Developmental Psychology I Notes (Paul) PDF

**[Developmental Psychology I - Prof Paul A. Bartolo(VIDEOS)]** COGNITION & DEVELOPMENT ◼ *Development*: the *changes that people undergo as they grow* from conception to old age, and especially to the dramatic changes they undergo in the first 20 years. ◼ *Cognition*: *mental processes such as p...

**[Developmental Psychology I - Prof Paul A. Bartolo(VIDEOS)]** COGNITION & DEVELOPMENT ◼ *Development*: the *changes that people undergo as they grow* from conception to old age, and especially to the dramatic changes they undergo in the first 20 years. ◼ *Cognition*: *mental processes such as perceiving* (seeing or hearing or reading... and understanding), remembering, thinking, reasoning and problem solving. COGNITIVE/ INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT ◼ *Development of children's cognition*: the development of perception, attention, memory, understanding, thinking, reasoning, problem solving BRAIN PHYSIOLOGY ◼ Evidence that *physiological impairments in the brain as well as lack of appropriate nutrition* - not just quantity but quality - *affects the development of the brain*. And that such appropriate nutrition must begin from conception. ◼ Neuroscience research has shown the *impact of impoverished and enriched environments* on the development of the brain. ◼ There is also clear evidence of the *harmful effects on brain development of high anxiety, alcohol and smoking and other drugs*... e.g. Foetal Alcohol Syndrome. LEARNING OUTCOMES ◼ describe developmental patterns in children's intellectual growth from birth to 12 years ◼ explain these developmental patterns by referring to the major influential theories of developmental psychology. ◼ identify an optimal educational environment that facilitates children's growth and learning. ◼ Recognise the more reliable and valid ways of discovering each of the above phenomena in human cognitive development and learning. OUTLINE 1\. Cognitive developmental theories: Introduction. 2\. Piagetian theory. Main concepts. Developmental stages. 3\. Vygotskyan socio-cultural theory. 4\. Information processing theory; language development 5\. Individual differences in cognition: MI, EI, IQ. **MI**: **Multiple Intelligences** - A theory by Howard Gardner suggesting that people have *different kinds of intelligences*, like musical, logical-mathematical, interpersonal, or bodily-kinesthetic. **EI**: **Emotional Intelligence** - The ability to understand, manage, and *regulate your own emotions*, as well as recognize and influence the emotions of others. **IQ**: **Intelligence Quotient** - A measure of *cognitive abilities*, typically focusing on problem-solving, reasoning, and logical thinking, as determined by standardized tests. 6\. The development of social relationships. Social cognition and moral development 7\. Atypical development DEVELOPMENT OF DRAWING SKILLS Children's drawings used as ◼ **A measure of intelligence or creativity** e.g. Draw-a-Man \[Person\] test (Goodenough) ◼ **Projections of inner feelings about themselves and others**, e.g. House-Tree-Person Test (Buck) https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=J87xrHy7 48Q (see Zlateva (2019). How to read children's drawings. https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/ 48957) Florence E.g. Scoring of 4-year-olds drawings "Draw a picture of a child" related to IQ scores at 14 years Arden, 2014 A drawing of a person Description automatically generated PROJECTIONS ◼ **The central zone** (The central section): egocentrism, self -confidence, activity, selfishness, confidence and efficiency ◼ **Large Figure**: pretense, incredibly high *self -esteem*; ◼ **Slanted Figure**: Unstable, insecure, possible mental imbalance; ◼ **Circle empty eyes**: show fear and strong *anxiety* ◼ **T -shaped figure** (horizontally extended hands) - high level of activity, possible sign of *hyperactivity*; ◼ **Too long fingers** (red) may mean the person is overly *aggressive* (Zlateva, 2019) ***1-2 yrs:* Learn to scribble** *0-4 mths*: children learn to track objects with their *eyes*, or to manage the *movement of their arms*. *4th mth*: to coordinate their *arm movement with the tracking of objects* and thus reach out and grasp objects. *4-8 mths*: *to manipulate* - and mouth - objects - such as a crayon. They feel it, notice the colour and brightness, smell, taste etc. *8-12 mths*: able to *focus on the effect of such manipulation on a second object* - a piece of paper, making marks on it: they hit it or drag it. *12-20 mths*: they learn to focus on the marks they make on paper and can *produce a scribble*. ***2-5 yrs*: Representation of object** In the second stage, from 2-5 years, children become able *to focus on the type of scribble to produce the representation of an object.* First they learn to *form different patterns* - e.g. horizontal and vertical lines, circles (by around 3 years); they then learn to *combine them to make a representation of an object* - the sun, or people, or a bike. ***5-10 yrs*: Draw a scene** In the third stage, between 5-10years, they first learn *to create a scene*: At 6 years they draw the ground or the sky in addition to people; or develop a much more differentiated representation of a person. But initially they are not able to focus on the third dimension - depth. This has been a very robust finding: in experiments asking children up to 7 years to draw objects or figures that are behind each other, they tend to draw both objects in some form of transparent or parallel fashion. *Perspective* ***10-15yrs*: Coordinate scenes** Most 10 year olds find it difficult to integrate the two scenes of the mother behind the window looking at the child behind the tree, and instead draw the two scenes in separate fashion. *The integration of the two scenes is a higher level task* requiring the hierarchical integration of the ability to represent perspective into the higher level goal of representing a point of view. **Lifespan development** Recent studies have been showing how *development of drawing goes on into old age*. E.g. artists include higher dimensions within their drawing that are fully understood by those who are expert in art. Experts are able to *chunk more and more elements* within a single insight. Moreover*, artistic skill also includes the way the pencil or brush is handled and the painting executed*: these are the result of hierarchical developments in motor coordination skill. Thus knowledge and skills continue to develop beyond the end of the stage of *physical maturation* (around 20yrs) and are often termed *crystallised intelligence*. **Measures & Theories of Cognitive Development Measures** Extensive records of what children can do at different ages (e.g. Arnold Gesell since 1911 in the USA). *IQ tests* represent what most children can do at different ages (psychomotor, language, perception, memory, reasoning, problem solving) Cognitive developmental theories: attempt to explain how children move from one level to the next - Use of *observation, interaction, or report by carers* E.g. Bayley Scales of Infant & Toddler Development Three scales administered through *interaction with child -* *◼ cognitive* *◼ language* *◼ motor* Two scales conducted with *parent questionnaires* *◼ social-emotional* *◼ adaptive behaviour* COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES *experience influences cognitive development* ◼ We now focus on explanations: how psychologists have tried to explain the *process of growth from one level of cognitive functioning to the next* level. We refer to these as **cognitive developmental theories.** ◼ There are several theories. They can be classified into three categories. (see Case, 1992). ◼ We focused on descriptions of children's development in *different domains* at various ages and stages. **Nature -- nurture interaction** - As in all areas of development, cognitive developmental theories touch on the nature -- nurture interaction  Cells controlling gene activity An **implicit theory** refers to the beliefs and assumptions people hold about a specific phenomenon that are *not formally articulated or scientifically tested*. ***Other theoretical issues*** Is *intellectual development* - **Continuous Development**: This perspective views intellectual growth as a *gradual, ongoing process.* It suggests that changes in thinking and problem-solving abilities happen incrementally, without distinct leaps. For example, *acquiring vocabulary* or improving memory tends to build steadily over time. **Stage-Like Development**: This perspective argues that intellectual development occurs in *distinct stages, each characterized by qualitative changes in thinking.* Jean Piaget\'s theory is a classic example, proposing stages such as the preoperational and formal operational stages, where children demonstrate fundamentally *new cognitive abilities at each stage*. A person and children walking up the stairs Description automatically generated **Domain-Specific**: This perspective suggests that intellectual development occurs *independently in specific areas or domains, such as language, mathematics, or social cognition*. For example, a child may excel in language acquisition while developing mathematical reasoning more slowly. This view emphasizes *specialized mental mechanisms tailored to particular types of learning*. **Domain-General**: This perspective argues that intellectual development *involves overarching cognitive processes that influence multiple domains of knowledge.* Skills such as *working memory*, attention, or problem-solving are seen as central, shaping learning and growth across various do mains simultaneously. THREE CATEGORIES OF THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 1. EMPIRICIST THEORIES: the development of knowledge as the accumulation of *writing on a blank slate*; 2. RATIONALIST THEORIES: the development of knowledge as the *enfolding of a masterplan*; and 3. SOCIO-HISTORIC THEORIES: the development of knowledge as an *apprenticeship in a culture.* ①EMPIRICIST THEORIES: knowledge is accumulated through experience. E -- experience ◼ *Locke* (1632-1704): mind as tabula rasa, blank slate or 'white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas'. The child's mind develops and learns though ◼ *perceptual learning*: i.e. an increasing ability to distinguish between different classes of empirical *stimuli* - images, sounds, smells, tastes and textures; ◼ *cognitive learning*: i.e. the increasing ability of the child to induce associations between these classes of *perceptions*; ◼ *transfer of learning,* i.e. the increasing ability to apply the *empirical learning to new contexts*. **BEHAVIOURISM** adopted the Empiricist approach (all knowledge originates from *sensory experience and learning through observation*, rejecting the idea of innate knowledge) e.g. J*.B. Watson* (1925) wrote: ◼ Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in, and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors. ◼ Further developed by *Skinner's* theory (1940s-1960s) of Operant Conditioning **Information Processing** (Robbie Case) ◼ *Information processing* uses the *computer as a metaphor* for the mind; differs from behaviourism because it tries to model what goes on *inside the mind*. ◼ However, it too focuses on *input-output*. Mechanistic. The computer builds its knowledge through the accumulation of input which it then works on. The input determines what knowledge is acquired. ◼ *Cumulative learning* is regarded as the equivalent of *development*. (A process in which new knowledge and *skills build upon previously acquired ones*, creating a progressively richer and more integrated understanding over time) ②RATIONALIST THEORIES: *innate reasoning framework*. *Decarte* (16th c -- 'cogito ergo sum' ) and *Kant* (18th c -- the mind creates reality as much as it perceives it) focused on human reasoning: so *Rationalist* approach. (This emphasizes that knowledge arises from *reason and innate ideas*, with *logical thinking* playing a central role, independent of *sensory experience*) The child's mind develops through: ◼ An innate *order-imposing mental structure* that also develops with age. ◼ Development consists in the further construction of this equipment. *Piaget* (1896-1980): child is like a scientist who *constructs a framework* of the world from the beginning, but this framework is restructured as the child develops. ◼ Knowledge or data is *organised* according to the internal framework. *Learning is only data that is subjected to the meaning and organisation* of the more important developmental framework. The child constructs his or her own knowledge. *Language Acquisition Device* ◼ *Chomsky* (1950s- linguist): language is not acquired through experience (as *Skinner* had argued). Children are *born with a language acquisition device* (LAD) i.e. an innate mental framework for processing language (so nativist approach). ◼ Thus very young children can *construct abstract rules of any language* to which they are exposed while other animals cannot. ➂SOCIO-HISTORIC THEORIES: learning & development through apprenticeship -- culture dependent Knowledge is constructed by humans over time. *Lev Vygotsky* (1896-1934) focused on how *cultures over time create models of the world and tools for knowing and dealing with the world* and how these are passed on to the child or apprentice. The child's mind develops through: ◼ *Social interaction* with and instruction from experts in the culture; ◼ Impact of *institutions* on child's frameworks; ◼ Learning of *mental tools* for processing knowledge. *Language through social interaction* ◼ Vygotsky's research showed how children first Learned language in social interaction and then they used it for their internal thinking. ◼ Similarly scientific thinking was passed on to children through a form of apprenticeship: first the master guided the child's understanding and gradually this *guidance was passed* on to the *child's own internal regulation.* ◼ The adults, experts in a culture have acquired the knowledge and skills through social interaction and through *historical accumulation*, and these are passed on to new members of the culture: so sociohistorical approach. Theories of the major contributors to each category of theories on cognitive development: 1\. **Rationalist approach: Jean Piaget** 2\. **Socio-historic approach: Lev Vygotsky** 3**. Empiricist approach: Information processing approach: Robbie Case** NB: Effects of *maternal malnutrition* and *postnatal nutritional rehabilitation* on brain fatty acids, learning, and memory. (de souza et al., 2011) *Undernutrition* still affects mothers and children in developing countries and thus remains the major focus of nutritional intervention efforts. *Neuronal development*, which classically includes neurogenesis, migration, maturation, and synapse refinement, begins in *utero* and continues into *the early postnatal period*. These processes are not only genetically regulated but also clearly susceptible to *environmental manipulation*. Dietary deprivation during early life is known to have adverse effects on brain anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry, and may even lead to permanent brain damage. EMOTIONAL BACKGROUND TO LEARNING ◼ When a learner experiences positive emotions, the learning process can be enhanced. ◼ When a learner experiences negative emotions, the learning process can be disabled: ◼ Such as limiting the capacity to bala nce emotional issues with schoolwork, creating anxiety specifically about schoolwork, and triggering emotional responses to classroom events. (Tyng et al., 2017) *Emotions can affect learning*, in both a positive and negative way. PIAGETIAN THEORY JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980) - STAGES ◼ Swiss Psychologist. ◼ Versatile researcher and theorist. ◼ First studied biology, getting a doctorate in *zoology* by the age of 22. ◼ He was also widely read in *philosophy*. ◼ He believed that a child's mind is not a miniature model of that of the adult. It reasons differently. The *child's mind goes through stages* which are different from the other (Cognitive development) ◼ Had two work experiences in psychology: \- at a *psychiatric clinic*, with use of hypnosis, free association and psychoanalysis; and \- at a *university study* of the first Intelligence test that was being developed by the French Alfred Binet. Piaget: Research Methods ◼ Adopted the **clinical method** of observing and interviewing *children*: initial research consisted of his close observation and interaction with his own three children; ◼ Main interest not in psychometric testing -- i.e. to see what most children could do at the different ages; ◼ More *interested in their errors as an indication of their way of thinking*. ◼ From Biology, he borrowed his metaphors for the explanation of the *process of adaptation and change.* *Piaget's observation of Laurent (1937:The construction of reality in the child)* Piaget as **Epistemologist**: *Constructivist* - From philosophy, he developed his interest in epistemology, or the *theory of knowledge*: *the structure of knowledge and how it is acquired*. Piaget's theory is **Constructivist** - "Knowledge is not ready made. Each of us is *continually creating our own knowledge*. We are continually organising what we know, structuring and restructuring our knowledge." Piaget's books in the 1920s and 30s, but published in America from the 1960s, include: The language and thought of the child (1926) and more. PIAGET: DOMAIN-GENERAL STRUCTURE ◼ *Domain*: *an area of knowledge or skill*: e.g. mathematics, language, logical thinking, social cognition, artistic development, moral development. ◼ He believed these many stages reflect *universal changes in a child's underlying mental structures,* rather than separate processes for each domain. PIAGET: STAGE THEORY Piaget suggested that our mind develops through *four stages of thinking*. A cartoon of a child holding a glass of water Description automatically generated ◼ Piaget suggested that each stage represented by a qualitatively *different higher level domain-general* structure that is applied to all the areas of knowledge. The driving force behind our *intellectual progression* is a struggle to make sense of our experiences. ◼ This *domain-general psychological structure* is made up of the *organisation or coordination of programmes in the mind* that he called *schemes*. ◼ The sequence of stages is invariant: one *cannot skip or change their sequence.* **Scheme/schema** - A scheme is the *simplest mental representation of an action* - that can be physical or mental - that can be performed on an object: e.g. pushing and pulling, or adding and subtracting. Children \"*construct*\" their understanding of the world through their *active involvement and interactions.* Children are born with certain schemes called *reflexes*: e.g. the sucking reflex. They start *controlling and changing them to fit the changes in the environment*: e.g. they learn to distinguish the breast from other body parts. Thus they adapt their schemes. Development through **ADAPTATION** (the process by which individuals *adjust their cognitive structures to better understand and respond to their environment*) which occurs in two ways: We use our existing schemas to assimilate our new experiences. But sometimes we need to accommodate (adjust) our schemas to include new experiences\... 1\. through **assimilation** (The process of *matching external reality to an existing cognitive structure)* i.e. treating something new as similar, as fitting into the old scheme: e.g. applying the sucking scheme to the teat of a milk bottle, though this is somewhat different from the nipple of a breast. 2\. At the same time, an old scheme has to be **accommodated** (*When there's an inconsistency between the learner's cognitive structure and the thing being learned the child will reorganise her/his thoughts*) to the new context: for instance the need to put the bottle up rather than press against the breast to get the milk.  ◼ *Meanwhile the child develops new schemes by combining existing ones*, e.g. for reaching and grasping: these are used to get things to the mouth. ◼ *Such a reorganisation of schemes leads to development of a new way of acting on the environment*, or new ways of thinking. **EQUILIBRATION** - An unpleasant state of disequilibrium happens *when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas* (assimilation). Equilibration is the force which *drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge* (accommodation). Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment to it. **STAGE SHIFTS** - Piaget found that *children tend to repeat schemes until they become very fluent, and also tend to elaborate them through assimilation and accommodation*. But then at certain points or ages children reorganise their *schemes into new structures*, new frameworks or stages for thinking. **MENTAL OPERATIONS -- LOGICAL THINKING** Piaget was concerned with the *development of scientific or logical thinking*. ◼ Logical thinking is characterised by *mental operations*, i.e. the ability to transform objects within your mind in logical ways. ◼ This is characterised by the *principle of reversibility*: e.g. that addition reverses the operation of subtraction; or, in knowledge about social relations, that if someone is my brother, then I am a brother to my brother. ◼ Piaget found that such *logical thinking* occurred in the *third stage of development*, after 7 years. ◼ He called this **the Concrete Operational Stage.** Piagetian assumptions that have been challenged (Rochat, 2023) **◼ Action realism** ("Action realism" is Piaget's assumption that *children from birth actively construct their cognition in interaction with the environment via the generic and very general adaptive process of equilibration between the forces of assimilation* (incorporating novelty to what is known) and *accommodation* (adjusting to novel resistance from the environment) **◼ Domain generality** ("Domain generality" is Piaget's structuralist assumption that what the child actively constructs in interaction with the environment are *logical tools* and representational abilities that are not unique to a specific domain, such as number, causality, morality, or space, but that once constructed, apply to *all domains of cognition*. Therefore, there is this very strong assumption that a cognitive ability demonstrated in one domain should generalize to all domains) ◼ **Stages of development** (Stages "Stages" is Piaget's assumption of *cognitive development as an orderly succession of necessary stages*, hence an essentially discontinuous view of development made of radical and irreversible changes that can be formally specified in logical and mathematical terms such as "closed structures" or "thought systems.") ◼ **Late representation** ("Late representation" is his *claim that before language, children do not yet have any capacity for conceptualizing proper, hence no ability for genuine mental abstraction and inferences.