Developmental Psychology PDF - Child Development

PSYCH 122 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of the module, you should be able...

PSYCH 122 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of the module, you should be able to: 1. discuss theoretical perspectives on child development; 2. synthesize factors that promote, suppress, or threaten positive development in children; 3. describe the processes of pre and post-natal development and the birth process; 4. express ideas effectively, both in written and oral form, the process and the stages of the different domains of development of children; 5. relate the concepts of cognitive, socio- emotional and physical development to one’s own childhood experience; 6. demonstrate high regard and sensitivity for the uniqueness of children in their DEVELOPMENTAL accomplishment of varied milestones and developmental tasks; PSYCHOLOGY I 7. promote the important role of children in nation building and parental responsibility in the development of children; 8. espouse Christian doctrines on family and married life and in nurturing children from the onset of conception to birth; and 9. uphold the teachings of Christ and the biblical principles in raising, educating, and influencing children in their socio-emotional and moral development. and the biblical principles in raising, educating, and influencing children in their socio-emotional and moral development. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 1  To our dear Psychology students, Welcome to Developmental Psychology I Psych 122), another major course that we Hope you find interesting and practical. Psych 122 traces the development of a child from his/her prenatal beginnings up to the onset of puberty. It attempts to describe and explain the physical, social, cognitive, emotional and moral changes that take place across the developmental stages of childhood. It likewise attempts to examine the factors and influences that would explain why children behave the way they do. This course will be useful and meaningful to you, not only as future Psychology professionals, but as future parents as well. There are five modules in this course, each with their units containing the various topics that will facilitate your understanding of child psychology. As you go along each module, try to remember your own childhood, ask your parents about it, and also observe children around you to better relate and understand the topics you will be encountering. It is important too, that you do further readings and research on the topics to grasp them better. References are included at the end of every unit, so you can look into these, as well as other Developmental Psychology textbooks or websites. You may have questions and clarifications, so know that your Facilitator is always willing to assist and guide you throughout your journey in this course. The quizzes for this course are also given, and for graded outputs, the detailed instructions of assignments are in the Assignment Guide. We hope you enjoy the topics in this course, as you continue to enhance your knowledge and understanding in Psychology. Enjoy your semester! Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 2  TABLE OF CONTENTS OVERVIEW 4 MODULE I. An Overview of Child Psychology 11 Unit 1. Introductory Perspective of Child Psychology and Significance of Child Study 11 Unit 2. Theoretical Perspectives of Child Development 17 MODULE II. Biological Foundation of Development 26 Unit 1. Hereditary Influence on Development 26 Unit 2. Prenatal Development 36 Unit 3. Perinatal Environment and Birth 49 MODULE III. Physical and Motor Development 58 MODULE IV. Learning and Development, Language and Communication Skills, and Cognition 67 Unit 1. Learning and Development 67 Unit 2. Development of Language and Communication Skills 73 Unit 3. Cognitive Development 77 MODULE V. Social and Personality Development 87 Unit 1. Emotional Development and Attachment 87 Unit 2. The Self and Social Development 99 Unit 3. Moral Development and Self-Control 113 Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 3  OVERVIEW Module I. An Overview of Child Psychology This module introduces the concept of Child Psychology, its theoretical foundations, and the significance of learning about it, to provide a general view of what the course is all about. Unit 1. Introductory Perspective of Child Psychology and Significance of Child Study In this unit, Child Psychology will be defined, and its significance in both one’s personal and professional life will be highlighted. Topic Learning Outcomes: 1. Discuss the nature and purpose of child study; and 2. explain the different areas of child development and fields of study to understand children. Engage: “I once was a child, and so were you.” Explore: What is Developmental Psychology? Explain: Definition and Scope of Child Study Significance of Child Study Elaborate and Evaluate: Fun Facts about Children Unit 2. Theoretical Perspectives of Child Development Here, the various theoretical foundations od of psychology will be looked into as a means of explaining childhood behaviors and the changes that come along with it. Topic Learning Outcome: 1. Demonstrate the utility of the theories and concepts in the promotion of positive growth and development in children. Engage and Explore: “Two children, two behaviors” Explain: Behavioral Perspective Organismic Perspective Psychodynamic Perspective Ethological Perspective Ecological Perspective Life Span Perspective Elaborate: “One case, different perspectives” Evaluate: Explaining Rizi’s Behavior Module II. Biological Foundation of Development This module discusses the biological influences on an individual, as well as his/her beginnings starting from conception until birth. It also delves into understanding both Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 4  hereditary and environmental influences, as well as the vital factors that may affect a pregnant woman and/or her offspring. Unit 1. Hereditary Influence on Development This unit explains the concepts of growth, development, and maturation, and the hereditary influences that concern these. Chromosomal and genetic abnormalities are also discussed to provide an understanding of how hereditary materials as well as environmental factors play a part in them. Topic Learning Outcomes: 1. Discuss the different influences on child development; and 2. distinguish hereditary from environmental influences of behavior. Engage: Which of your parents do you resemble more? Explore: Concept Check Explain: Principles of Nature-Nurture Chromosomes and Genes Chromosomal Abnormalities and Causes Genetic Abnormalities Elaborate: Interacting with Children with Special Needs Evaluate: Unit 2. Prenatal Development In this unit, the prenatal development, that is, how an individual develops in the womb is discussed. This starts with conception until the final weeks before birth. Also covered are the maternal factors that may influence this development. Topic Learning Outcomes: 1. Examine the prenatal development of children; and 2. recognize the importance of mothers and females in general. Engage: Myths and Beliefs about Pregnancy Explore: Let’s look at Statistics Explain: Importance of Prenatal Development Major Phases of Prenatal Development Influences on Prenatal Development Elaborate: Caring for a Pregnant Woman Evaluate: Unit 3. Perinatal Environment and Birth Here, the environment shortly before, during, and after birth are discussed. This includes the stages of labor, the birth process, and possible complications that may be experienced. It also looks into cultural influences in childbirth. Topic Learning Outcomes: 1. Identify the stages in the birth process and potential birth complications; 2. examine the post-natal development of children; 3. assess cultural influences in the birth process; and Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 