CSCS Exam Preparation PDF

CSCS Exam Breakdown Exam Part 1: Scientific Foundations (80 scored and 15 non-scored multiple-choice questions) 55% (44 questions) = Exercise Science -- Chapters 1 -- 7 24% (19 questions) = Sport Psychology -- Chapter 8 21% (17 questions) = Nutrition -- Chapters 9 -- 11 15 non-scored questions...

CSCS Exam Breakdown Exam Part 1: Scientific Foundations (80 scored and 15 non-scored multiple-choice questions) 55% (44 questions) = Exercise Science -- Chapters 1 -- 7 24% (19 questions) = Sport Psychology -- Chapter 8 21% (17 questions) = Nutrition -- Chapters 9 -- 11 15 non-scored questions = **95 total Q's / 80 Scored** Exam Part 2: Practical / Applied 36% (40 questions) = Chapters 14 - 16 35% (38 questions) = Chapters 17 -- 22 11% (12 questions) = Chapter 23 + 24 18% (20 questions) = Chapters 12 + 13 15 non-scored questions = **125 total Q's / 110 Scored** **Chapter 1: Structure and Function of Body Systems (1-18)** - Musculoskeletal System - Skeleton - Muscles pull against bones to transmit force. - Muscles can only pull; NOT PUSH, but muscle pulling can act as a pushing or pulling force on external objects. - Axial Skeleton = skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum - Appendicular Skeleton = shoulder girdle and appendages - Fibrous Joints = NO movement - Cartilaginous Joints = limited movement - Synovial Joints = considerable movement - Uniaxial joints = hinge movement - Biaxial = wrist and ankle movements in two perpendicular planes - Multiaxial = shoulder and hip joints movements in all 3 planes - Vertebral = 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 sacral, and 3 to 5 coccygeal - Skeletal Musculature - Epimysium = around entire muscle - Fascicle = bundles of muscles fibers - Endomysium = around each muscle fiber - Perimysium = around each fascicle - Myofibril = contain contractile unis myosin and actin which form many sarcomeres. - During contraction, H zone shortens, z-lines get closer together, and the I-bands (actin filaments) shortens. Actin and Myosin DO NOT SHORTEN; they slide over each other (sliding filament theory). - Calcium release from SR binds to Troponin - Troponin pulls Tropomyosin off myosin binding site - Myosin head attaches to actin - Myosin head uses stored ATP to "power stroke" - The head stays attached until another ATP is used to detach and then load up again. - If calcium is still present, then another power stroke occurs. - If calcium does not get reuptaked by SR, then tetany occurs. - Neuromuscular System - Motor neuron release acetylcholine in terminal junction, and if enough AcH is released, then an ACTION POTENTIAL is created. - All-or-none principle = all fibers react and contract when give an action potential with max force (strength) - Muscle Fiber Types - Type 1, Type IIa, and Type IIx - Already know differences in each. Fast twitch versus Slow Twitch and bioenergetic equipment available differs drastically. (Table 1.1) - Different Relative involvement of muscle fiber types in different sports (Table 1.2) - Muscle Recruitment Theory = Type I are always recruited and if enough force cannot be created, then type IIa, then type IIx. ALWAYS! - Proprioceptors = specialized sensory receptors within joints, muscles, and tendons - Muscle Spindles = intrafusal and extrafusal fibers (provide information with change in muscle length and rate of change of length). Activates muscle activation. - Golgi Tendon Organs = located in tendons = inhibits muscle activation by sensing change in tension in tendons. - Ability of motor cortex to override GTO inhibition = adaptation to heavy resistance training - Cardiovascular System - Heart - Tricuspid and Bicuspid valves - Aortic and Pulmonary Valve - Conduction System - SA Node = intrinsic pacemaker where rhythmic impulses are initiated. - Controls heart rhythmicity (60-80 times per minute) - AV node = impulse is delayed slightly before passing into ventricles - AV bundle = conducts impulse from SA into ventricles - Left bundle branch, right bundle branch, and Purkinje fibers conduct impulses to all parts of the ventricles. - Normal HR = 60-100 BPM - Bradycardia \100 BPM - Electrocardiogram (ECG) - A graphic representation of the electrical activity of the heart. - P-wave, QRS complex, and t-wave - P-wave and QRS complex represent the electrical depolarization that leads to mechanical contraction. - Depolarization = reversal of membrane potential; inside becomes slightly positive - P-wave = change in electrical potential of cardiac muscle cells in atrial contraction - QRS complex = change in electrical potential of cardiac muscle cells in ventricular contraction. - T-wave represents repolarization and recovery of the ventricles post contraction. - Blood Vessels - Arteries - Take blood away from the heart to resupply blood and nutrients to cells that are in need (muscle cells during exercise) - High pressures to have large enough driving force (MAP) - Arterioles play a major role in regulation of blood flow to capillaries for gas exchange. - Capillaries - Facilitate exchange of oxygen and other things between the blood and the interstitial fluid in body tissues - Veins - Get blood from the capillaries and brings it back to the heart so that the heart can pump the unoxygenated blood to the lungs to re-oxygenate it. - Contain one-way valves to prevent retrograde blood flow. - Blood - Transport oxygen from the lungs to tissues for use in metabolism (bioenergetics) and removal of metabolic wastes (carbon dioxide) - Hemoglobin are oxygen carriers in the blood. - Respiratory System - The primary function is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. - Downward and Upward movement of diaphragm controls expansion and recoil of the lungs. - Heavy exercise requires the use of muscles of inspiration and expiration to help achieve the breathing rate and power necessary to keep up with the body's demands. - Diffusion = random motion of molecules moving in opposite directions through the alveolar capillary membrane. - Diffusion occurs from high concentration to low concentration. - Chapter 1 quiz answers 1. B 2. A 3. B 4. B 5. B **Chapter 2: Biomechanics of Resistance Exercise (19-41)** - Biomechanics = mechanisms through which the musculoskeletal components interact to create movement - Skeletal Musculature - Origin = proximal connection of muscle to bone (Immovable) - Insertion = distal connection of muscle to bone (Movable) - Fleshy attachments = proximal end of muscle, muscle fibers are directly attached to the bone, and have a wide area where force is distributed and NOT localized. - Fibrous attachments = blend into and are continuous with both the muscle sheaths and the connective tissue surrounding the bone. - Agonist = prime mover during a movement (bicep during bicep curl) - Antagonist = muscles that can slow down the movement (triceps during bicep curl) - The antagonist will act as a protector for the body in slowing limbs down at the end of a fast movement (Biceps acting at the end of a throw) - Synergist = assists indirectly in a movement (muscles that stabilize the scapulae during upper arm movements) - Needed to control body motion when the agonist crosses two joints (rectus femoris -- flex hip and extend knee) - Levers of the Musculoskeletal System - First-class lever = a lever for which the muscle force and resistive force act on opposite sides of the fulcrum (the forearm during (seesaw) **(triceps extensions)** (FAR) - Second class lever = a lever for which the muscle force and resistive force act on the same side of the fulcrum with the muscle force working through a moment arm that is LONGER than the moment arm that the resistive force is acting upon. (good mechanical advantage due to long moment arm) (ARF) **(Plantar Flexion)** - Third class lever = a lever for which the muscle force and resistive force act on the same side of the fulcrum with the muscle force working through a moment arm SHORTER than the moment arm the resistive force acts upon. Muscle force must be greater than the resistive force for movement to occur. (AFR) **(Elbow Flexion)** - Moment arm = the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force applied to the fulcrum. - Torque (moment) = the degree to which a force tends to rotate an object about a specific fulcrum (pivot point) - Most humans' muscles operate at a mechanical DISADVANTAGE - Internal muscle forces are higher in the body than the forces exerted on external objects. - Variations in Tendon Insertion - Each person has their location of tendon attachments unique. - An attachment farther on the bone farther from the joint center will be advantageous for slower movements and powerlifting. disadvantageous for faster movements such as hitting a tennis ball because such an attachment would have to cover more ground and contract at a higher velocity which decreases its power output during faster speed movements. - Anatomical Planes and Major Body Movements - Anatomical position = the body erect, arms down at the side, and palms facing forward. - Sagittal Plane = slices the body into left and right pieces; describes motions such as bicep burls - Frontal Plane = slices the body into front and back pieces; describes motions such as jumping jack or standing lateral shoulder raises. - Transverse Plane = slices the body into upper and lower sections; describes motions such as DB Fly and most rotational exercises. - A program providing resistance exercises for all the movements in all the planes of motion would be advantageous for athletes. - Human Strength and Power - Strength and power are used to describe important abilities that contribute to maximal human efforts in sports and physical activities. - Strength = the ability to exert force - Oldest method of testing strength is how much weight can a person lift - New technology has popularized isometric and isokinetic strength testing. - Acceleration = change in velocity per unit of time - Newton's 2^nd^ law: Force = mass X acceleration - Test the athletes force capabilities at various loads to provide more insight into sport=specific abilities and weaknesses. - Controlling velocity requires sophisticated equipment, but the resulting strength scores are more meaningful than static strength measurements such as maximum loads lifted. - Positive Work and Power - Power = Work / Time - Work = force X displacement - Power = force on object X object's velocity in direction if force - Newtons = force - Meters = distance - Joules (Newton-meters) = work - Seconds = time - Watts (J/s) = power - Use calculations of force, work, and power to determine volume of a workout - Follow Calculations on page 28 -- 29 to calculate positive work and power - Negative Work and Power - Occurs during eccentric