* In other words, Piaget assumes that infants do not possess yet any ability for internalized thoughts or representation. Before 18 months, infants display an intelligence that is sensorimotor in nature, revealed in action on objects, not yet "internalized" or private in its manifestation as in, for example, what Piaget called "true imitation" as opposed to the pseudo-imitation reported in neonates and young infants (Meltzoff & Moore, 1977)) PIAGETIAN COGINTIVE DEVELOPMENT STAGES FOUR MAJOR STAGES **1. Sensorimotor stage (0-2yrs)** **2. Pre-operational Stage (2-7yrs)** **3. Concrete operational stage (7-11yrs)** **4. Formal operational stage (11-15yrs)** A white paper with black text Description automatically generated 1. *Sensorimotor stage (0-2yrs)* - In the first two years - the child's thinking is through sensorimotor action - i.e. coordination of the use of the senses and movement. The child develops *coordination schemes for manipulating objects in the world*: pushing a button to make an object move, putting objects in and out of containers, looking for hidden toys, getting things that are out of reach. This would be the basis for the child's construction of knowledge. Piaget underestimated young children's competence. Moreover children are **egocentric** -- difficulty perceiving things from another's Pov. 2. *Pre-operational stage (2-7yrs*) 3. *Concrete operational stage (7-11yrs)* 4. *Formal Operational Stage (11-15yrs)* **Make-believe play** Contrast between Piagetian and Vygotskian perspectives also on origins of children's imaginative or make-believe play: **Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)** Vygotsky put the focus on the social support provided by the instructor, expert or adult. This is known as the **"More Knowledgeable Other"** *- Someone who has a higher level of knowledge than the learner*. It is the more knowledgeable other who provides *the critical guidance and instruction* during *the sensitive learning period*. While a child might not yet be capable of doing something on her own, she is able to perform the task with the assistance of a skilled instructor. In assessment of intelligence, Vygotsky distinguished between: ◼ what a child could do on his/her own as representing how far the child had already learned, and ◼ the potential development, or *how far the child could achieve when supported with guidance from others.* ◼ He called this the zone of proximal development. With help from others Child can do by herself Beyond child's ability ZPD (cont...) ◼ Imagine that we have examined two children and have determined that the mental age of both is 7 years. This means that both children solve tasks accessible to 7-year-olds. ◼ However, when we attempt to push these children further in carrying out the tests, there turns out to be an essential difference between them. ◼ With the help of *leading questions*, *examples*, and *demonstrations* , one of them easily solves test items taken from two years above the child's level of actual development. ◼ The other solves test items that are only a half-year above, his or her level of actual development. (cont....) ZPD (cont...) ◼ From the point of view of their independent activity they are equivalent, but from the point of view of their mediated potential development they are sharply different. ◼ That which the child turns out to be able to do with the help of an adult points us towards the zone of the child's proximal development. This means that with the help of this method, we can take stock not only of today's completed process of development, not only the cycles that are already concluded and done, not only the processes of maturation that are completed; we can also take stock of processes that are now in the state of coming into being, that are only ripening, or only developing. (1956) Learning leads to development The concept of ZPD is very strongly related to instruction. ◼ *Piaget* had stressed that "Whenever we teach a child something we deny him the opportunity to *discover it on his own*" ◼ *Vygotsky* insisted that, because mental processes originated in social interaction, instruction had to be at a higher level than currently reached by the child to push him forward: *Instruction is good only when it proceeds ahead of development*. Then it awakens and rouses to life an entire set of functions which are in the stage of maturing, which lie in the zone of proximal development, It is in this way that instruction plays an extremely important role in development" (Wertsch et al, 1992, p.333) Learning leads to development *Psychological tools* ◼ Instruction through *mediation*: higher forms of *mental functioning* are mediated by *tools* and *signs*. ◼ The use of *technological tools* - e.g. all forms of machinery - has an impact on how people form work relations and view the world. ◼ Signs are the psychological equivalent of technological tools in the development of thinking. Signs are mediators of *higher thinking*, e.g. language, the counting system, writing, the use of maps etc. Signs are first intermental - Like tools, signs are the products of *socio-cultural history* and contexts in which they are acquired: "A **sign** is always originally a means, used for social purposes, a means of influencing others, and only later becomes a means of influencing oneself." (1981) *Written communication* as a distinct sign Vygotsky pointed out written communication as a sign or mediator of a *higher form of thinking* rather than a mere *development from oral speech*: ◼ *Written speech is abstract* in contrast to oral speech: it does not have an interlocutor, you're talking on your own; ◼ *motivation for speaking is provided by the situation*, that for writing requires a *conscious* will to do so on the part of the writer; while the structure for speaking was provided unconsciously, the *child has to be aware of the word and sentence structure*; ◼ when speaking we make use of the *context and nonverbal cues*; but in writing all the meaning has to be explicit, has to be put into words. **Instruction for writing** Vygotsky opposed Piaget's idea of waiting for the child to be *ready for writing*: this new mental process should be taught to the child: ◼ When instruction in written speech begins, the basic mental functions that underlie it are not fully developed; indeed their development has not yet begun. Instruction depends on processes that have not yet matured, processes that have not entered the first phases of their development. ◼ \... The immaturity of the required mental functions at the beginning of the instructional process is a general and basic law in all domains of school instruction. (1986, pp.201-14) *Internalisation* Effective *instructors fine tune their teaching to the child's level* of need for social facilitation, guiding the child along the process of *internalisation of new concepts and skills*: 1\. Initially the adult controls the child's activity 2\. Then the adult lets the child take the initiative and adopts a supporting role; 3\. Finally the adult cedes his or her control completely to the child. This is achieved through fine tuning of the interaction termed scaffolding. *Scaffolding/supporting activities that guide* ◼ Vygotsky did not use the term scaffold or scaffolding to learning situations. Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976), defined it as a process \"*that enables a child or novice to solve a task or achieve a goal that would be beyond his unassisted efforts*\" (p. 90). ◼ Scaffolds require the adult \"controlling those elements of the task that are initially beyond the learner\'s capability, thus permitting him to concentrate upon and complete only those elements that are within his range of competence\" (p. 90). ◼ Scaffolding helps to: 1\. Motivate or enlist the *child's interest related to the task* 2\. *Simplify the task* to make it more manageable and achievable for a child 3\. *Provide some direction* in order to help the child focus on achieving the goal 4\. Clearly indicate *differences between the child's work and the standard or desired solution* 5\. *Reduce frustration and risk* 6\. *Model and clearly define the expectations of the activity* to be performed (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Instead, this component has been put forth by other researchers who have expanded upon the original theories. *Intersubjectivity* People influence each other when they start to share each other's meaning and point of view. E.g. ◼ A teacher first asks students what they know about a topic and then links new information to their existing knowledge. ◼ In teaching a skill, instructor moves the child gradually from a novice to an expert performance in ways that allow him/her to move towards fluency gradually, and with appreciation of effort and small steps of achievement by the instructor. ◼ Instructor may also change his or her original aim for the child as the child shows preference to particular ways of doing things. ◼ This intersubjective process or mutual regulation is an essential factor in fine tuning of the interaction as a single social process that influences both participants. Note - Social interactions that allow the learner to observe and practice their skills +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Piaget** | **Vygotsky** | +===================================+===================================+ | Importance: *child's internal | Importance: impact of adult or | | constructive processes.* | expert guidance for the child to | | | develop. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The mind grows through | The mind grows through | | interaction with the *physical* | interaction with the *social* | | environment. | environment. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Children are developing their | Children are first talked to as | | thinking and their language | they are told what to do. They | | through talking to themselves | then start using the language | | (*egocentric speech*) and are | they learned in interaction with | | then able to use that language | others to guide their own | | and thinking in interacting with | activity themselves. | | others. They first produce | | | egocentric speech and then learn | Their self talk is not egocentric | | to use it in interaction with | speech but *private speech* which | | others. | they have acquired from the | | | public domain. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Piaget thought of make-believe | The *reproduction of | | play as an important way for | interaction*. Most of 1-2 | | children to practice **symbolic | year-olds' make believe play | | representation**, a key part of | involved caregiver-child or | | their cognitive development. He | child-child interaction. | | believed that through pretend | *Initially the fantasy play is | | play, children learn to use | caregiver led, then it is | | objects, actions, or ideas to | elaborated by the caregiver; and | | represent something else, which | finally the child might create | | helps them develop abstract | and complete the fantasy on | | thinking and understand the world | his/her own*. Interaction with | | around them. | adults or other children tends to | | | elaborate such fantasies further. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | "Whenever we teach a child | Mental processes originated in | | something we deny him the | social interaction, instruction | | opportunity to *discover it on | had to be at a higher level than | | his own*" | currently reached by the child to | | | push him forward: *Instruction is | | | good only when it proceeds ahead | | | of development*. Then it awakens | | | and rouses to life an entire set | | | of functions which are in the | | | stage of maturing, which lie in | | | the zone of proximal development, | | | It is in this way that | | | instruction plays an extremely | | | important role in development" | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Written communication is a mere | Written communication as a sign | | development from oral speech. | or mediator of a higher form of | | | thinking. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The child is ready for writing. | This new mental process should be | | | taught to the child. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ VYGOTSKIAN APPLICATIONS Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and *Dynamic Assessment* (DA) (an interactive approach to evaluating a person\'s learning *potential by assessing their performance* while *providing guidance, feedback, or interventions* to understand how they respond to instruction) ◼ Vygotsky's ZPD highlighted importance of *prior learning*: What a child can do now is the result of what the child has been taught. ◼ So one can only discover the child's potential through the zone of proximal development by trying to teach a child something new and seeing how far the child responds to guidance. Dynamic Assessment (DA) - DA may provide additional information about *language development in children with serious intellectual challenges,* such as those with Down syndrome. Alony and Kozulin (2007) using the dynamic version of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test showed that a minimal mediation in the form of a "focusing" remark by an assessor can improve the receptive language performance of children with Down syndrome. Non-verbal mediation gesturing in the direction of the pictures, or by verbal comments helps the child (4-8yrs). *Mediated Learning* (*a teaching approach* where a mediator (often a teacher or caregiver) facilitates learning by guiding, structuring, and interpreting experiences to help learners develop critical *thinking and problem-solving skills*) Israeli psychologist, Reuven Feurstein, developed a system for assessment and teaching called *Instrumental Enrichment* (IE) that emphasises mediated learning. Child is helped to understand the *goal* of task, focusing on the important elements in the task, sharpening understanding of each element, elaborating, emphasising and providing cues as the child tackles the problem until he/she is able to do same independently. Claims have been criticised, but IE has been found effective with children from *culturally deprived backgrounds*. This is structured thinking. **Community Mediation of literacy tool -- Community 1** Seminal ethnographic study by Heath (1983): family mediating use of preliteracy tools: ◼ She studied 3 different communities from which children attended the same school. ◼ Community No 1: children only heard stories orally without any books or magazines: the good stories were full of elaborations, suspense, and exaggerations and repetitions that captured the listener. **Community Mediation of literacy tool -- Communities 2 & 3** ◼ Community No 2: Children were exposed to picture books, bible stories, and adult stories: the good stories were sticking to the facts, without elaborations, and ending with a moral. ◼ Community 3: A middle class community, children were exposed to many different types of storybooks - about real life events and also about fairy tales. They were also led by adults to link the story to their own life. Best one. **Community Mediation of literacy tool -- Different Community impacts** Children were thus prepared differently for the literacy teaching: 1\. Children from community No 1 had difficulty treating book stories as separate from their personal experience, and the teacher put down their attempts to elaborate them as getting off track. School texts and tests called for literal answers. 2\. Children from Community 2, could recount the plot but resisted demands by the teacher for them to predict what would happen as this would amount to 'lying' about the facts in the story. 3\. Children in community 3, were flexible in treating stories as fantasy or real life events, and they engaged enthusiastically in predicting what would happen next or to make inferences such as what kind of home the dog had etc. They made the smoothest.  *Scaffolding by parents* Bruner et al. observed the process of scaffolding by parents reading bedtime stories to their pre-school children. 1\. At first parents were asking their children to *label the pictures* in the book: they asked their children to label the pictures, but often, with children who had not yet acquired the relevant vocabulary, *provided the label themselves* initially: 'That's a cow'. 2\. In doing so, however, they also *prompted them towards naming by asking for confirmation* of the label: 'That's a cow, right?' 3\. As soon as children mastered the skill of naming the pictures on their own, they upgraded the task to asking them to *find the pictures they labelled*, or to use *the proper adult term* rather than 'baby' terms. 4\. Later, they *asked the children about what had already happened in the story*, or what was going to happen next. Teacher scaffolding: video TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING **Teacher-child collaboration -** *Reciprocal teaching* (a collaborative instructional method where teachers and students *take turns leading discussions to improve comprehension using strategies like summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting*) Palincsar and Brown (1984) experiment with 'Reciprocal teaching'. FOR COMPREHENSION ◼ Tried to support 13-year old poor achievers in reading. ◼ Used research findings that *good readers made use of certain strategies in their reading* for comprehension, such as *questioning, summarising, clarifying, and predicting.* ◼ Predicted that if children were taught these strategies directly, they would improve their comprehension. ◼ Teachers taught these skills to small groups of children from 2-4 during the actual reading of stories over a series of 20 lessons of 1/2 hour each every day. **Reciprocal Teaching method** ◼ A collaborative learning group is formed in which the teacher and two to four pupils take turns leading dialogues on the content of a text passage. Within the dialogues, group members flexibly apply *the four cognitive strategies of questioning, summarising, clarifying and predicting*. ◼ Results: Students made significant gains in their reading comprehension; this learning was maintained over time; the learning was used also in other areas of the acquisition of knowledge involving reading. ◼ Strategy is still being used: e.g. Stricklin, Kelly (2011). \"Hands-On Reciprocal Teaching: A Comprehension Technique\". The Reading Teacher, 64 (8) **✓ Cooperative learning related to Vygotskian theory** Two key principles of Vygotsky are important for cooperative learning: ◼ First is his emphasis on *the social nature of learning.*.... On cooperative projects children are exposed to their peers' thinking process; this method not only makes the learning outcome available to all students, but also makes other students' thinking processes available to all\... ◼ The second key concept is the idea that *children learn best the concepts that are in their zone of proximal development.* When children are working together, each child is likely to have a peer performing on a given task at a slightly higher cognitive level, exactly within the child's zone of proximal development. (Slavin, 2000) **Cooperative learning leads to use of hypothesis testing** *Collaboration between children led to the joint discovery of abstract thinking*. ◼ Newman, Griffin, and Cole (1989) gave 10 year olds a set of four liquids and asked them to find out which combinations of pairs of liquids could generate a certain colour. ◼ Child-child dyads did not initially use the hypothesis testing approach of systematically trying out the six possible combinations. They followed a trial and error strategy. ◼ However, when they checked whether they had succeeded, some dyads discovered the need to use *the systematic adult strategy*. The child-child dialogue led the children towards formal operations. **Cooperative learning for social skills development** 1\. Positive interdependence 2\. Face-to-face interaction 3\. Individual accountability 4\. Learning of small group & interpersonal skills 5\. Group self-evaluation (Johnson & Johnson, 1991) ✓ Impact of Vygotskian theory: *Instruction leads to development* ◼ Helped focus on the value of social experience in the child's learning and development: parents and teachers as well as more knowledgeable peers and the larger societal context are indispensable *mediators of the signs or tools for learning*. ◼ Vygotsky, and Bruner et al. in the US, brought into focus *the* *importance of mediational signs or tools for higher order learning, and the process of scaffolding.* ◼ *Language* especially has been studied in sociolinguistics and ethnographic studies as *a potential barrier or promoter of learning.* ◼ A number of studies (e.g. Olson) have supported Vygotsky's focus on the *impact on thinking of written language and schooling.* The use of text, which is also the way teachers expect children to think in school, is an important new way of registering and communicating thinking. No universal stages ◼ Vygotsky assumes *cognitive development varies across cultures*, whereas Piaget states *cognitive development is mostly universal across cultures*. ◼ For Vygotsky, *the environment in which children grow up* will influence how they think and what they think about. Piaget & Vygotsky - **constructivists** ◼ Piaget focused on *the intramental thinking* of the child. ◼ Vygotsky focused on *the intermental interaction*. But they shared certain important concepts. E.g. ◼ The idea of intersubjectivity, or what has been sometimes called *intellectual empathy*, i.e. to understand *the way a child perceives a task*, is emphasised by both researchers. ◼ Both also emphasised the benefits that children get from interacting with each other in organising activities, such as in developing the rules of games. However, while Piaget emphasised *individual constructivism* through discovery learning as the result of individual activity, Vygotsky emphasised *social constructivism* in the role of the tutor or of structured tasks in promoting quicker acquisition of new concepts and ways of thinking. NEO-PIAGETIAN THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT CRITICISM OF PIAGETIAN THEORY ◼ Domain general assumption questioned. *Children might acquire higher level thinking in some domains and not in others*. The stage of formal operations was not reached at all by many especially unschooled people. Philosophical and neuropsychological explanations of the modularity of mind. ◼ *Vague concepts*: His explanation of development through adaptation - assimilation and accomodation, equilibration - and reorganisation were too vague to be tested. **Neo-Piagetian theories address these issues** ◼ A neo-Piagetian psychologist that addressed these issues is the Canadian *Robbie Case.* ◼ He used the image of the child as *a problem solver:* ◼ Children's activities are *goal directed*, the child is actively seeking to *master their environment;* ◼ In doing so he or she may be also *supported by those who have already mastered it.* ◼ Case suggests that it is in this process of trying to deal with ever more complex challenges that the *child builds higher order thinking and skills*. **1945-2000 Elements from Piagetian theory** ◼ The focus on the *active participation* of the child in his or her own development of thinking remains strongly emphasised. ◼ Case also builds on the Piagetian idea of *hierarchical integration of schema*ta, i.e. that higher order structures of thinking consist of the coordination into one higher order schema of earlier simpler ones. ◼ He also maintains the structure of four invariant stages of *development from birth to adulthood.* ◼ On the other hand, he includes the Vygotskyan principle of the *impact of instruction on intellectual development* **Information processing explanation: Executive Control Structure** ◼ Case explained *children's development through the stages* in new ways: the development of working memory capacity. ◼ This puts the theory within an *information processing framework*. ◼ This model is linked to the *problem-solving perspective*: in order to solve a problem, one needs to have *the relevant elements* active in one's mind at the same time to be able to work out a solution. ◼ E.g., to work out the sum of three numbers mentally, you have keep in mind the third number as you work out the sum of the first two... ◼ Cognitive psychology experiments show that *the amount of separate units that we can keep active in our mind and the amount of workings we can carry out mentally at the same time increases with age and expertise.