2)Risk Evaluation This is the stage at which values and judgements are entered for the decision making process.It includes all the results of risk associated with social, economic and environmental. RISK REDUCTION All the structural and non structural measures for reducing disaster.  Structural measures: use of engineering solution to avoid disaster.  Non structural measures: awareness and education CAPACITY Refers to all the strengths, attributes and resources available within a community, organization or society to manage and reduce disaster risks and strengthen resilience. Ability to rescue from a disaster. DM 3 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management Divided into two: 1)Physical capacity 2)Socio-economic capacity. RESILIENCE Ability of individuals, communities, organisations and states to adapt to and recover from hazards, shocks or stresses without compromising long-term prospects for development. It is opposite to vulnerability. EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS EWS is a socio-technical system designed to generate and circulate meaningful warning information in a timely manner to enable a target system take a proactive response to a hazardous threat in order to avoid disaster or reduce its impacts. Disaster Preparedness:  The knowledge and capacities developed by governments, response and recovery organizations,communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to and recover from the impacts of likely,imminent or current disasters.  Preparedness action is carried out within the context of disaster risk management and aims to build thecapacities needed to efficiently manage all types of emergencies and achieve orderly transitions fromresponse to sustained recovery. Disaster Prevention:  Disaster Prevention is the elimination or reduction of the likelihood of occurrence of natural hazard event, or their adverse impacts.Examples of disaster prevention actions include flood protection embankments.  Delayed actions drain the economy and the resources for emergency response within a region. For developing nations, prevention is perhaps the most critical components in managing disasters, however, it is clearly one of the most difficult to promote.  Prevention planning is based on two issues: hazard identification (identifying the actual threats facing a community) and vulnerability assessment (evaluating the risk and capacity of a community to handle the consequences of the disaster). Once these issues put in order of priority, emergency managers can determine the appropriate prevention strategies.  Disaster prevention refers to measures taken to eliminate the root causes that make people vulnerable to disaster. DM 4 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management Disaster Mitigation:  It refers to a set of measures to reduce or neutralise the impact of natural hazards by reducing social, functional, or physical vulnerability.  Mitigation is permanent reduction of the risk of a disaster. Primary mitigation refers to reducing the resistance of the hazard and reducing vulnerability. Secondary mitigation refers to reducing the effects of the hazard (preparedness).  Mitigation includes recognizing that disasters will occur; attempts are made to reduce the harmful effects of a disaster, and to limit their impact on human suffering and economic assets. Disaster Response: Disaster response (relief) is the provision of assistance or intervention through the emergency services during or immediately after a crisis in order to save lives, reduce further impacts on health and public safety and to meet the basic subsistence needs of affected populations. Damage Assessment: Damage Assessment is the process for determining the nature and extent of the loss, suffering, and/or harm to the community resulting from a natural, accidental or human-caused disaster. Damages are normally classified as:  Severe: The target facility or object cannot be used for its intended purpose. Complete reconstruction is required.  Moderate: The target facility or object cannot be used effectively for its intended purpose unless major repairs are made.  Light: The target facility or object can be used for intended purpose but minor repairs would be necessary. CRISIS COUNSELLING  Process of eliminating the emotional and psychological disturbances of people, affected by a disaster.  It can be carried out by psycho educational counselling classes.  It is a crucial part of recovery and reconstruction.  It enables people to take right decisions DM 5 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management NEEDS OF CRISIS COUNSELLING 1.Providing support and guidance:  The purpose of crisis counselling is to decrease emotional pain, provide emotional support, make sure that the person in crisis is safe, and help develop a plan for coping with the situation.  Sometimes it also involves connecting a person to other community or health services that can provide long-term support. 2.Crisis counselling can be linked to health education:  It is used to increase knowledge of how to avoid or cooperate with a crisis in the future.  It can also be used to change people's attitudes and beliefs about people in crisis, and to provide people with information about help available in their community. 3.Crisis counselling is related to health promotion:  Skills, information, and support services gained through crisis counselling can also help a person or a group of people to improve their health and quality of life.  Crisis counselling can also be tied to health promotion through the development of health-related public policy and supportive environments. 4.A valuable tool for public health:  It is relatively low-cost and simple to provide, and it is flexible and easy to learn.  A wide variety of health professionals, including doctors, nurses, psychologists, and social workers, can be taught to help people through the application of crisis counselling techniques. 5.New technologies--Internet based crisis counselling: By using these resources people can sometimes get the help they need without using more expensive health care services, and they can often take advantage of twenty-four-hour crisis services. 