5  4. recognize the importance of mothers and females in general. Engage: “What is your birth story?” Explore: The Perinatal Environment Explain: The Birth Process Perinatal Hazards and Complications Elaborate: Birth via Cesarean Section Evaluate: Cultural Influences on Childbirth Module III. Physical and Motor Development This module focuses on a child’s physical and motor development from the time of birth until before puberty. It includes physical developmental milestones to be aware of, and explains how physical and motor development occurs. Topic Learning Outcomes: 1. Analyze the factors that contribute to individual differences in development and in the attainment of developmental tasks; and 2. explain the causes and correlates of physical growth and development. Engage: Animals and Movement Explore: Filipino Child’s Growth Explain: Physical Growth and Development Motor Development Causes and Correlates of Physical Growth and Development Psychological Implications of Early Motor Development Elaborate: How to exercise infants Evaluate: Advocacy Poster Module IV. Learning and Development, Language and Communication Skills, and Cognition This module discusses the process of learning in children as well as the development of language and communication skills. A discussion of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development will be used to explain how a child constructs a mental model of the world and how children acquire knowledge. Unit 1. Learning and Development Here, the basic learning theories are reviewed and applied in childhood behavior. Topic Learning Outcome: 1. Discuss the process of learning and development in children. Engage: “Little Albert” Experiment Explore: What has become of “little Albert”? Explain: What is learning? Elaborate: How do children learn? Evaluate: Application of conditioning Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 6  Unit 2. Development of Language and Communication Skills This unit looks into the language development as a child grows, what is to be expected, and what is possible at a certain age. Communication skills are discussed in line with this, also considering theories and possible influential factors. Topic Learning Outcome: 1. Summarize the development of language and communication skills. Engage: Test your knowledge Explore: Prologue: Baby talk Explain: Progressive Stages of Language Development Elaborate: How language is acquired Evaluate: Agree or Disagree? Unit 3. Cognitive Development In this unit, the cognitive development stages according to Jean Piaget’s theory are discussed. Each stage is looked into, along with the cognitive abilities expected at a particular age range. Topic Learning Outcome: 1. Distinguish the stages of cognitive development. Engage: Magical Beings Explore: Can there really be a Santa Claus? Explain: Piaget’s view of intelligence Elaborate: Stages of Cognitive Development Evaluate: Mind Map Module V. Social and Personality Development This module presents the development of childhood personality and social skills. It covers emotional development and attachment, the development of identity and interaction, and moral development. All of which are important in understanding how children understand themselves and their world. Unit 1. Emotional Development and Attachment This unit discusses a child’s emotional development and attachment to primary caregivers and other significant people, in consideration of theoretical explanations. Topic Learning Outcomes: 1. Discuss the emotional development of children; and 2. assess the factors influencing children’s emotional reactions and attachment. Engage: Interpret a Quote Explore: Childhood Memories Explain: Emotional Attachments Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 7  Theories of Attachment Emotional Health Elaborate: Promoting Healthy Emotional Development Evaluate: Summative Assessment Unit 2. The Self and Social Development In this unit, the development of identity and social skills is tackled. It looks into a child’s discovery of the self in the midst of other people. Topic Learning Outcome: 1. Discuss how the self evolves in the social context. Engage: Who am I? Explore: My Influences Explain: Development of Self-Concept Development of the Social Self Altruism: Development of the Prosocial Self Development of Aggression Achievement: Development of the Competent Self Elaborate: Rearing helpful and altruistic children Evaluate: Summative Assessment Unit 3. Moral Development and Self-Control Here, moral development through the theory of Lawrence Kohlberg is explained. This includes how children develop an idea of conscience and self-control as they are exposed to various situations around them. Topic Learning Outcomes: 1. Outline the factors that contribute to moral development including concepts such as conscience and self-control; 2. describe the process of moral development in children; and 3. validate positive local practices in raising the Filipino child. Engage: The Story of Heinz Explore: What would you have done? Explain: Definition of Morality Factors leading to the development of Conscience The development of Self-Control Elaborate: Child’s Eye-View of Discipine Evaluate: My Developmental Timeline Prepared by: Faculty of the Department of Psychology Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 8  References: Main Reference: SLU Child Psychology Manual Books: Bee, H.L., & Boyd, D. G. (2014). The developing child (13th ed.). Bee, H.L., & Boyd, D. G. (2015). Lifespan development (7th ed.). Fetal Development. In Anatomy and Physiology. Rice University Frank, M. C., Vul, E., & Johnson, S. P. (2009). Development of infants' attention to faces during the first year. Cognition, 110(2), 160–170. Gilbert, Scott F. Developmental Biology , 6th ed. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc., 2000 National Institutes of Health. What are stem cells, and why are they important?. Updated 2016. Pearson. Shaffer, D. R., & Kipp, K. (2013). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence (9th ed). Cengage Learning. Sigelman, C., & Rider, E. (2012). Life-Span Human Development 7th ed. Wadsworth Cengage Learning. 218. Stiles J, Jernigan TL. The basics of brain development. Neuropsychol Rev. 2010;20(4):327-48. doi:10.1007/s11065-010-9148-4 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office on Women’s Health. Stages of pregnancy. Electronic Sources: https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/featurephilia/story/9-magical-facts-about- childhood-that-will-blow-your-mind-1671454-2020-04-27 https://www.factretriever.com/child-development-facts https://www.verywellmind.com/child-development-theories-2795068 https://www.unicef.org/parenting/child-development/children-with-disabilities-class https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-psychology/chapter/reading-gene- environment-interactions/ Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 9  https://www.anmum.com/ph/en/pregnancy/nutrition/paglilihi-usog-and-other-filipino- pregnancy-myths http://filipinonurses.org/index.php/2012/03/five-shocking-health-myths-that-most-filipinos- believe/ https://psa.gov.ph/content/births-philippines-2018 https://psa.gov.ph/content/births-philippines-2017 https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/PHL/philippines/infant-mortality-rate http://www.healthofchildren.com/P/Prenatal-Development.html https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/prenatal- development/ https://familyincluded.com/social-support-pregnant-women/ https://wa.kaiserpermanente.org/healthAndWellness/index.jhtml?item=%2Fcommon%2Fhe althAndWellness%2Fpregnancy%2Fbirth%2FlaborStages.html https://www.parents.com/pregnancy/giving-birth/vaginal/birth-customs-around-the- world/ https://www.huffpost.com/entry/world-birthing-traditions_n_7033790 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2008.11.010 