* **Working Memory** ◼ *Short term memory*: how many units of information you can recall within *15-30 seconds* E.g. recall of digits forward *◼ Working memory* (includes short term memory): *the small amount of information* that can be held in mind and used in *the execution of cognitive tasks*: E.g. recall of digits backward *◼ Long term memory*: *the storage and recall of information* over a long period of time Working memory in daily life Working memory allows one to *retain the data needed to complete tasks*, such as: ◼ retaining the *early part of a sentence* while putting the whole thing together or, ◼ *in math*, retaining a digit to be carried to the next column mentally. ◼ Working memory also allows one to consider *characteristics of a new situation* so that an effective response can be found. **Working memory development in different modalities in children and young adults** (Heled et al., 2022) The current study aimed to compare the *development of storage and manipulation* in the tactile sense with other modalities in children and young adults. A total of 96 typically developed individuals were divided into three equally numbered age groups in the ranges of 7 and 8, 11 and 12, and 20 to 29 years. They were asked to perform a battery of span tasks, including forward and backward stages, in the verbal, visual, visuospatial, and tactile modalities. Results showed improvement of WM performance across age in all modalities. In addition, in the forward stage, the Tactual Span was shorter than all other tasks and the Visuospatial Span was shorter than the Visual-Digit Span. **Working memory capacity increases through automaticity and chunking** Case and others have shown that *the amount of information and processes we can use simultaneously in working memory can be increased also through two processes*: ◼ **automaticity** (The ability to perform tasks quickly and effortlessly with *minimal conscious thought*, often developed through repeated practice -- allowing focus on other info.) ◼ **chunking** (A memory strategy that involves *grouping information into meaningful units* to make it easier to process and remember) One more complex form of chunking is the *combination or coordination of two schemata, or ways of organising knowledge and skills, into one new schema* (as in LOGO). *Expertise in chess* increases working memory through chunking. *Knowledge can allow multiple stimulus items to be combined to form fewer meaningful chunks of information*. Chi (1978) showed that knowledge is critically important for working memory. Children (in third through eighth grades, mean age: 10.5 years) who were expert at chess were better able to remember chessboard configurations than were naive adults, even though the usual adult superiority emerged for memory of lists of digits. (Cowan, 2016) **Domain specific learning and development** ◼ Experience that leads to automaticity and chunking of knowledge *specific to particular fields* means that one's level of expertise in different areas may also differ. ◼ E.g., given a certain level of maturation of working memory capacity, if I have more experience of reading than of maths, I may become more expert in reading comprehension than in working out mathematical concepts. ◼ Thus *Case's* theory, unlike Piaget's, but similar to Vygotsky's, is *domain specific.* *It gives great weight to both learning as well as to development.* It is also much more applicable to the task of teaching. (Example of which pitcher will taste more strongly of juice, which side will go down etc)  **Level 1 (3--4 years old):\ **You only notice *one thing* at a time, like the color of the cups (e.g., \"This cup is black!\"). **Level 2 (4--5 years old):\ **You can *compare one thing*, like saying, \"There are more black cups than white cups!\" **Level 3 (7--8 years old):\ **Now, you can notice *two things at once*, like the color *and* the size of the cups (e.g., \"There are more big black cups than small white cups!\"). **Level 4 (9--10 years old):\ **You can even start *counting* and saying exact numbers, like \"There are 4 big black cups and 2 small white cups!\" **Four learning processes** 1. **Problem solving:** The child faces a problem situation: e.g. visual stimulation ceases as mobile stops moving. The child sets up a goal: *recreate visual stimulation* The child has to find out a strategy for making the mobile move again 2. **Exploration:** The child faces a problem situation: The child encounters a new object with unknown properties (e.g., a rattle). The child sets up a goal: *Discover what the object does* or how it responds to actions. The child has to find out a strategy: Experiment by shaking, dropping, or mouthing the rattle to observe its effects. 3. **Imitation:** The child faces a problem situation: The child observes an adult stacking blocks and wants to replicate the action. The child sets up a goal: *Learn how to stack blocks like the adult.* The child has to find out a strategy: Watch the adult's actions closely and mimic the movements to achieve a similar result. 4. **Mutual Regulation:** The child faces a problem situation: The child feels discomfort or frustration and needs support to regulate their emotions. The child sets up a goal: *Seek help or reassurance from a caregiver to restore emotional balance*. The child has to find out a strategy: Use vocalizations, gestures, or crying to communicate needs and elicit a soothing response from the caregiver. **Facilitating intellectual development** Case suggests making use of five steps in *designing or redesigning or adapting curricula to students of different ages and abilities and levels of achievement in particular domains*. These are: 1\. specifying the *goals* we want to teach, 2\. analysing how *experts reach those goals*, 3\. analysing how *children usually acquire the strategies* as they develop, 4\. *designing relevant educational activities*, and 5\. *implementing them in interaction* with student needs and progress. **Information Processing Developments: Attention** ◼ Increase in attention/concentration span ◼ Increase in selective and organised search ◼ Development of metacognition **Attention/Concentration span** Attention includes a number of components, one of which, *attention span, is the ability to maintain focus and alertness over a period of time.* Sustained attention requires *persistence and motivation*. Thus, individuals with short attention spans may appear to give up or not put sufficient effort into tasks. *Attention span increases with age*, and is related to, and plays a role in other aspects of functioning including learning, memory, academic performance, and the understanding and processing of large quantities of information (Levin, 2011) **Information Processing Developments: Metacognition** ◼ Awareness and understanding of one's *own cognitive processes* expands and self-regulation improves ◼ leading to more adaptive strategies ◼ to be applied in a wider range of situations **Metacognition: develops with age** In one study, 8 to 15-year olds were asked how they would look for a lost toy. The youngest only mentioned one or two ideas. But the older ones had many ideas and stated them in a linked way from simple to more complex. One 15-year old, for instance, mentioned quite an exhaustive list: She said she would look for her lost coat by checking likely places, asking friends, checking with the school lost and found, and should these fail, retracing her steps during the period when the object was suspected to have been lost, and finally posting a notice advertising a reward. ◼ Rationalist: Piagetian focus on the development of innate *cognitive* *frameworks* ◼ Socio-historic: Vygotskian with a focus on the impact of *social interaction* on learning ◼ Empiricist/Information Processing: with an emphasis on both experiential learning and Information Processing The primary focus of Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development -  The *active participation* of children in their cognitive development LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT **What is Language?** Most complex brain behaviour - A socially shared system that relates *sounds or gestures to meaning and enables communication.* - Combines various subsystems: Listening Speaking Reading Writing 1\. Semantics 2\. Phonology 3\. Prosody 4\. Morphology 5\. Syntax 6\. Pragmatics 7\. Paralanguage 8\. Discourse structures **LANGUAGE SUBSYSTEMS** - **Semantics** -- the study of *words* and their *meaning* - **Phonology** -- the rules governing the structure and sequence of *speech* sounds C-A-T - **Prosody** is the study of the *tune* and *rhythm* of speech and how these features contribute to meaning THE MUSIC OF TALKING *Intensity, vocal pitch, rhythm, rate of utterance* part of grammar - e.g. "Are you going?" *rising tone* = I don\'t know if you are going but want to know. *falling tone* = I am asking you to go part of pragmatics -- e.g. irony affected by emotion -- e.g. anger - **Grammar** - the rules used to describe the *structure* of a language **MORPHOLOGY** - Use of *grammatical markers* indicating number, tense, case, person, gender, active of passive voice and other meanings "How to make a new word" "Happy" "Unhappy" "Unhappiest" "Happiness" **SYNTAX** - Rules that specify *how words are combined to form sentences* s -- sentences "How do we put words together to convey meaning?" - **Pragmatics** - study of *how people use language* to communicate effectively "What word combinations do we use in certain social situations" 'Excuse me.' vs 'Get out of my way!' -- What is communicated - **Paralanguage** - *how you say what you\'re saying*: *Prosody*: tone of voice, pitch, rhythm, tempo, intensity (loudness), emotional content *Other nonverbal cues*: facial expressions and gestures -- How it is delivered BODY LANGUAGE IS INCLUDED It\'s not what you say, it\'s *how you say it* that catches people\'s attention; and listeners are more likely to believe what your *voice, facial expression and gestures* are telling them than your words. - **Discourse structures** How language is connected to situation models How to participate in a conversation How to describe a person or situation How to understand and narrate a story How to communicate a status of superiority THEORIES OF LANUAGE DEVELOPMENT **The Nativist Perspective** -- *Noam Chomsky*: Humans are born with *an innate ability for language acquisition*, supported by a *universal grammar* that enables understanding and producing language across cultures. We are born with a Language Acquisition Device: Language is the *product of an unlearned, biologically-based, internal mental structure* Otherwise abstract rules which underlie a language are too complex to be acquired by children *Language Acquisition Device* - An innate system that permits children, once they have acquired sufficient vocabulary, *to combine words into grammatically consistent, novel utterances and to understand the meaning of sentences they hear*.  