6.Used by any professionals: People working in public places such as stores and airline terminals are also learning how to do crisis counselling in order to deal with unhappy or violent customers. DM 6 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management NEEDS ASSESSMENT Needs assessment is a process of estimating the financial, technical, and human resources needed to implement the agreed-upon programmes of recovery, reconstruction, and risk management.  The Post-Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) is an internationally accepted methodology for determining the physical damages, economic losses, and costs of meeting recovery needs after a natural disaster through a government-led process.  National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is an agency of the Ministry of Home Affairs and is responsible for framing policies, laying down guidelines and coordinating with the State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) to ensure a holistic and distributed approach to disaster management. NDMA was established through the Disaster Management Act enacted by the Government of India in May 30, 2005. The Prime Minister is the ex-officio chairperson of it. Disaster Management refers to managing disaster response in the country.India has been traditionally vulnerable to the natural disasters on the account of its unique geo-climatic conditions. About 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities; over 40 million hectares is prone to floods; about 8% of the total area is prone to cyclones and 69% of the area is susceptible to drought. DM 7 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management DM 8 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management GEOLOGICAL DISASTERS: FLOODS Floods occur when land that is usually dry is submerged by large amounts of water. Sudden submergence or inundation of land area with water is called as flood. The occurrence of floods can be due to both natural and human causes. 1.Anthropogenic causes of floods include: Clearing of forests: Lack of vegetation cover to hold the soil together on slopes causes erosion and deposition in river beds making them shallow, flooding occurs when these rivers overflow. Also bare slopes increase surface runoff and volume of water flowing into the rivers. 2. Urban development: The clearing of land for development of residential, commercial and industrial complexes have rapidly increased built-up areas. These concrete pavements and roads prevent infiltration of rainwater into the ground coupled with lack of vegetation cover to intercept the rain water results in increased runoff flowing into the rivers resulting in flooding. 3. Improper farming and other land use practices: The combination of absence of forest cover on one hand, and inappropriate farming and land-use practices on the other have aggravated the flood devastation. There are hardly any forests left in the catchment area of the rivers. It is well known fact that the forest areas are characterized by high infiltration capacity. 4. Enhanced Green house effect: Various human activities resulting in increased green house effect and causing global warming are leading to various climate changes such as higher rainfall in short duration, melting of more ice etc. All these have lead to increased incidences of floods. Natural causes of floods: 1.Excessive rainfall: Floods occur when rainwater is unable to seep into the ground quickly enough or rivers overflow their banks because river channels cannot contain excess water. It is common in tropical areas. 2. Storm Surges: It occurs when strong winds raise the waves in the ocean to exceptionally high levels, causing them to crash into the coast and flood the land. It is common in coastal areas with low-lying relief. 3. Melting Snow: Melting of snow in spring releases large amount of water into the rivers, causing them to overflow their banks. It is common in places with cool temperate climate. DM 9 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management 4. Global Atmospheric processes: Abnormal weather phenomenon such as El Nino (warming of surface ocean waters at Southeastern part of Pacific Ocean). 5.Earthquakes: Earthquakes can bring about landslides or trigger tsunamis. When landslides occur, loosened soil, rocks, mud debris etc. may be deposited in rivers causing overflowing of these rivers. Tsunamis triggered by strong undersea earthquakes can flood and devastate coastal settlements. Impact of floods: 1. Loss of life: Floods mostly strike people unprepared, leading to loss of lives in drowning. Along with livestock and other life forms. Impact is higher in flood plain areas which are densly populated 2. Damage to infrastructure and property: Flood cause huge losses to homes, roads, power supply and other infrastructure. 3. Spread of Diseases: After flood water recedes, shallow stagnant water may cover areas over a considerable period of times. This may result in outbreak of water borne diseases. Moreover homeless flood victims are housed in temporary shelters which are mostly overcrowded and with poor sanitation conditions which may turn situation worse. 4. Loss of natural habitat: Trees, vegetation and other natural habitats may get destroyed leading to loss of biodiversity. Mitigation of floods Floods can be mitigated by structural, water control and non-structural measures such as: Structural methods: include building dams, reservoirs, and retarding basins, channel management and embankments. Water control methods: include increasing forest and vegetation cover, watershed management, flood proofing and catchment modifications. Schemes of drainage and flood protection, Non-structural methods: flood forecasting, flood warning and emergency preparedness systems, flood insurance, public information and education, and flood relief Earthquake An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the Earth, with sudden release of energy in the form of seismic waves on the surface of the earth. The point inside the crust where the pressure is released is called the focus. The point on the Earth's surface above the focus is called the epicentre. When earthquake occurs beneath the sea it causes tsunami. The study of earthquakes is called as seismology and the instrument used to measure seismic waves is called as seismometer or seismograph. DM 10 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management Causes of earthquake: According to the theory of plate tectonics, Earth is composed of many individual plates that move and interact, constantly changing and reshaping Earth's outer layer. Plates do not always move smoothly against each other and sometimes get stuck. This builds up pressure.When this pressure is eventually released, an earthquake tends to occur.Volcanoes and earthquakes both result from the movement of tectonic plates. Volcanoes, tides can also trigger seismicity. Underground nuclear testing and dams can also cause seismic waves. Effects: 1)Soil Liquefaction: Due to earthquakes granular material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid (Soil liquefaction). This causes rigid structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. 