https://cafemom.com/parenting/204958- weird_things_about_newborns_surprisingly_normal/188106-they_can_breathe_swallow_at https://babyandchild.ae/age-0-1/healthy-baby/article/1058/8-freaky-facts-about-babies- you-didn-t-know-before https://www.parents.com/baby/development/physical/4-exercises-to-help-baby-get- stronger/ https://business.inquirer.net/72469/next-generation-of-filipinos-will-be-shorter-says- study#:~:text=MANILA https://www.savethechildren.org.ph/our-work/our-stories/story/watch-why-are-some- filipino-children-so-short/ Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 10  MODULE I. AN OVERVIEW OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY This module introduces the concept of Child Psychology, its theoretical foundations, and the significance of learning about it, to provide a general view of what the course is all about. Unit 1. Introductory Perspective of Child Psychology and Significance of Child Study In this unit, Child Psychology will be defined, and its significance in both one’s personal and professional life will be highlighted. Engage: “I once was a child, and so were you” Perhaps something you and I have in common is that we both experienced being a child. We both had our share of childhood experiences and memories. You have your story, and I have mine. In understanding people’s behaviors, one of the greatest influences would be one’s childhood experiences. Childhood is filled with lessons and mistakes, adventures and mishaps, odd feelings and unexplainable things. It could also be the happiest period in one’s life. Regardless of the kind of experience one has had in childhood, one’s childhood would always be influential in future behavior. How was your childhood? What do you remember most about it? Explore: What is Developmental Psychology? When you decided to take up Psychology, you probably had something in mind as to what you would become in the future. Maybe your goal is to become a Clinical Psychologist? A Guidance Counselor? A teacher? Maybe you are thinking of working with trauma survivors? Adolescents? The elderly? Or children? Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 11  Indeed, obtaining a degree in Psychology would open a lot of doors – you can work in the clinical, industrial, and educational areas, and in time, you will get to discover where you belong and which of these would give you fulfillment. Whichever area you choose would require you to be knowledgeable in Developmental Psychology, among other fields. What is Developmental Psychology? Developmental Psychology is a scientific approach that aims to explain growth, change, and consistency throughout the lifespan. It looks into how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors changes throughout a person’s life – from conception until old age. The three goals of developmental psychology are to describe, explain, and optimize development. Based on the definition and description above, we see how knowledge and understanding of developmental psychology is important, as being Psychology majors, you will eventually be working with people – people of different ages, people in different stages. Knowing what stage a person is in would aid in understanding the possible concerns, issues, and changes he/she is going through, thereby enabling you, as a professional, to also know how to help the person. The human life cycle with the divisions of childhood, adolescence and adulthood is the subject of Developmental Psychology. This field attempts to describe, understand, and explain changes in human behavior across the life span. Its task is to explore the factors influencing the physical, intellectual, moral and psycho-social growth of human beings in different stages of life. This course mainly focuses on childhood. As we go along, try to remember your own experiences as a child, and also ask your parents about your life as a baby and toddler (as for sure, you would not remember this). You may also observe the behavior of children around you to better understand the topics we will be discussing. Let’s begin! Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 12  Explain: DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF CHILD STUDY What is Child Psychology and what does it encompass? Child Psychology is the scientific study of the individual from his prenatal beginnings to the early stages of his adolescent development which is approximately until twelve years old. Child Psychology deals with physical growth and maturation; the influences of environment to development; and the psycho-social interactions between a child and significant others in the society into which he is born and reared. Furthermore, Child Psychology attempts to describe and explain changes in behavior across the period of childhood. This is done by observing what the child does, what he/she can be taught to do and by understanding the impact of biological and environmental interactive influences on this observed behavior. So why is there a need for Child Psychology? SIGNIFICANCE OF CHILD STUDY ✓ to have an enriched understanding of children’s behavior and its relation with adult behavior 8-year old Rosey often shouts at their house helper, and expects her to do whatever she tells her to do. Rosey also gets into fights in school, when other people such as her classmates do not do what she tells them to. Rosey’s parents allow her to treat their house helper and other people that way, and do not correct her behavior. They say it will make her a strong, independent woman in the future. How do you think Rosey will act as an adult in the near future? Some behaviors are learned and developed in childhood, and may influence how one behaves later on. It is then important to understand the relationship between childhood and adolescent/adult behaviors. ✓ to increase knowledge on the process of development and the conditions conducive to physical and psychological well-being Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 13  10-year old Tony’s family has lived in the squatter area since he was born. His father strives to make sure they eat three times a day, which they often do, but food is very limited and they usually do not have enough. Tony’s mother is pregnant with Tony’s fifth sibling, and has difficulty taking care of her children. At the moment, the pandemic has worsened the family’s condition, and Tony does his best to help take care of his siblings. He hardly has enough sleep as he and his father take turns staying awake at night to make sure no robbers steal the very little amount of money Tony’s father works hard for everyday. Given this scenario, one can easily say living conditions are not good for Tony and his siblings’ well-being. Also Tony’s unborn sibling is affected, even while still in their mother’s womb. As we discuss the different topics in this course, you will get to better understand how different conditions play a part in one’s development. ✓ to facilitate early detection of problems in development and help in the prevention of deviant or atypical behavior At 3 years old, Jacky is still unable to walk on her own. She also has difficulty expressing herself as she only makes cooing sounds and has not yet spoken even her first word. Jacky’s parents know that this is unusual for a child Jacky’s age, and decide to consult a doctor. Various topics in this course will help you be more aware of what to expect in every area of a child’s development. This is important to know when a child’s behavior is different and not as expected, so that the possibility of a worsening condition can be prevented. The earlier a problem is detected, the higher the chance of it being corrected, solved, or at least addressed. ✓ to know the principles and stages of growth and the developmental tasks to expect from each stage Mrs. Makulay’s son is 5 years old, and always insists on doing things his own way, on his own. He often argues with his mother