Evidence for the Nativist Perspective: *Babbling* is a universal phenomenon in infants Children from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds tend to reach *milestones in language development at similar ages* Certain areas of the *brain appear to* *specialize in language functions* There appear to be *sensitive periods* in some aspects of language development Can animals acquire language? Or is language uniquely human? Chimps have been taught artificial language and American Sign Language Yet even after years of training, common chimps are unable to produce strings of three or more symbols that conform to a rule-based structure The case of Kanzi (bonobo chimp) -- ability to discriminate hundreds of English words and to act out unusual novel sentences (2 year old). But not able to share information. LANGUAGE PROCESSES IN THE BRAIN Broad association of with *left-hemispheric* regions of the brain **Broca's Area**: left frontal lobe supports *grammatical processing* **Wernicke's Area**: left temporal lobe *comprehension and word meaning* w - word **Posterior language area**: Linguistic input with stored knowledge, allowing individuals to *understand and interpret* spoken and written language. A Sensitive Period for Language Development supports *the nativist position that language development has unique biological properties* Childhood is a sensitive period for *optimum language development* Language competence of deaf adults who acquired their first language (ASL) in adolescence or adulthood never became as proficient at any aspect of language as those who learned it in childhood. (Theory of Language Development) *The interactionist perspective*: Emphasis on INTERACTIONS between *inner capacities and environmental issues*: **- Information Processing Theories** **- Social Interactionist Theories** Evidence for Information Processing Theories - *Connectionist* / artificial neural network models *Computer systems* designed to simulate the multilayered networks of neural connections in the brain and program them with basic learning procedures (to respond to regularities in the speech system) - Artificial networks are exposed to *various types of language input and feedback is given on the accuracy of its responses* -- e.g. for learning how to do the plural - Correct response - connection strengthened, incorrect response -- connection weakened  Disagreement whether children make sense of their complex language environments by ◦ *applying cognitive capacities* ◦ or *capacities specially tuned to language* *Native endowment, cognitive processing strategies and social experience* may operate in different balances with respect to each component of language **Development of Communication:** **Pre-linguistic speech** Even before birth, influence of *brain readiness* and *auditory experiences* in the uterus Newborns prefer to hear *speech* over other sounds- they prefer to listen to "*baby talk*"- the high pitched, simplified and repetitive words adults speak to infants The sound of a human voice, whether familiar or strange always *fascinates infants* At around *2 months* babies begin to make *vowel-like noises called cooing* ("oo quality") At around *6 months*, *babbling appears* (consonant --vowel combinations), such as mamamama **Development of Communication**: *Paralanguage* - Vocal Pitch - Turn taking - Eye contact - Joint attention - Pointing Adults Use *Infant-Directed Speech* *Name, words with meanings, first words, links words, words into short sentence, plurals and pronouns, verbalise activities and language forms (at 5 -- metalinguistic awareness and at 12 -- trick in text)* Adults speak *slowly and with exaggerated changes in pitch and loudness and elongated pauses* between utterances (parentese, motherese, or child-directed speech) Infant-directed speech may *attract infants' attention* more than adult-directed speech because its *slower pace* and *accentuated* changes provide the infant with more salient language cues and helps infants perceive the *sounds that are fundamental to their language* -- Adults Use Infant-Directed Speech At 6 months, *vocalises and responds to name* - Vocalization with intonation - Responds to name - Responds to human voices without visual cues by turning head and eyes - Responds appropriately to friendly and angry tones Words and Word meanings - *The first words* appear at about 12 -- 13 months - Infant then begins to identify *links between words and objects* / actions for which they stand - Between 12 -18 months children may learn as many as *30 words* - In this earliest *word-use phase* children have not yet grasped that words are symbolic -- that they refer to objects or events regardless of contexts At 12 months... says *first words* - Uses one or more words with *meaning* (this may be a fragment of a word) - Understands *simple instructions* ('Come'), especially with vocal or physical cues - Practices inflection - Is aware of the social value of speech - Uses joint attention -- *Follows pointing and points* - A Representative List of Early Words like Water Shoe Milk etc. At 18 months... *links words* to referents - Has *vocabulary* of approximately 5-20 words - Vocabulary made up chiefly of nouns - Some echolalia (repeating a word or phrase over and over) - Much jargon with emotional content - Is able to follow simple commands - *Fast mapping* -- the ability to categorically link new words to real-life referents (the real objects and events to which words refer) At 24 months \... Combines *words into a short sentence* - Combines words into a short sentence -- e.g. noun-verb combinations; Mean Length of Utterance 1.2 words - Vocabulary of approximately 150-300 words - names objects common to surroundings - Can use at least two prepositions - in, on, under - Volume and pitch of voice not yet well-controlled - Can use two pronouns correctly - I, me, you, though me and I often confused; my and mine beginning to emerge - Responds to such commands as \"show me your eyes (nose, mouth, hair)\" At 36 months... Can *use plurals, pronouns* - Handles three-word sentences easily - Is using some plurals and past tenses - Use pronouns I, you, me correctly - Knows at least three prepositions - in, on, under - Has around 900-1000 words - knows chief parts of body - Verbs begin to predominate - Understands most simple questions dealing with their environment and activities - Able to reason out such questions as "What must you do when you are sleepy, hungry, cool, or thirsty?" At 48 months \... Can *Verbalize* activities - Can understand and use at least four prepositions, including over and under - Understands such concepts as longer, larger, when a contrast is presented - Names one or more *colours* - *Names common objects* in picture books or magazines - Has most vowels and diphthongs and the consonants p, b, m, w, n well established - Can usually repeat words of four syllables - Can repeat 4 digits when they are given slowly - Extensive verbalization as he carries out activities - Readily follows simple commands even though the stimulus objects are not in sight At 60 months\... most *language forms* acquired - Uses both *adjectives and adverbs* spontaneously - Knows *common opposites*: big-little, hard-soft - Can count to ten - number concepts to 4 - Can *repeat sentences* as long as nine words - Defines common objects in terms of use (hat, shoe, chair) - Can follow sentences with three commands - Has simple time concepts: morning, tomorrow - Using fairly long sentences and some compound and some complex sentences - Speech on the whole should be grammatically correct From 5+ years - Development of *metalinguistic awareness*, enhanced by *reading and spelling skills*: - By 8 years they have improved ability to define words, appreciate their multiple meanings in puns, *riddles and metaphors*; judge the grammatical correctness of sentences and identify all the phonemes of a word. Metacognition in comprehension - Even when 8- and 12-year-olds were told there was a *trick in the text*, only 12-year-olds could pick up the contradiction in the following: Many different kinds of fish live in the ocean etc. **Does language shape our thoughts and actions? or Do our thoughts and beliefs shape our language?** The question of whether *language shapes our thoughts and actions* is central to the **Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis**, which suggests that the structure and vocabulary of a language influence how its speakers *perceive and think about the world*. For example, languages with distinct terms for specific colours or spatial relationships may lead speakers to categorize or navigate their environments differently. Conversely, the idea that our thoughts and beliefs shape language emphasizes that *language evolves as a reflection of human cognition and cultural needs*. For instance, new words and expressions often arise to articulate *complex ideas or concepts* that emerge in society, suggesting that *our mental frameworks drive linguistic development*. Both perspectives likely interact, with language and thought mutually influencing one another. *Benjamin Lee Whorf* and his teacher, **Edward Sapir**, proposed the theory of *linguistic relativity and determinism*: \'We cut nature up, organize it into *concepts*, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way---an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language\' (Whorf, 1940). \'Human beings \... are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. \...The fact of the matter is that the \"real world\" is to a large extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group\' (Sapir, 1929). **Bilingualism and cognitive development** Study explored *bilingualism influences on the development and differentiation of mental abilities.* Albanian-Turkish bilingual (N = 122) and Albanian-speaking monolingual (N = 129) children, adolescents, and adults were assessed on monitoring, inhibitory control, processing efficiency, fluid reasoning, and vocabulary.... Analyses showed a *bilingual advantage in monitoring*---adjusting for any fluid reasoning effects---which was larger in children. Moreover, a more pronounced bilingual benefit was observed for the incongruent condition RT of the attention task. Structural equation modelling showed though that the difference between language groups does not lie within the executive function domain (inhibitory control); it rather regards processing efficiency. Analyses also revealed increased differentiation of mental abilities in bilinguals, reflecting enhanced cognitive flexibility. (Chrysochoou et al., 2020) **Exposure to second language in early education** The current study measures the social and cognitive skills of Spanish children educated bilingually yet raised monolingually... It compares three groups of monolingually-raised children in their first year of primary education (i.e. 6--7 years old): one group educated in mainstream 'monolingual' education, one group enrolled in English Spanish bilingual education with a ratio of 40--60 English-Spanish exposure, and one group enrolled in English-Spanish education with a ratio of 30--70 English-Spanish exposure. After one year of primary education, *children attending bilingual education scored significantly higher than monolingual children on a sub-set of cognitive (selective attention; response inhibition) and social (communication; co-operation) skills*, with the higher exposure bilingual school outperforming the lower exposure bilingual school on some of these measures. (Chamorro & Janke, 2021) DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL REASONING - *Moral development* is an important part of the socialization process. - Moral development prevents people from acting on unchecked urges, instead considering *what is right for society and good for others*. - Moral behaviour may not follow merely our moral reasoning. *Moral behaviour is influenced by moral affect as it is closely related to strong emotions -- such as empathy and guilt - as well as to the situation.* Moral reasoning has been the subject of research in *cognitive development*: started by Piaget and then Kohlberg. "Who is naughtier?" - Piaget (1932) told the children stories about behaviour and then asked for their opinion. E.g. *There was once a little girl who was called Marie. She wanted to give her mother a nice surprise and cut out a piece of sewing for her. But she didn't know how to use the scissors properly and cut a big hole in her dress. A little girl called Margaret went and took her mother's scissors one day when her mother was out. She played with them for a bit. Then, as she didn't know how to use them properly, she made a little hole in her dress. The child is then asked, "Who is naughtier?"