2)Landslides and avalanche: Earthquakes can produce slope instability leading to landslides and avalanche. 3)Tsunamis: When earthquakes occur under sea it causes tsunami. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more. 4)Floods: These are secondary effects of earthquakes, as they may occur if dams are damaged. 5)Fires: Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines. 6)Destabilization: It destabilizes ecological and social structure of nation. Essential services also got disrupted. 7)Loss of life and property: An earthquake may cause injury and loss of life, general property damage and collapse or destabilization of buildings. The aftermath may bring disease, lack of basic necessities, mental consequences such as panic attacks and depression to survivors etc. E.g. Earthquake in 2005 with Epicenter at Muzaffarabad killed 80,000 people and injured around 1,00,000 and 3.5 million people were dislodged. DM 11 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management Landslides A landslide/landslip is primarily a combination of several geological processes that include earth movements like extensive slope failure, rocks falling, and debris flow under the action of gravity. Landslides occur when gravitational and other types of shear stresses within a slope exceed the shear strength (resistance to shearing) of the materials that form the slope. Causes: 1.Extensive Rainfall: Prolonged and heavy intensity rainfall triggers landslide. If rain duration and pore pressure are high, moderate rainfall can also trigger landslide. A universal landslide survey held in 2003 revealed that 90% of the landslides that occurred were activated by a heavy rainfall. 2.Melting of Snow: In several cold mountain places, during snowmelt the water produced infiltrates into the earth.This increases pore water pressures, causing the initiation of the landslide process. 3.Rivers: Rivers can damage the slopes, particularly during the floods triggering a landslide. Seismic Shaking and volcanic eruption: They cause slope failure triggering landslide. 4.Deforestation: Roots of plants hold soil particles firmly thereby avoiding soil erosion. But removal of vegetation makes rocks prone to landslides 5.Geology: Type of rock or soil such coarse particles have low cohesive strength making it vulnerable to landslide. 6.Developmental activities: Excavation for minerals, tunnels etc. and road construction can too trigger landslide. Effects:  Landslides blocks streams with debris and stones, leading to overflowing.  It disrupts vehicular movement, damages vegetation, roads, communication networks and buildings. It also results in accidents.  Overall it acts as a risk to life. E.g. A massive landslide in 2017 in Himachal Pradesh has killed at least 46 people and injured several others. Management and mitigation methods: 1)Afforestation: It consolidates the slope thus checking slope instability. Degraded areas should be afforested and existing patches should be preserved. 2)Wired stone blocks: Stone ridge is strapped with wire mesh to protect against landslides. 3)Retaining wall: Construction of concrete retaining walls to prevent slippage from slope. 4) Landslide hazard zonation mapping: Zonation mapping will help in preventing settlements in hazard prone area and also developing and continuously updating the inventory of landslide incidences affecting a country. DM 12 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management 5)Surface drainage: Draining of surface and subsurface rivers to allow smooth flow of water. 6) Landslide Warning Techniques: Sensors have been developed which are used for the landslide warning and detection Early warning systems can disseminate information to masses on time, hereby saving many lives. 7)Managing of catchment: Excess water in catchments areas should be stored to reduce the effect of flash floods, this will also recharge the ground water level in areas prone to landslide in India. 8)Public awareness: An aware and vigilant community can reduce the impact of impending landslides. Cyclones Cyclone refers to any spinning storm that rotates around a low-pressure center. The low- pressure center is also referred to as the 'eye' of the storm. It is accompanied by powerful winds blowing anticlockwise in northern hemisphere and clockwise in southern hemisphere. They are known by different names in different countries. Typhoons in northwest pacific ocean, hurricanes in north Atlantic ocean and northeast and south pacific ocean, Tropical cyclones in southwest pacific ocean, southeast and southwest Indian ocean. Willy Willy in Australia Baguio in China Sea, Taifu in Japan and Tornado in South America. Formation of cyclone When warm (above 26 °C), moist air over the ocean rises upward, it causes an area of low air pressure below. Air from surrounding areas with higher air pressure pushes in to the low pressure area. Then this new cool air becomes warm and moist and rises too and this cycle continues. As the warm, moist air rises and cools the water in the air forming clouds. The Coriolis effect made by the Earth's rotation causes the winds to rotate. As the storm system rotates faster and faster, an eye forms in the center. It has little rain or wind. The eye wall maximum rain and the strongest winds. When the winds in the rotating storm reach 39 mph, the storm is called a tropical storm. And when the wind speeds reach 74 mph, the storm is officially a tropical cyclone, hurricane, typhoon or cyclone based on the storm location Tropical cyclones usually weaken when they hit land, because they are no longer being fed by the energy from the warm ocean waters. However, they travel far inland, bringing heavy rain and wind before dying out completely. Cyclone may last from days to week. Indian cyclones: The 7517 km long coastline of India is world most cyclone affected stretch. Around 8% of the total land area in India is prone to cyclones. West Bengal, Odisha, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Goa and Kerala are the most cyclone affected states of India. E.g. Cyclone Phailin originated in Vietnam in October 2013. This cyclone affected Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Bihar and eastern parts of Uttar Pradesh. A total of 1,34,426 people were eventually evacuated. Power and communication lines went down across many districts. Besides economic losses Odisha recorded casualties of 44 people. DM 13 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management Effects: Cyclones bring destruction to life and property. It is characterized by heavy rains and strong winds. 