about what to wear and what to eat, and he is often scolded for doing household chores the wrong way. Mrs. Makulay is deeply concerned and troubled about this, and seeks help from her close friend. Her friend then tells her that this is perfectly normal for a 5-year old child, and something Mrs. Makulay should be proud of. Who do you think is right in this scenario? Well, much as we would like to know the answer to that right now, you would have to wait until we discuss the topic relevant to this example. See, it is necessary to be knowledgeable about the different stages and principles of development so that you would know what behaviors to expect. ✓ to utilize research and information on child study in caring for children in our society and address current issues on the welfare of children Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 14  Being college students, and moreover, being Psychology majors, it is very important to be aware of and care about the many social issues in today’s world. Some of the issues concerning children are childhood illnesses, bullying, child trafficking, and abuse. As future professionals in psychology, it is very possible that you would come up with researches on these issues, and make use of these to develop programs that would address them. You may also find yourself working with agencies that cater to children. Moreover, you will probably become a parent yourself, and your child/children will be at the top of your list, leading you to be an advocate of children’s rights or simply be a parent who would naturally want the best for your child/children. You may or may not be fond of children at this point in your life, but always remember that you were once a child, and whatever you have become now was influenced to some extent by your childhood. Having knowledge in Child Psychology will be an advantage for you, not just as a future Psychology professional, but as a person. Elaborate and Evaluate: Now that you have an idea of what Child Psychology is all about, it’s time to learn more about the stars of our course – children! Also posted are some questions for you to reflect on. ❖ A child’s brain has its most dramatic growth period from birth until the age of 5. ❖ The eyesight of babies is somewhere around 20/2400. They can only see clearly about a foot away. By the time they turn 6 months, they are able to see at 20/20. ❖ Babies should not be given water to drink before the age of 6 months old. This is because their bodies cannot yet process water. It would be dangerous for them! ❖ Babies and kids can laugh up to 300 times a day. How many times a day do YOU laugh? ❖ At the age of 5 months, a child recognizes his or her name. ❖ Playtime is a very powerful and necessary learning tool for youngsters. What was your favorite play activity as a child? ❖ Children seem to develop best, when they have consistent contact with at least three, supportive and loving adult influences throughout their life. Can you name three significant people from your childhood? ❖ Language is the most difficult thing a child must learn in their early development. What was your first clear word? Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 15  ❖ A toddler between the ages of 1 and 2 years, will gain 2 million new brain connections every second. ❖ Flavor preferences learned in infancy can last for years. ❖ At the age of 1, kids use both hands equally. As they grow, they prefer one hand or the other. ❖ About 90% of kids are right-handed. Are you part of this 90%? ❖ A curious child may ask 73 questions every day! Were you curious as a child? ❖ A child’s sense of privacy usually begins around 8–9 years old. What was your first secret as a child? References: SLU Child Psychology Manual https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/featurephilia/story/9-magical-facts-about- childhood-that-will-blow-your-mind-1671454-2020-04-27 https://www.factretriever.com/child-development-facts Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 16  Unit 2. Theoretical Perspectives of Child Development Here, the various theoretical foundations od of psychology will be looked into as a means of explaining childhood behaviors and the changes that come along with it. Engage and Explore: “Two children, two behaviors” 9-year old Kimi and 8-year old Rizi are neighbors who have eventually become good friends. They spend most of their weekends playing together and exploring their small neighborhood. Kimi is said to be “the nice one”. She always makes sure to help her parents with the household chores before going out to play, and always makes it a point to share whatever she has to those who have none. Kimi is also a good student, and though she is not part of the honor roll in school, her grades are okay and she has never failed a class. Rizi, on the other hand, is more of the “proud one”. She always talks about her and her family’s accomplishments to anyone who would listen. Rizi’s family is well-off, and she tends to get what she wants, when she wants it. She thinks that people should be hardworking like her parents so they can have what they want as well. For her, people should not have to beg or be in need, because everyone can work for what they need and want. In school, Rizi is a top performer, and always gets the highest scores. Rizi believes that this is because she is intelligent, and deserves only the best. Even with their differing experiences and outlooks in life, Kimi and Rizi regard each other as “best friends”. Kimi and Rizi’s behaviors are different, perhaps because their upbringing is different. To explain and understand their behavior, we may consider various perspectives. How can you explain Kimi’s behavior? What about Rizi’s behavior? Explain: Let us look into the various perspectives that enable us to understand and explain behavior. These perspectives are not only used for childhood behavior, but also for other developmental stages. Since this course focuses on child psychology, we look at these perspectives considering childhood behavior. BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE Behaviorists view children as having a relatively passive role in their development. Just as the computer can do only what the environment directs it to do, so children do only what the environment directs them to do. Behaviorism applies central ideas of learning to children’s development. Theories in Focus: *Classical Conditioning Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 17  Ivan Pavlov showed that a dog would learn to salivate at the sound of a bell as a result of the frequent presentation of the pairing of the bell with food. John Watson used classical conditioning to explain many aspects of children’s behavior, especially emotions such as fear. 4-year old Ivy has a teddy bear that she initially loved. Her older brother, Lev, enjoys teasing her and making her cry. One day, Lev used Ivy’s bear to tease her by operating it like a puppet as he ran after her. He did this for a week, until he did not need to do anything, because the moment Ivy saw the teddy bear, she would start to cry. Classical Conditioning explains how the pairing or association of two stimuli produces a response that would be similar to when only the previously neutral stimulus is presented. Refer back to your notes in Psych 111, and recall this theory. *Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner theorized on operant conditioning as related with the consequences of reward or punishment on behavior. Positive reinforcement such as a smile or praise may increase the frequency of occurrence of a behavior, while punishment such as criticism or withdrawal of privileges tend to decrease the frequency of its occurrence. Operant conditioning principles have been incorporated in various programs on child behavior modification. Lev, 9 years old, is not allowed to watch his favorite cartoon on TV for 3 days, after he made his little sister Ivy cry. This is his punishment. Since Lev does not want to miss his favorite TV show again, he tries his best not to tease Ivy anymore. Remember the discussion of this topic in Psych 111? Can you give your own examples of how positive reinforcement is applied? What about negative reinforcement? * Social Learning Theory Alfred Bandura’s theory espouses that children learn by observing and imitating others. In a series of classic studies, Bandura have shown that aggressive behavior in children may be increased by exposing them to persons who are behaving aggressively. Note: Imitation is nor automatic. Children tend to be selective of the behavior they imitate. Their personalities and past experience; their relationship with their model; and the situations in which they are involved in, will have a part in determining whether imitation of an observed behavior occurs. Cognitive skills play an important role in observational learning. In order to imitate, children must be capable of remembering the behavior the model is displaying and those who use active strategies in trying to recall, rehearse, and organize behavior. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 18  Given the situation where Lev teases Ivy, how can you explain this considering Social Learning Theory? Think of what you learned about this in Psych 111, and come up with an explanation. ORGANISMIC PERSPECTIVE This perspective views the child as constantly seeking to adapt to the world by relating new experiences to their existing knowledge, and modifying their knowledge base to incorporate the new information. It is by accommodating new information and assimilating experience into one’s existing knowledge or mental structures that cognitive development takes place. Children go through different stages of cognitive development, with each stage characterized qualitatively by different ways of solving problems and organizing knowledge. Cognitive development is continuous since it is a progression of a child’s intelligence through a series of qualitatively different and increasingly complex reorganizations as the child moves to more advanced levels of cognitive functioning. At 9 years old, Lev is able to solve basic math problems on his own. He can also easily classify object not only according to color or shape, but also according to function or purpose. His 4-year old sister Ivy is not yet capable of this at her stage of development. Theory in focus: Jean Piaget’s cognitive structural theory is so far the best-known organismic theory. His theory shall be discussed further in the later modules of this course. PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE This view emerged from the clinical tradition and is more difficult to integrate with the scientific study of children. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 19  Theories in focus: Sigmund Freud viewed development as a discontinuous process that proceeded in a Series of discrete steps. In each stage, certain biological forces play a central role in organizing how the infant and child relates to the world. He thought that the sequences of stages were the same for all children, but the kind of treatment received by the child and the kind of relationship with the mother at each stage would determine whether the child develops a healthy personality or not. Freud claimed that it was possible for a person to get stuck in one stage of psychosexual development, and referred to this as fixation. Fixation relates to having attachments to people or things that persist from childhood to adulthood. Freud believed that persistent fixations were caused by unresolved issues in previous psychological stages of personality development. To put it simply, one can become obsessed and fixated on things as he or she gets stuck somewhere in his or her growth and development. Freud proposed the following psychosexual stages: · Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 20  Moreover, Freud proposed that the structure of the developing personality consists of the following: ID - the instinctual component of the personality operating on the pleasure principle which is oriented toward maximizing pleasure and immediate gratification of needs. EGO – the rational controlling part of personality which attempts to gratify the needs of a person through appropriate social mechanisms. SUPEREGO – the internalization of parental or societal values that result to the development of conscience. Erik Erikson has extended and refined Freud’s theory by identifying eight stages in the life span until old age. He organized his theory around the personal and social tasks that needed to be developed in each stage of development. A conflict is experienced at each stage, with the goal of developing the healthy alternative. Furthermore, whatever attitude or virtue that would be developed in each stage is in function of the kind of relationship the child has with significant persons around him, their warmth and affection and the predictability of the child’s world. The table below shows the different psychosocial stages of development along with The virtue developed, and the possible outcome of developing the healthy alternative of The conflict. Childhood is concerned with the first four stages. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 21  Let us apply these theories to an example. 34-year old Tara is single, and has no plans of getting married. This is not because she does not want to settle down and have a family, but because it is very difficult for her to trust people. She has had suitors in the past, but turned them all down because she is afraid of being left behind or getting hurt. Tara had a bad childhood, where she experienced being left by her parents with her grandmother who always spanked and shouted at her. Her parents never came back for her, despite always saying they would. They enjoyed life without her in another country. Considering Freud’s theory, it is possible that Tara had issues during the Phallic Stage, as she did not have her mother as a model in being a lady or woman. She also did not have any relationship with her father, thus, there was no father figure to look up to. Tara’s grandmother, being strict and punitive, probably did not talk to her about sexuality, that is, about her sexual feelings, thoughts, attractions and behaviors towards other people. Considering Erikson’s theory, on the other hand, we know that Tara’s parents never came back for her, and this basically did not allow Tara to develop trust. Her grandmother’s behavior did not enable this either. Now, these explanations are very basic, but it gives us an idea of how we can explain behavior using the psychodynamic perspective. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 22  ETHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Ethology is the study of the biological bases of behavior which includes evolution and causation in development. It sees development as a process of adaptation to the environment. Ethologists place the study of children in a comparative perspective. It searches for cross-cultural universals which are behaviors common to all children across a wide range of different cultures. The observation of children in their natural settings is a basic method in this view in order to develop detailed description and classification of behavior into meaningful patterns. According to ethologists, members of each species are born with a number of innate responses that are products of evolution. These biologically programmed behaviors are thought to have evolved as a result of Darwin’s Natural Selection theory. Here, childhood behaviors are explained by considering that they result from the need to survive and adapt. ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE This view stresses the importance of understanding the relationship between the child and various environmental systems such as the family and the community. The child is perceived as an active participant in creating his own environment making his subjective experiences about his surroundings significant. Theory in focus Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, which you learned in Psych 111 (Introduction to Psychology), explains the influence of the different types of environment that an individual is exposed to. LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVE This view recognizes that development is a process that continues into adulthood and old age. All periods of life are important in the life cycle. Changes which occur with development in the life span may be normative or age-graded. This refer to sets of experiences which most children and adults undergo at approximately the same age or time which are usually the product of biological maturation. On the other hand, non- normative events are those changes which are unexpected or do not conform to a prescribed schedule which may push development in new directions. Cohort or historical effects in development refer to groups who share the same set of historical experiences that are unique to each group born in a particular era. In explaining a behavior using these perspectives, always remember that not all perspectives will be applicable. One perspective may explain a certain behavior but not another, and it is also possible that more than one perspective can explain the behavior. Therefore, it is important to understand each perspective clearly. We cannot and should not use a particular perspective to explain behavior just because we want to, or just because we are interested in it. As you continue your journey in BS Psychology, you will learn more Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 23  about these perspectives, and also how you can come to a reliable and sound explanation of behavior. Elaborate: “One case, different perspectives” Now that we have discussed the different perspectives, let us apply them in understanding and explaining the situation presented earlier under “Engage”. Do you still remember Kimi and Rizi? Let’s explain Kimi’s behavior. Behavioral Perspective: Kimi was always rewarded for being nice to her siblings. Her parents would always say “Very Good!” and give her chocolate or something she wanted. Because of this, Kimi learned to be nice to everybody, even without receiving anything in return. It is also possible that Kimi learned this behavior by observing her father, who was always ready to lend a helping hand to those in need. Organismic Perspective: At her age, Kimi already understands that not all people have what they need. She knows that people come from different walks of life, and that sharing what she has is a good thing to do. Psychodynamic Perspective: Kimi had a good childhood, with both of her parents attending to and supporting her. Though they are not rich, her parents always made it a point to be physically there for Kimi even if sometimes her material wants were not given. Kimi continues to grow and develop knowing that she can rely on her family and at the same time learn to be independent. Ethological Perspective: Kimi does her chores and helps around the house before playing with her friends. This behavior enables Kimi to maintain the bond with her family, because she knows that she needs them to survive. She is only 9 years old and still has so much to learn. In school, Kimi does well, because she knows she needs to pass and not get left behind by her classmates. Ecological Perspective: Considering the microsystem, Kimi’s behavior was influenced by the good relationship she has with her family. Her macrosystem has also been built by this as she values relationships and being helpful to everyone. Lifespan Perspective: 9-year old children are expected to engage in playtime with their peers, and develop friendship. It is normal for a child Kimi’s age to have friends and enjoy playing with them. It is also expected of a 9-year old to know how to do basic household chores and help around the house. Kimi’s behavior is normal for her age. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 24  Evaluate: Prelim Assignment #1: Explaining Rizi’s Behavior Now that you have learned about the different perspectives, and we applied it to Kimi’s behavior, can you apply the perspectives to explain Rizi’s behavior? Refer to the Assignment Guide for further instruction. References: SLU Child Psychology Manual https://www.verywellmind.com/child-development-theories-2795068 Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 25  Module II. Biological Foundation of Development This module discusses the biological influences on an individual, as well as his/her beginnings starting from conception until birth. It also delves into understanding both hereditary and environmental influences, as well as the vital factors that may affect a pregnant woman and/or her offspring. Unit 1. Hereditary Influence on Development This unit explains the concepts of growth, development, and maturation, and the hereditary influences that concern these. Chromosomal and genetic abnormalities are also discussed to provide an understanding of how hereditary materials as well as environmental factors play a part in them. It is important to learn about how heredity influences human development. Heredity details how genetic material from a male and a female can come together to begin the complex process of formatting new life. It explains why individuals are different from one another in terms of health status and conditions, physical appearance, characteristics and personality traits, and many others. Engage: WHICH OF YOUR PARENTS DO YOU RESEMBLE MORE? In your opinion, which of your parents do you resemble more? What particular parts of your face and body do you think you inherited from each parent? Fill in the table below by placing a check mark under the parent/relative who you believe you most likely inherited the characteristic or trait from. Both Parents/ Mother Father Other Relative Cannot Determine Hair Nose Lips/Mouth Height Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 26  Physique/Body Shape Talents Personality Try to ask one or both your parents, a grandparent, a relative, or someone who is familiar with you and your family to do the same task of determining which parent you resemble the most. Both Parents/ Mother Father Other Relative Cannot Determine Hair Nose Lips/Mouth Height Physique/Body Shape Talents Personality Evaluate both sets of answers. Are there similarities or differences between them? Are other people seeing resemblances that you do not notice? Regardless of whether we appear or do not appear like younger versions of our parents, Heredity, which is the passing of traits from parent to offspring, greatly influences the developmental processes that every child undergoes. Let us now explore more about how heredity influences human development. Explore: CONCEPT CHECK In the mid-1900s, one of the methods Filipino educators would utilize to determine if a child was ready to attend grade school was to see whether the child could raise his/her arm over his/her head and touch his/her ear on the opposite side of his/her body. If a child was able to do this, then the child was determined to be ‘ready’ and if not, then the child still had more ‘growing’ to do. This method for assessing a child’s readiness for school works on the assumption that the physical growth of a child says something about the less observable changes in him/her such as changes in his/her mental capacity or cognitive skills. The length of a child’s arm does not necessarily determine his/her readiness for formal education and that is why this method has become somewhat obsolete. There are two types of changes in human development over time. These are the quantitative and qualitative changes: Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 