* Piaget found changes in the way children reasoned ◼ Typically, younger children (pre-operational and early concrete operational i.e. up to age 9-10) say that Marie is the naughtier child. ◼ Although they recognise the distinction between a well-intentioned act that turns out badly and a careless, thoughtless or malicious act, they tend to judge naughtiness in terms of the severity of the consequence rather than in terms of motives. How can one investigate the development of moral reasoning? ◼Piaget used the *clinical interview*: Stories about children doing something inappropriate: should they be punished? Why? ◼Kohlberg used *moral dilemmas*: Situation involving conflicting values: What should main character do or not do, and why. Extended such research to work with adolescents and young adults. Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) *Heinz story:* *In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered.* *The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid \$200 for the radium and charged \$2,000 for a small dose of the drug.* *The sick woman\'s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about \$ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: \"No, I discovered the drug and I\'m going to make money from it.\"* *So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man\'s store to steal the drug-for his wife. Should the husband have done that? Why or why not? (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 19)* **Kohlberg's Three Levels & Six stages** Various questions were asked about the dilemma: ◼ Should Heinz have stolen the drug? Why or why not? ◼ Should he have stolen the drug if the sick person was not his wife? Why...? ◼ What if the sick person was his enemy? Why...? ◼ Would a good person steal it? Why...? Reasons given by participants as to why decision was good or bad were classified into **3 Levels**, each with **2 stages** (Total of 6 stages) He studies children and adolescence but particularly 12 year old American boys. **Summary of Kohlberg's stages** **Level One: Pre-conventional Morality** Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation (Fear) **\"Otters Race Boys** Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation (Self-interest) **Loving Stories Universally.\"** **Level Two: Conventional Morality** Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation (Peer pressure) Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation (Rules -- traditional morality of rules) **Level Three: Post-Conventional Morality** Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation (Disobeying rules inconsistent with morality -- social contract) Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation (Self-chosen ethical idea -- not everyone reaches this level) **Level 1. Pre-conventional Morality (They judge right or wrong by the direct consequences for themselves and not by social norms -- this is common in children)** *Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment* ◼ Children see *rules as fixed and absolute*. Obeying the *rules is important* because it is a means to avoid *punishment*. Heinz should not steal the medicine, because he will consequently be put in prison. *Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange* ◼ Rules are followed because they *benefit the individual*; they are obeyed because one receives *rewards*. Heinz should steal the medicine, because he will be much happier if he saves his wife, even if he will have to serve a prison sentence. **Level 2. Conventional Morality (Based off of what society regards as right or wrong -- common to think this in adolescence and adulthood)** *Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships* ◼ The \"good boy-good girl\" orientation; focused on living up to social expectations and roles. Rules are obeyed for *approval*. There is an emphasis on conformity, being \"nice,\" and consideration of how choices influence relationships. Heinz should steal the medicine, because his wife expects it; he wants to be a good husband. *Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order* ◼ At this stage people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one's duty, and respecting *authority*. Society's rules are to be obeyed rigidly, to maintain the social order. Heinz should not steal the medicine, because the *law prohibits stealing* making it illegal. **Level 3. Post-conventional Morality** *Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights* ◼ The laws of society as an instrument for ensuring *respect of people's rights*. A law may be unfair and need to be changed to ensure justice. Need to maintain social contract with fellow citizens, but possibility of changing existing laws through a new agreement. Rules are obeyed if they are impartial; *democratic* *rules are challenged* *if they infringe on the rights of others*. Heinz should steal the medicine, because everyone has a right to choose life, regardless of the law. *Stage 6 - Universal Principles* ◼ The universal ethical principle orientation. At this highest stage, the morality of an action is judged according to universal ethical principles: Laws that violate such principles are disobeyed. Judgement is according to one's individual conscience. The individual establishes *his/her own rules* in accordance with a personal set of ethical principles. Heinz should steal the medicine, because saving a human life is a more fundamental value than the property rights of another person. Related to development of social cognition A table of different types of people Description automatically generated with medium confidence **What stage are these responses? (ASK)** 1\. Yes, Heinz should steal the drug. He probably will go to jail for a short time for stealing but his in-laws will think he is a good husband. 2\. As her husband, Heinz has a duty to save his wife\'s life so he should steal the drug. But it\'s wrong to steal, so Heinz should be prepared to accept the penalty for breaking the law. 3\. The judge should not sentence Heinz to jail for stealing the drug because he meant well \... he stole it to cure his wife. 4\. The judge should sentence Heinz to jail. Stealing is against the law! He should not make any exceptions even though Heinz\' wife is dying. If the judge does not sentence Heinz to jail, then others may think it\'s right to steal. and there will be chaos in the society. 5\. Heinz should steal the drug to save his wife because preserving human life is a higher moral obligation than preserving property. 6\. Heinz should steal the drug because everyone has the right to life regardless of the law against stealing. Should Heinz be caught and prosecuted for stealing then the law (against stealing) needs to be reinterpreted because a person\'s life is at stake. 7\. The doctor scientist\'s decision is despicable but his right to fair compensation (for his discovery) must be maintained. Therefore, Heinz should not steal the drug. **In between stages e.g. 4-5** ◼ In this stage the individual is disaffected with the arbitrary nature of law-and-order reasoning; culpability is frequently turned from being defined by society to viewing society itself as culpable. ◼ This stage is often mistaken for the moral relativism of stage two, as the individual views those interests of society that conflict with their own as being relatively and morally wrong. Kohlberg noted that this was often observed in students entering college. **Kohlberg's position:** ◼ Universally valid across societies ◼ Invariable sequence: someone progressing to a higher stage of moral reasoning cannot skip stages ◼ Based on justice: equality and reciprocity **Criticisms** ◼ A main criticism of Kohlberg\'s theory is that it was initially developed based on *empirical research* using only *white male participants* and emphasizes individual *rights* to the exclusion of other values. Carol Gilligan (1992) has argued that Kohlberg\'s theory is overly androcentric, *and does not adequately describe the concerns of women*. She developed an alternative theory of moral reasoning based on the ethics of caring, avoiding harm to others. **Kohlberg vs Gilligan?** Kohlberg's theory rested on the assumption that *the justice perspective was the right, or better, perspective*. Gilligan, in contrast, theorized that neither perspective was "better": *the two norms of justice served different purposes*. Ultimately, she explained that boys are socialized for a work environment where rules make operations run smoothly, while girls are socialized for a home environment where flexibility allows for harmony in caretaking and nurturing. They are socialised for different purposes. (Gilligan 1982; Gilligan 1990). Care based morality and justice based morality. Women show more care for others stemming from the relationship with the mother. Care based -- interconnected ness and universality (more in females), justice -- equality (more in males) PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOUR  Changes in the sense of self rather than cognitive abilities **SOCIAL COGNITION AND RELATIONSHIPS** The social approach explores the links we have with other people and how these links have an impact on our *behaviour, identity and expectations* *Human beings are essentially social* **The belongingness hypothesis** We want to belong, to be accepted and recognised by others. It has been argued strongly that we do not just have a desire to belong, but rather that *the* *search for acceptance by others* is a basic human need that is wired into our being as evidenced in the brain activation during rejection experiments. (Gere & MacDonald, 2010). **A fundamental human motivation** 'Human beings have a pervasive drive to form and maintain at least a minimum quantity of lasting, positive, and significant interpersonal relationships..... Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being' (Baumeister & Leary, 1995, p.497). **Evolutionary development** The desire to form and maintain social bonds can be seen as having both *survival and reproductive benefits.* Group cooperation can better ensure a *supply of food*, success in *hunting larger animals* or in *protection from predators*. It is also easier to *find mates* in groups, and to protect and care for the young, including orphans. 'These affective mechanisms would *stimulate learning* by making positive social contact reinforcing and social deprivation punishing.' **Neuroscience Cyberball task** Cyberball is a virtual ball-toss game in which a participant plays with two other players on a computer. Abruptly, the others exclude the participant, only throwing to one another. It can be used in research on ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, bullying, discrimination, etc. The excluded participant registers social pain in the brain and reports feeling socially excluded, depressed or angry. **The sociometer** Self-esteem feelings are at the service of gaging the level of satisfaction of the need to belong: Self-esteem might be an internal, subjective "marker" or monitor of the individual's "inclusionary status". This 'sociometer' would respond to situations that confirm one's acceptance through a *raising of the feeling of self-esteem*, and any indication of being ignored or rejected will be felt as a lowering of the feeling of self-esteem. (Leary, 2003) **Alfred Adler on 'social feeling'** Since the child is a social being, his strongest motivation is his desire to belong. His security or lack of it depends upon his feeling of belonging within the group. This is his basic requirement. Everything he does is aimed at finding his place. From infancy on, he is busy exploring methods of being a part of the *family group*. From his observations and his successes, he draws conclusions -- not formed in words but definite nonetheless -- "Ah! This is how I can belong. This is how I can have significance." \... He will repeat the behaviour that gives him a sense of having a place and abandon that which makes him feel left out. (Dreikurs, 1964, p. 14) **Use of Social Media to satisfy need to belong** The primary motivations for Fb use have been found to be to form and maintain social connections. Frequency of Facebook use was positively correlated with feelings of general disconnection in life and mediated by the tendency to cope with disconnection via Fb. (Casale & Fioravanti, 2018) The **hierarchy of needs**, proposed by *Abraham Maslow*, is a psychological theory that outlines a progression of *human needs* arranged in a pyramid-like structure, where basic needs must be met before higher-level motivations emerge: 1. **Physiological Needs**: Fundamental requirements for *survival*, such as food, water, air, and shelter. 