1)Storm surge: It is an abnormal rise of sea level near the coast caused by a severe tropical cyclone resulting in inundation of low lying areas of coastal regions. It drowns human beings and live-stock, erodes beaches and embankments, destroys vegetation and reduces soil fertility. 2)Floods: Heavy and continued rains due to cyclones may cause floods and submergence of low lying areas resulting in loss of life and property. Floods and coastal inundation pollute drinking water sources causing eruption of epidemics. 3)Strong winds: Very strong winds may damage infrastructure, dwellings, communication systems, trees etc. vandalizing life and property. It affects normal functioning of life. 4)Crop: It damages crops, which could lead to inflation. 5)Decline in tourist: Tourist will not come to a cyclone affected area, thereby affecting livelihood of people. 6)Storm churn: By churning up cold water, tropical cyclones tend to leave a cold wake behind them that can depress ocean temperature and thus, stifling trailing storm. 7)Psychological impact: Disaster of any kind has long lasting fear on minds of masses. They have witness large number of deaths, collapse of infrastructure, cries, pains and many sorrows. Management and Mitigation of Cyclones 1) Coastal plantation: Forests act as buffer zone against cyclones. Cyclones travel unchecked in absence of forest. The degraded forests land must be planted as plantation will act as green wall/wind break for cyclones and water flow reduction in storm surges. Mangrove forests shall be managed. 2) Effective weather Monitoring: Cyclones can be predicted several days’ before. So, effective weather monitoring and forecast can help in minimizing the losses due to cyclones. Warning messages should be simple and reach in time to the masses. 3) Land Use control: Land use should be such that minimum critical activities carried out in vulnerable areas. Buildings should be water and wind resistant. Retrofitting of the older buildings should be mandatory. There should be maintenance of river embankments. Communication lines should be drawn underground. Construction of strong halls in vulnerable areas. DM 14 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management 4) Coastal Regulation Zone norms: They should be strictly enforced. 5) Insurance cover: Comprehensive state insurance cover needs to be provided for persons, their properties and cattle. 6) Preparedness: Coastal areas should have adequate preparedness against cyclones. Wide roads for quick evacuation, disaster resilient buildings, shelter houses etc. 7) Awareness: Focused awareness activities are required to increase public awareness of storm surge, flooding and rainfall related to cyclone. BIOLOGICAL DISASTERS: 1.Epidemics: An epidemic of an infectious disease is the occurrence of a number of cases of a disease, known or suspected to be of infectious origin, that is unusually large or unexpected for the given place or time. An epidemic often evolves rapidly and requires a susceptible human population, the presence of a disease agent, and the presence of a mechanism or mode of large-scale transmission (e.g. contaminated water supply, poor sanitation and vector population). Types of Epidemics: There are two major types of infectious diseases which can develop into epidemics:“common source” and “host-to-host”. Common source epidemics arise from a contaminated source, such as water or food, while host-to-host infections are transmitted from one infected individual to another via various, perhaps indirect routes. Common source epidemics usually produce more new cases earlier and faster than host-to-host epidemics. Host-to-host epidemics are slower to grow and slower to diminish. Anything causing disease is called a pathogen. A vector is an organism that serves as an intermediary in the transmission of a host-to-host disease. For instance, many infections are transmitted by mosquitoes, fleas, ticks, etc. to people. A fomite is any inanimate object that adheres to or transmits infectious material, e.g., bedding, clothing, surgical instruments, etc. 2.Forest Fire: Forests face many hazards but the most common hazard is fire. They pose a threat not only to the forest wealth but also to the entire regime of fauna and flora seriously disturbing the bio- diversity, the ecology and environment of a region. Causes Forest Fires are, not an unusual phenomenon, they occur regularly, especially in summers, throughout the world. Forest fires can broadly be classified into three categories:  Natural or controlled forest fires.  Forest fires caused by heat generated in the litter and other biomes in summer through carelessness of people (human neglect)  Forest fires purposely caused by local inhabitants. DM 15 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management Types of Forest Fire Forest fires differ depending upon its nature, size, spreading speed, behavior etc. basically this can be sub-grouped into four types depending upon their nature and size. 1.Underground Fire: Underground fire is the fire of low intensity consuming the organic matter beneath and the surface litter of forest floor is sub-grouped as underground fire. 2.Surface Fires: Surface fire is the most common forest fires that burn undergrowth and dead material along the floor of the forest. In general it is very useful for the forest growth and regeneration. If grow in size this fire not only burns ground flora but also results to engulf the undergrowth and the middle story of the forest. Surface fires spread by flaming combustion through fuels at or near the surface- grass, dead and down limbs, forest needle and leaf litter, or debris from harvesting or land clearing. 