27  a. Quantitative changes refer to easily measurable features such as height and weight b. Qualitative changes refer to descriptive features of development such as changes in thought processes from object–oriented thinking to a more abstract thinking In the example, the physical growth and lengthening of the child’s arm is a quantitative change, whereas changes in attention span, thought process and other factors that determine readiness for school are qualitative changes. Other related terms in development are growth, development and maturation. Growth refers to physical / physiological changes in human beings which are often quantitative. Development pertains to progressive series of changes which occur in a relatively predictable pattern as result of maturation and experience. It involves a complex process of integrating many structures and functions which are often qualitative. Maturation is the unfolding of traits in individuals which result from the interactive relationship of heredity and environment. It consists of a series of preprogrammed changes which include not only alterations in structure and form but in complexity, integration, organization and function. Maturation may limit the responsive behavior of a child at various stages of growth. e.g. Dennis used to be the smallest sibling but when he reached the age of 10, he steadily grew until he was the tallest. His limbs were longer and his body became lankier (growth). Being the tallest, Dennis became responsible for breaking up fights between his siblings and was responsible for calming them down. This task allowed him to become more problem- focused rather than emotion-focused (development). Eventually Dennis was able to get into a basketball team when he showed potential in the sport. He continued to grow taller but was now less awkward when he moved and had better control over his body (maturation). Explain: It is also important to consider at this point, the role environment plays in the hereditary influence to development. Nature, which comprises the totality of influences biologically transmitted from the parents to the offspring, and Nurture, which is the sum total of all external conditions and factors potentially capable of influencing individuals, combine to promote developmental changes. The same hereditary predisposition may lead to any several outcomes depending on the environment to which the child is exposed. The following are some principles which illustrate this point: Canalization Principle - This principle refers to cases where operation of genes tends to limit/restrict development to a small number of outcomes. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 28  - A characteristic that is strongly canalized is relatively difficult to modify (e.g. eye color, blood type, Downs’ syndrome, babbling) - Less canalized characteristics can be modified in any of several ways because of variety in life experiences (e.g. intelligence, height, temperament) - This principle implies that there are multiple pathways of development Range-of-Reaction Principle - Where genotype/ genetic endowment sets limits to a range of possible phenotype/ ways in which person’s genotype is expressed in observable or measurable characteristics. - One’s genotype helps to set a range of possible outcomes for any particular attribute but the environment may determine the point within the range where the individual would fall. e.g. Children who inherit genes that predispose them to high levels of intellectual potential and who are raised in a supportive and stimulating environment will likely achieve their full potential. Whereas children with the same predispositions that are raised in depravation are less likely to have the same outcomes. Niche Picking - Proposition that genotypes may direct individuals to seek out environments which are most compatible with their biological predispositions - People may select or build environments which they find as congenial or stimulating e.g. Children who are genetically predisposed to be extroverted or gregarious actively seek the company of others and become involved in a wide range of social activities. These experiences in turn enhance the expression of the genotype to be sociable. Rubber-Band Hypothesis - Genetic traits may be compared with a rubber band where its length is stretched by environmental forces. - People may initially have been given different lengths of unstretched genetic endowments, but the natural forces of the environment may have stretched their expression to equal lengths or led to differences in attained length in function of innate differences. CHROMOSOMES and GENES: In the process of reproduction, the sperm and ovum combine to form a zygote that has 46 chromosomes which contain all the hereditary endowment of this newly formed individual. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 29  a. Chromosomes - Chromosomes are rod-like or threadlike structures found in the nuclei of cells which contain the genes - At the time of conception, the zygote receives 23 chromosomes from the father’s sperm and 23 chromosomes from the mother’s egg cell or ovum - Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes of man, 22 pairs are autosomes possessed equally by males and females. Autosomes determine the different traits of an individual. rd - The 23 pair are sex chromosomes where the female has XX and the male has XY chromosome. The X chromosome is about 5 times as long as the Y chromosome and contains more genes in it. Since the mother is XX, her ovum always contains an X chromosome. Sperms may carry either an X or Y chromosome. If a sperm with an X chromosome fertilizes the ovum, the offspring will be a female (XX); if the sperm carries a Y chromosome, the offspring will be a male (XY). Simply put, the gender of a child is thus determined by the father. b. Genes - Genes are heredity units within the chromosomes occurring in pairs - Genes were originally regarded as inherited factors each controlling one feature i.e. eye color but are now usually regarded as lengths of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) which determine the synthesis of protein molecules needed by living cells. - Some of these protein chains control body processes, some are structural and form new tissues, and some regulate the functioning of structural genes. When even one of these genes is defective, marked developmental deviations may occur in the child. CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES: Developmental disorders sometimes appear because of variations or defects in chromosomes or chromosome matching. Some of these deviations occur in the autosomes and others in the sex chromosomes. It is estimated that 60% of early spontaneous abortions and 5% of later abortions are attributable to chromosomal aberrations. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 30  1. ABNORMALITIES OF THE SEX CHROMOSOMES: Female Abnormalities: a. Turner’s Syndrome ; XO Appearance: phenotypically female but small in stature with stubby fingers and toes, a webbed neck, broad chest, small, underdeveloped breasts Fertility Condition: sterile Intellectual Characteristics: normal in verbal intelligence but frequently score below average on tests of spatial abilities such as puzzle assembly. b. Poly- X or “superfemale syndrome”; XXX, XXXX, XXXXX Appearance: phenotypically female and normal in appearance Fertility Condition: fertile; produce children with the usual number of chromosomes Intellectual Characteristics: score relatively below average in intelligence with greatest deficits on tests of verbal reasoning. Intellectual deficits can be detected by age two as reflected in developmental delays in walking and talking. Deficits become more pronounced with increasing number of X chromosomes. Male Abnormalities: a. Klinefelter’s Syndrome ; XXY or XXXY Appearance: phenotypically male with the appearance of some female secondary sex characteristics i.e. enlarged hips and breasts at puberty; significantly taller than normal XY males. Fertility Condition: sterile with underdeveloped testes. Intellectual Characteristics: about 20 to 30 percent of these cases have deficits in verbal intelligence which become more pronounced with increasing inherited X chromosomes. b. Supermale Syndrome: XYY, XYYY; XYYYY Appearance: phenotypically males significantly taller than normal XY males; have large teeth; often develop severe acne in adolescence. Fertility Condition: typically fertile although many of these cases have low sperm counts. Intellectual Characteristics: may be affected by infantile autism linked with the fragile X syndrome (brittle X chromosome that may have separated in two or more places). Infantile autism is a serious emotional disorder of early childhood characterized by extreme self-involvement, repetitive self- stimulating behaviors and delayed/absent language and social skills. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 31  2. AUTOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES: This may occur when an abnormal sperm or ovum carrying an extra autosome may combine with a normal gamete to form a zygote that has 47 chromosomes (2 sex chromosomes and 45 autosomes). In these cases, the extra chromosome appears along with one of the 22 pairs of autosomes to yield three chromosomes of that type or a trisomy. DOWN SYNDROME - Down Syndrome is the most frequent autosomal abnormality known also as trisomy 21, a condition where a child inherited an extra 21st chromosome. - These cases show mental retardation, congenital eye, ear and heart defects; almond-shaped eyes with eyelid folds that give an oriental appearance. They have round heads, short necks, protruding tongues, sloping foreheads and awkward- footed walk. - Most children with Down syndrome are affectionate and have placid, cheerful temperaments. - Infants with Down Syndrome appear to develop fairly normal for the first 6 months but their rate of intellectual development declines after the first year. They likewise have difficulty attending to, discriminating and interpreting environmental information. Research indicates that these children do learn to care for their basic needs or read and write in the future. CAUSES OF CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES: 1. Uneven segregation of chromosomes into daughter cells during meiosis. - To illustrate this, the meiosis of a female germ cell may produce one ovum containing two X chromosomes and a second ovum with no X chromosome. Such an imbalance may have the following possibilities: Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 32  a. If the first ovum (XX) is fertilized by a sperm bearing an X chromosome, the result is a poly -X female (XXX); b. If a sperm bearing a Y chromosome reaches that ovum first, the zygote will become a Klinefelter male (XYY) ; c. If the ovum containing no X chromosome is fertilized by an X - bearing sperm, the child will be an XO female who has Turner’s Syndrome. 2. The mother’s age - Mothers who bear children past the age of 35 may increase probabilities for Down syndrome, Klinefelter’s Syndrome or poly-X syndrome. Note that this is not automatically the case for all women above 35 years old. It is just a risk. Many women still bear “normal” children even past the age of 35. A lot of other factors should be considered, such as health, nutrition, previous pregnancy complications, and the like. - The “aging ova” hypothesis involves the degeneration of the ova as women are towards the end of their reproductive years. Older women may also have been more exposed to environmental hazards such as radiation, drugs, chemicals and viruses that could damage their ova. 3. The father’s damaged sperm cell - 25 % of Down syndrome cases receive their extra 21st chromosome from their fathers. - Fathers exposed to repeated abdominal X-rays may have damaged chromosomes. - Majority of girls with Turner’s syndrome originate from a normal X ovum that has been fertilized by an abnormal sperm that neither contains an X or Y chromosome. - The XYY or supermale syndrome is attributed to the father. GENETIC ABNORMALITIES: Genetic problems are linked with recessive traits which both parents carry. The following are some recessive hereditary defects: 1. CYSTIC FIBROSIS - fatal disease characterized by lack of enzyme that prevents mucus from obstructing the lungs and the digestive tract. 2. MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY (MD) - genetic disease attacking the muscles and causing the loss of motor capabilities. 3. PHENYLKETONURIA (PKU) - lack of enzyme particularly that which contains the amino acid phenylalanine which is necessary to digest food including milk. If this condition is not detected and the child is placed on a diet of milk substitutes, phenylpyruxic acid will accumulate in the body and attack the developing Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 33  nervous system. Long term effects of PKU include hyperactivity and severe mental retardation. 4. TAY-SACH’S DISEASE - degenerative disease which kill the victims by their third birthday. 5. HEMOPHILIA - a sex-linked disease called “bleeders’ disease” where there is a lack of substance that causes the blood to clot 6. DIABETES - an inherited condition where there is inability to metabolize sugar properly because the body does not produce enough insulin Note: Genetic abnormalities may also result from mutations which are changes in the chemical structure of one or more genes that have the effect of producing a new phenotype. Mutation can also be induced by environmental hazards such as toxic industrial waste, radiation, agricultural chemicals that enter the food supply, and possibly some additives/ preservatives in processed food. Elaborate: INTERACTING WITH CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS Along with learning about how heredity influences the development of a child and how certain chromosomal abnormalities can come about, it is also important to learn about the right ways to interact with and care for children with special needs. Here are some suggestions that you can apply: 1. Every child has a strength. It is important for us to focus on the abilities of children and on what they can do rather than their disability. Furthermore, we can use children’s abilities to assist in areas where that face the most challenges. 2. In terms of communication, some children with disabilities will be able to speak with you while others cannot. But even without speech, these children can communicate through other ways. Listen and observe for these efforts that children do. 3. Children are stimulated by everything in their environment. Make sure that you spend time and interact with them. Smile at them, play with them, tell them what you are doing, or describe to them about the environment that they are in. 4. Be flexible in the way you accommodate and interact with children with disabilities. Use a variety of methods to engage and educate them. 5. Have several plans ready whenever you are with children with disabilities. Make sure that you are observant of your surroundings and of the child in case of unexpected eventualities. 6. Do your best to maintain a positive and welcoming attitude. It is important to provide children with disabilities with a loving environment. Children who are shown warmth and love grow up to be loving, warm persons. Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 34  Evaluate: Prelims Assignment #2: Case Analysis Refer to the Assignment Guide for instructions. Also, you may now take Prelim Quiz #1, found in your learning packet. References: SLU Child Psychology Manual https://www.unicef.org/parenting/child-development/children-with-disabilities-class https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-psychology/chapter/reading-gene-