2. **Safety Needs**: The need for *security and stability*, including personal safety, financial stability, and health. 3. **Love and Belonging**: Social needs for relationships, love, friendship, and community. 4. **Esteem Needs**: The desire for *self-esteem* and respect from others, encompassing achievements, recognition, and status. 5. **Self-Actualization**: The highest level, involving personal growth, fulfillment, and the realization of one\'s *full potential*. More efficient perspectives. The hierarchy emphasizes that individuals are motivated to *satisfy lower-level needs first* before addressing higher-order aspirations. *These can occur in a reverse action* *Safety needs are prioritized, basic anxiety (when one does not have safety needs), neurotic needs, m and b values, b-love (unmotivated and expressed love), Jonah complex (fear of being ones best), metamotivation (motives of self-actualizing people), instinctoid needs, metapathology (people who fail self-actualization needs), Moses complex, desacralization* *His mum was a very religious person and he kissed his cousin* +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ------------------------------------------------------------ | | *People are continually motivated by one need or another.* | | ------------------------------------------------------------ | | | | *Scientists should be willing to resacralize science* | +=======================================================================+ | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ *Everyone's basic needs are the same* +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | *A person who has never received | | | love is likely to devalue it* | | | | | | *Self-worth, confidence, and | | | competence -- esteem needs* | | +===================================+===================================+ | | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ *He was shy and socially backwards, he was motivated by behaviourism, Edward b. Thorndike and Harry Harlow* *Neurotic needs are activated whether they are satisfied or no* *Some behaviour is not motivated and all behaviour has a cause* *The instinctioid needs are the basic needs which result in pathology when frustrated, are unique to humans and can be modified by learning* ***Harlow Monkey Experiment*** From a behavioural perspective, attachment enhances the *infant's chance of survival*. However according to other studies such as those of *Lorenz* (1935) and *Harlow* (1958), infants seek *closeness with their caregiver* when under stress or threatened. They also look for contact comfort. Eight newborn monkeys placed in individual cages where each had access only to two surrogate mother monkeys: Both mothers were in the form of the body of a monkey, but one made of bare wire mesh, while the second had terry cloth covering the mesh. Four of the infants could get their milk from a bottle mounted on one mother and four from the other. Infant monkeys spent far more time clinging to the terry *cloth surrogates* -- more than 18hours in a day, even when their physical nourishment came from bottles mounted on the bare wire mothers. Therefore this study showed that attachment is not only related to the association of the caregiver with food. ***Attachment Theory (John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth)*** Drawing on concepts from *ethology*, (*the study of animals* in their natural settings - Konrad Lorenz conducted a study on geese and spoke about imprinting), *developmental psychology/ evolutionary theory, and psychoanalysis,* John Bowlby formulated the basic tenets of the theory. The Psychoanalytic Approach: Evaluation Although the field of *attachment-studies* owes a lot to *Freud* because he was the first one to look into attachment as a relational process and because he offered an explanation about why infants appear to be more *attached to their mothers*, more recent investigations showed that he was not completely accurate. A famous study by Schaffer and Emerson (1964) showed that the most important factor for attachment is the *quality of the interaction* NOT responsiveness to biological needs Bowlby revolutionized our thinking about a child's tie to the mother and its disruption through separation, deprivation, and bereavement (similar to separation). Mary Ainsworth's innovative methodology not only made it possible to test some of Bowlby's ideas but also helped to expand the theory itself. John Bowlby (1951) claimed that children should 'experience a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with \[their\] mother' (as cited in Eysenck, 2013; p. 186) According to Bowlby: 'a breaking of the maternal bond with the child early in life often has serious effects on its intellectual, social, and emotional development. He also claimed these negative effects of maternal deprivation were permanent or irreversible in 25% of children.' (Eysenck, 2018; p. 184) *Maternal Deprivation hypothesis*: This deprivation affects children in their intellectual, emotional and social development *Attachment* - as in a 1-2-year-old child to parent (and close friend to close friend). In an attachment a person's special sense of *security and comfort* is bound up in the relationship. *'*A strong emotional and reciprocal tie that develops over time between an infant and its primary caregiver(s) and results in a desire to maintain proximity'. *Attachment deprivation: '*To experience bond disruption as a consequence of separation from an attachment figure for a period of time (may be repeated short-term separations', or long-term separation)' First attachments lead child to construct an *internal working model* of the relationship that would be activated in each of his or her new future relationships. *Affectional bond* -- as in the parent's relationship to the child, where the parent does not obtain security from being with the child, but *bonding entails a particular relationship of the adult to the child.* Bowlby's theory about attachment: Basic tenets **Monotropy** - For every infant one relationship is more important than others, usually that with the *mother*. **Critical Period** - The infant should receive *continuous attention from this figure for at least the first 3 years* **Maternal deprivation** - Maternal deprivation leads to '*emotionless psychopathy'*. This is true regardless of the reason for separation. **Distress & Detachment** - Distress follows *short-term* deprivation If separation is prolonged, the child starts to detach **Internal Working Model** - The way the person interacts with others represents the cognitive representations of past figures. This refers to a *cognitive framework* comprising mental representations for understanding the self, others and the world. A person's interaction with others is guided by memories and expectations stemming from their internal working model. At around **three years of age** these seem to become part of a child's personality. According to Bowlby (1969), the primary caregiver acts as a prototype for future relationships via the internal working model. **Three main features of the Internal working Model are the following:** 1\) Model of others seen as trustworthy 2\) Model of the self as valuable 3 )Model of the self as effective when communicating with others One of the main criticisms about John Bowlby's theory is that *he does not distinguish* between Deprivation and Privation. *Deprivation* -- an attachment forms but is then discontinued *Privation* -- no opportunity is given for attachments to form. In practice it is difficult to distinguish between them completely. *Rutter* (1981, cited in Eysenck, 2018) disagreed with Bowlby's notion that deprivation causes long-term difficulties and proposed that the effects depend on the reason for the separation. Rutter also argued that *effects can generally be reversed if deprived children are placed with a loving family* **'Strange Situation' test (Ainsworth and Bell Attachment styles)** Brief separations and reunions between infant and parent and a stranger provide evidence of different types of infant attachment: *Secure attachment* -- Babies cry or protest when mother leaves, they greet her happily when she returns and they use the parent as secure base *Ambivalent attachment* -- on mother's return, approach but reject contact -- ambivalence when she returns as they are *hard to comfort* and they are *anxious even before mother leaves* -- very upset when she does *Avoidant attachment* -- same with parent and stranger, *rarely cry* when mother leaves and avoid mother when she returns *Disorganised attachment* -- cling, cry, cling/hit -- confused behaviours associated with *trauma* A diagram of a child abuse Description automatically generated There is support for Ainsworth's attachment types -- According to Ainsworth, the type of attachment between children and their mothers has implications for *later development and adult attachment styles* *Maternal sensitivity* predicts security of infant attachment Mother-infant attachment behaviour may depend on *cultural expectations* concerning what is appropriate Various research studies suggest that there are many children whose *attachment styles do not fall neatly within the categories* suggested by Ainsworth. *Paternity sensitivity* is often ignored even though it predicts infant attachment to some extent. Most theories are *oversimplified* *Fraley and Spieker* (2003) suggested that it is *wiser for psychologists to think about dimensions instead of categories.* This would enable us to capture variations in one's attachment styles. Ainsworth and colleagues suggested that differences are primarily related to the level of *maternal responsiveness* to the baby. They called this the *maternal sensitivity hypothesis*. They suggested that:  *The Role of the Child: The temperament hypothesis* Kagan (1984) explains that '*the infant's temperament and personality* helps to determine its attachment to its mother' (as cited in Eysenck, 2018; p.181) Some studies, such as that carried out by O'Connor and Croft 2001, cited in *Eysenck*, 2018, support this hypothesis: The researchers concluded that *identical twins showed more agreement in attachment style than fraternal twins.* To conclude, Belsky and Rovine (1987) suggest that *both the caregiver's sensitivity and the child's temperament are important in determining attachment* A screen shot of a chart Description automatically generated **Socio-emotional competences** are the *skills needed to understand and manage emotions,* build positive relationships, empathize with others, and make responsible decisions for psychological well-being. *Hodges and Tizard* studied Privation, *Rene Spitz* studied *institutionalised children* and *William Goldfarb* studied children who were institutionalised for different durations.  **Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL)** We define *social and emotional learning* (SEL) as an integral part of *education and human development.* SEL is the process through which all young people and adults acquire and apply the *knowledge, skills, and attitudes to develop healthy identities*, manage emotions and achieve personal and collective goals, feel and show empathy for