3.Ground Fires: There is no clear distinction between underground and ground fires. The smoldering for sometime underground fires changes into Ground fire. This fire burns root and other material on or beneath the surface i.e. burns the herbaceous growth on forest floor together with the layer of organic matter in various stages of decay. They are more damaging than surface fires and they can destroy vegetation completely. 4.Crown Fires: Crown fire is the most unpredictable fire, which burns the top of trees and spread rapidly by wind. In most of the cases surface fires invariably ignite these fires. Thus a Crown Fire is a fire that advances from top to top of trees or shrubs more or less Independently of the surface fire. 5.Firestorms: Among the forest fire, the fires spreading most rapidly are the firestorm, which is an intense fire over a large area. As the fire burns, heat rises and airs rushes in, causing the fire to grow. More air makes the fire spin violently like a storm. Conclusion On Biological Disaster: Biological Disaster may be described as a disaster caused due to natural outbreaks of epidemics or intentional use of biological agents (Viruses/bacteria etc.) through dissemination of micro- organism or toxins in food or water or insect vector or by aerosol to harm human population, food crops and livestock to cause outbreaks of diseases. Biological agents are living organisms or their toxic products that can kill or incapacitate people, livestock, and plants. Causes: Natural outbreaks: Natural outbreaks of disease may become epidemics and assume disastrous proportion if not contained in the initial stages. Use of Biological Agents by Terrorists: Use of biological agents to cause death, disability or damage mainly to human beings to prevail mass panic and slow mass casualties and an intentional use of biological agents to cause disease or death through dissemination of micro- DM 16 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management organism or toxins in food or water or insect vector or by aerosol to harm human population, food crops and livestock. Mode of Delivery: Biological agents can be dispersed by spraying them into the air, by infecting animals that carry the disease to humans, and by contaminating food and water. a)Aerosols-biological agents are dispersed into the air, forming a fine mist that may drift for miles. Inhaling the agent may cause epidemic diseases in human beings or animals. b)Animals-some diseases are spread by insects and animals, such as fleas, mice, flies, mosquitoes, and livestock. c)Food and water contamination-some pathogenic organisms and toxins may persist in food and water supplies. Most microbes can be killed, and toxins deactivated, by cooking food and boiling water. Most microbes are killed by boiling water for one minute, but some require longer. d)Person-to-person-spread of a few infectious agents is also possible. Humans have been the source of infection for smallpox, plague, and the Lassa viruses. Impact Even a small-scale biological attack with a weapon grade agent on an urban center could cause massive morbidity and mortality, rapidly overwhelming the local medical capabilities. TECHNOLOGICAL DISASTERS Technological hazards originate from technological or industrial conditions, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failure or human activity. Chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) hazards are all types of technological hazards. They are commonly grouped together because they share lots of similarities, and many of the preparedness and response measures are the same or very similar.  Chemical hazards are the unexpected release of a substance that is potentially harmful to humans, animals or the environment. They can happen due to technological accidents, the impact of natural hazards, conflict and terrorism.  Biological hazards are biological substances that threaten the health of humans and other living beings. They include infectious disease outbreaks, epidemics, animal plagues and infestations. Contamination can occur through natural exposure to the agent, accidental release of microorganisms, for example from a research facility, or by deliberate acts. DM 17 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management  Nuclear hazards are hazards involving the accidental or intentional release of potentially harmful radioactive materials, for instance from nuclear power plants, research reactors or nuclear weapons.  Radiological hazards are hazards involving all other sources of radiation—for instance, radiography machines, radioactive material used in industry and lost or stolen radioactive sources. Trends in natural disasters With growing population and infrastructures the world’s exposure to natural hazards is inevitably increasing. This is particularly true as the strongest population growth is located in coastal areas (with greater exposure to floods, cyclones and tidal waves). To make matters worse any land remaining available for urban growth is generally risk- prone, for instance flood plains or steep slopes subject to landslides. Why Disaster Management Is Important  The disaster management cycle is a framework that defines the stages of a disaster. It can be used by both organizations and individuals to prepare for and respond to disasters of every kind, including natural disasters, technological disasters, and human-made disasters. It allows professionals to identify potential hazards, assess the risks, and develop plans to prevent, mitigate, and respond to them.  Another crucial objective of disaster management is to ensure assistance to those who need it. When a disaster strikes, people may sustain injuries, require evacuation from dangerous locations, or need medical attention. Disaster management teams aim to assist and support those who require it, such as by contacting medical personnel, securing safe areas for people to evacuate to, and providing essential supplies such as water, food, and shelter. Stages of the Disaster Management Cycle  Disaster management typically is broken down into four stages: prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery. Managing and responding to disasters effectively requires paying careful attention to each stage. Despite being separated into different stages, each with its own goals, the cycle is designed to be holistic, as each stage is interdependent and builds on the previous one to achieve better outcomes.  As the cycle reaches its recovery phase, professionals can collect and analyze performance data to help them improve their plans and potentially prevent the disaster or some of the effects of the disaster from happening again. Thus, with each disaster, outcomes should improve, reducing costs and reducing future hardships for individuals, families, and communities. Prevention The first stage of the disaster management cycle is about preventing or mitigating the potential effects of a disaster before it happens. It aims to identify potential risks and hazards that could lead to a disaster. It involves analyzing the environment, assessing vulnerabilities and risks, and DM 18 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management developing measures to prevent or mitigate potential hazards. While prevention requires preparation before a crisis occurs, implementing permanent measures that reduce hazard risk can benefit all stages of disaster management. Preparedness Preparedness refers to developing strategies, plans, and procedures to effectively deal with potential disasters. Preparedness involves creating emergency plans, training, and exercises to ensure that people, equipment, and systems are ready to respond to a disaster. Examples of preparedness measures include active shooter safety drills in schools and other community areas that help staff and students know how to respond to such an event in ways that increase their safety and the likelihood of their survival. Fire drills are another example of a preparedness measure, as they are intended to ensure all students or employees have procedures to follow in the event of a fire, including knowing where the proper exits are and where to gather away from the building. Response The response stage involves the immediate response to a disaster. Response measures include search and rescue operations, providing emergency medical assistance, and setting up emergency shelters. Response teams work to stabilize the situation and reduce the potential for further harm. Examples of emergency response would be deploying emergency workers to guide residents toward evacuation routes or moving emergency supplies to a predetermined safety area where community members can convene in the event of a displacing flood. Recovery The recovery stage focuses on restoring the affected community to a state of normalcy. Recovery efforts involve rebuilding infrastructure, providing medical assistance and social services, and helping individuals and families recover financially. A recovery plan could include continued medical assistance, such as physical therapy, for individuals who sustained an injury during a disaster or a support group for those who experienced any emotional trauma due to the event. Paradigm Shift in Disaster Management. A paradigm shift in disaster management refers to a significant change in the way that disasters are understood, approached, and managed. This shift can involve changes in the underlying theories, assumptions, and approaches used in disaster management, as well as changes in the policies and practices that guide disaster response and recovery efforts. One example of a paradigm shift in disaster management is the move towards a more proactive, risk-reduction approach, rather than the traditional reactive approach that focuses primarily on responding to disasters after they have occurred. This shift has involved the integration of disaster risk reduction measures into development planning and the implementation of strategies such as early warning systems, preparedness planning, and risk assessment. DM 19 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management Another example of a paradigm shift in disaster management is the increased recognition of the importance of community involvement and empowerment in disaster response and recovery efforts. This shift has led to a greater focus on building the capacity of local communities to prepare for and respond to disasters, and on involving communities in the planning and decision- making process. Disaster risk assessment  A qualitative or quantitative approach to determine the nature and extent of disaster risk by analysing potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of exposure and vulnerability that together could harm people, property, services, livelihoods and the environment on which they depend.  Annotation: Disaster risk assessments include: the identification of hazards; a review of the technical characteristics of hazards such as their location, intensity, frequency and probability; the analysis of exposure and vulnerability, including the physical, social, health, environmental and economic dimensions; and the evaluation of the effectiveness of prevailing and alternative coping capacities with respect to likely risk scenarios. It is a methodology to determine the likelihood and magnitude of damage or other consequences by analyzing potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that jointly could likely harm exposed people, properties, services, livelihoods and the environment they depend on. There are two main components for Risk Assessment: 1.Risk analysis: The use of available information to estimate the risk caused by hazards to individuals or populations, property, or the environment. Risk analyses generally contain the following steps: Hazard identification, hazard assessment, elements at risk/exposure, vulnerability assessment and risk estimation. 2.Risk evaluation: This is the stage at which values and judgement enter the decision process by including the importance of the risk and associated social, environmental, and economic consequences, in order to identify a range of alternatives for managing the risk. Contemporary approaches to risk assessments: 1.Multi-hazard: The same area may be threatened by different types of hazards. Each of these hazard types has different areas that might be impacted by hazard scenarios. Each of the hazard scenarios also might have different magnitudes. For instance, water depth and velocity in the case of flooding, acceleration and ground displacement in the case of earthquakes. These hazard magnitudes would also have different impacts on the various elements at risk, and therefore require different vulnerability curves. 2.Multi-sectoral: Hazards will impact different types of elements at risk. DM 20 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management 3.Multi-level: Risk assessment can be carried out at different levels. Depending on the objectives of the risk study,it is possible to differentiate between national, regional, district and local policies, plans and activities to see how they have contributed to increased or reduced risk, their strengths and weaknesses in dealing with risks, and what resources are available at the different levels to reduce risks. 4.Multi-stakeholder: Risk assessment should involve the relevant stakeholders, which can be individuals, businesses, organizations and authorities. 5.Multi-phase: Risk assessment should consider actions for response, recovery, mitigation and preparedness. 6.Qualitative methods: This involves qualitative descriptions or characterization of risk in terms of high, moderate and low. These are used when the hazard information does not allow us to express the probability of occurrence, or it is not possible to estimate the magnitude. This approach has widespread application in the profiling of vulnerability using participatory methodologies. Risk matrices can be constructed to show qualitative risk. A risk matrix shows on its y-axis probability of an event occurring, while on the x-axis potential loss. The probability is described categorically as low, medium and high, while the potential loss is also described similarly. 7.Semi-quantitative Methods: These techniques express risk in terms of risk indices. These are numerical values, often ranging between 0 and 1. They do not have a direct meaning of expected losses; they are merely relative indications of risk. The main difference between qualitative and semi-quantitative approaches is the assignment of weights under certain criteria which provide numbers as outcome instead of qualitative classes The semi-quantitative estimation for risk assessment is found useful in the following situations:- As an initial screening process to identify hazards and risks When the level of risk (pre-assumed) does not justify the time and effort Where the possibility of obtaining numerical data is limited This approach could be adapted to cover large areas.Semi-quantitative risk can also be conceptualized as:- Risk = (Hazard) x (Vulnerability / Capacity) It allows incorporating the multi-dimensional aspects of vulnerability and capacity. DM 21 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management 8.Quantitative Methods: This aims at estimating the spatial and temporal probability of risk and its magnitude. In this method,the combined effects, in terms of losses for all possible scenarios that might occur are calculated.In this approach, risk is perceived as follows:- Risk = (Hazard) x (Vulnerability) x (Amount of elements at risk) The amount of elements at risk are characterized the way in which the risk is presented. The hazard component in the equation actually refers to the probability of occurrence of a hazardous phenomenon with a given intensity within a specified period of time. Vulnerability is limited to physical vulnerability. DM 22 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management Exposure and Vulnerability Information to Develop Risk Indicators  Vulnerability and exposure information are often used as indicators of relative risk.  Collection and analysis of vulnerability and exposure information in order to inform risk indicators and the process of monitoring risk over time and space.  Several indicators require statistically robust information regarding the nature of the built environment (e.g., building stock, lifelines, critical facilities).  The development of advanced models to predict the geographical distribution, susceptibility to damage and loss, and value of the elements exposed to the hazards. Elements for effective Risk, Exposure and Disaster Mapping  Identify the linkages between social, biophysical, and built environment systems that produce risk.  Identify need for local models for community resilience.  Identify exposure databases and exposure models, incorporating issues of scale, data access, types of data and integrated analysis assessments.  Strengthening of baselines, and periodically assess disaster risks, vulnerability, capacity, exposure, hazard characteristics and their possible effects on society.  Incorporate GIS technology for updating and disseminating location-sensitive vulnerability and exposure information to decision makers, the general public and communities at risk Vulnerability and Risk Assessment through Integrated and Comprehensive Assessment  Indices within the dimensions of social, physical, economic and environmental vulnerability, developed by scientists from natural, environmental and social sciences should be integrated into all hazard risk assessments and post-disaster assessments to provide more comprehensive risk assessments.  The assessment of vulnerability and exposure range from global to local-scale participatory approaches, which need to be integrated. The appropriateness of methods used for these assessments depend on the purpose of the analysis, time and geographic scale involved and the resources available. ZONATION: Hazard zonation is a process where hazardous spots are identified so that steps are taken in order to meet any disaster that would occur. Role of zonal mapping in mitigating landslides  Identifying vulnerable areas: Zonal mapping of landslide areas will surely allow authorities to identify those places that are vulnerable to landslides. By keeping a focus on these areas, authorities can be well prepared to handle sudden crises. DM 23 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management Ex: Mountain slopes with no vegetation are the most vulnerable to landslides. In addition, high rainfall aids landslides.  Relocation of human settlement: Saving human lives is at the core of disaster mitigation exercise. In this regard, the role of preparedness becomes of utmost importance. The human population vulnerable due to landslides can be relocated to safer regions. Ex: Houses present on mountain slopes need to be relocated in order to protect them from landslides.  Creating awareness: The threat of disasters like landslides cannot be handled by authorities alone. The citizen participation will ensure that they will not be immediately affected by the landslide. In this regard, authorities have to make people aware of the threat and also techniques to protect themselves. Ex: Mock drills.  Capacity building: The infrastructure needs to be built well in advance in order to tackle any sudden disasters. The people handling operations must be trained to handle any kind of crisis. Ex: Rescue operation training. What is microzonation? Why is it necessary? The hazards associated with earthquakes are referred to as seismic hazards. The practice of earthquake engineering involves the identification and mitigation of seismic hazards. Microzonation has generally been recognized as the most accepted tool in seismic hazard assessment and risk evaluation and it is defined as the zonation with respect to ground motion characteristics taking into account source and site conditions. Seismic microzonation is the generic name for subdividing a region into individual areas having different potentials hazardous earthquake effects, defining their specific seismic behavior for engineering design and land-use planning. The basis of microzonation is to evaluate the propagation of waves through the earth to the top of bed rock, determine the effect of local soil profile and thus develop a hazard map indicating the vulnerability of the area to potential seismic hazard. Seismic microzonation will also help in designing buried lifelines such as tunnels, water and sewage lines, gas and oil lines, and power and communication lines. Seismic microzonation is defined as the process of subdividing a potential seismic or earthquake prone area into zones with respect to some geological and geophysical characteristics of the sites such as ground shaking,liquefaction susceptibility, landslide and rock fall hazard, earthquake- related flooding, so that seismic hazards at different locations within the area can correctly be DM 24 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management identified. Microzonation provides the basis for site-specific risk analysis, which can assist in the mitigation of earthquake damage. In most general terms, seismic microzonation is the process of estimating the response of soil layers under earthquake excitations and thus the variation of earthquake characteristics on the ground surface. KEY CONCEPTS Emergency Support Functions: Transportation and communication, which are secondary but nonetheless crucial, or delivery of mainline services, are termed support functions. First Information Report : First Information Report is the official complaint filed with the police by the victim of threat to person or property or any other unlawful activity of which he may be a victim. The police commence investigations with the filing of the first information report. Initial Assessment Report : The Initial Assessment Report will give the immediate picture about the damage scenario. The immediate first aid, search and rescue will depend on the initial assessment report. Since disaster involves many agencies, it would be a multi- disciplinary effort. Technical Assessment Report: After the initial assessment report, detailed reporting would be attempted by various line ministries, through their specialist personnel, such as health and housing who would assess the situation from their perspectives. Rapid Assessment Team: Rapid assessment teams carry out initial assessments. These comprise specialists from various technical 268 Disaster Management agencies such as health, engineering to communicate a quick review of the situation and the resource needs. Quick Response Team: Quick Response Teams comprise trained personnel who are kept in a state of readiness to meet emergency situations. They are equipped with state of the art technology. Their preparedness is kept updated with drills and exercises. Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) Tools India National Institute of Disaster Management, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India has developed the Post Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) Tools for India under the National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project assisted by the World Bank. The objective of these tools is to establish a standardized mechanism based on scientific approach for conducting post disaster needs assessment for long term recovery and reconstruction. DM 25 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management What is a PDNA: Objectives  The PDNA is a mechanism for joint assessment and recovery planning after a disaster  The joint assessment analyses the damage, economic loss, effects and impact of the disaster and identifies recovery needs across identified sectors  The assessment also highlights the macro-economic and human impacts of the disaster  The recovery needs identified helps to mobilize resources and develop a comprehensive recovery strategy Why conduct a PDNA:  The PDNA is envisaged as a country owned and led process, supported by international agencies and other stakeholders  By bringing together key stakeholders engaged in recovery, the PDNA aims to avoid duplication and harmonize assessment efforts  The multi-stakeholder approach leads to the development of a single PDNA report that can be used as a tool for planning and programming recovery, as well for resource mobilization. Key Principles: DM 26 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management Protocols for Undertaking a PDNA  PDNA Activation  PDNA Coordination Structure  PDNA Sectors Roles of key actors  PDNA implementation process PDNA Coordination Structure DM 27 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management Typical Sectors and Subsectors Who conducts a PDNA: Key actors DM 28 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management Role of the National Government in the Assessments 1.Leadership and Coordination  Designation of a Ministry to lead and anchor the PDNA process.  Brings together all national ministries and departments and international actors under a joint process 2.Data Collection & access to information  Pre Disaster data National data bases, line ministries data bases  Post disaster data : Facilitates data collection from the affected areas 3.Provides \logistics support  Space for PDNA secretariat  Facilities for workshops and consultations 4.Reviews and endorses the PDNA report  Reviews all sector reports for accuracy  Approves the report at the highest office  Allocates resources, presents report for international assistance DM 29 Notes-Naveen Pradeep  Disaster Management PDNA implementation process DM 30 Notes-Naveen Pradeep