muscle actions - Negative work really refers to work that is being performed ON the muscle rather than BY the muscle. - The rate at which the repetitions are performed determines the power output. - Follow Calculations on page 29 to calculate negative work and power - Angular Work and Power - Angular Displacement = the angle through which an object rotates - Angular Velocity = the object's rotational speed (rad/second) - Torque = Nm, BUT not to be confused with work - Rotational Work = torque X angular displacement - Rotational Power = rotational work / time - Strength Versus Power - It is not correct to associate strength with low-speed movements and power with high-speed movements, BECAUSE strength is the capacity to exert force at any velocity and power is a mathematical product of force and velocity at whatever speed. THEY PRETTY MUCH DESCRIBE THE SAME THING. - The sport of weightlifting (Olympic Lifting) has much higher power outputs than powerlifting due to higher movement velocities with heavy weights of the weightlifting movements. - Biomechanical Factors in Human Strength - Neural Control - Affects the maximal force output by determining which and how many motor units are recruited. - Affects the rate at which the motor units are fired (rate coding) - Much of the improvement of strength in the first couple weeks of a program is because of neural adaptations as the brain learns to generate more force from contractile tissue. - Muscle Cross-Sectional Area - The larger the cross-sectional area of muscle, the larger the force exertion produced by that area of muscle - Resistance Training increases strength and cross-sectional area of muscle. - Arrangement of Muscle Fibers - Pennate Muscle = fibers align obliquely with the tendon - Angle of Pennation = the angle between muscle fibers and an imaginary line between the muscle's origin and insertion. - Greater pennation = better able to generate force, but lowering shortening velocity - Lesser Pennation = higher velocities of shortening, but decreased force production - Muscle Length - When a muscle is at resting length, it has the greatest potential for highest force production because the actin and myosin filaments lie right next to each other. - Joint Angle - The amount of torque that can be exerted about a given body joint varies throughout the joint's ROM because dynamic geometry of the muscles, tendons, and internal joint structures - Muscle Contraction Velocity - Force capabilities decrease as the velocity of the contraction increases. - Joint Angular Velocity - 3 muscle actions - Concentric - Eccentric - Isometric - Torque capabilities [decrease] as angular velocity [increases] during CONCENTRIC exercise - Torque capabilities [increase] as angular velocity [increases] until 90 degrees per second during ECCENTRIC exercise - The greatest muscle force can be obtained during ECCENTRIC exercise - Strength-to-Mass Ratio - Directly reflects an athlete's ability to accelerate his or her body - Highest strength-to-mass ratio can result in best possible performance. - In weight classification, strength being highest relative to the weight class is important in eventual performance - Once the weight class is found, the goal is to become as strong as possible without exceeding the weight class limit as the muscles hypertrophy. - Body Size - Smaller athletes are stronger pound for pound compared to larger athletes - Muscle's maximal contractile force is proportional to its cross-sectional area. - As body size increases, body mass increases more rapidly than muscle strength. - In sport activities such as sprinting and jumping, the ratio of the strength of the muscles involved in the movement to the mass of the body parts being accelerated is critical. Thus, the strength-to-mass ratio directly reflects an athlete's ability to accelerate his or her body - Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction - Gravity = objects weight downward = object's mass times the local acceleration due to gravity - Mass of a barbell or weight stack stays consistent although the weight can change as local acceleration due to gravity changes in different locations - Applications to Resistance Training - The moment arm of a weight is always horizontal - Exercise technique can affect the resistive torque pattern during an exercise and can shift stress among muscle groups. - Weight-Stack Machines - Offer increased control over the direction and pattern of resistance. - Advantages of a stack machine: - Safety: injury risked is decreased and it takes less skill. - Design Flexibility: Machines can be designed to provide resistance to body movements that free weights cannot. - Ease of use: quicker and easier selection of weight and not much coordination needed - Advantages of free weights - Whole body training: taxes a larger portion of the body's musculature and skeleton - Weight bearing exercises promote greater bone mineralization - Requires muscles to work in stabilization. - Cam-based machines - Provide more resistance at ROM where people can create greater torque - Provide less resistance at ROM where less torque is created - Athlete must move at a constant, slow angular velocity which is hard to do and the machines fail to match normal human torque capability patterns. - Inertia - Can act in any direction - Reason why heavy weights on a power clean are possible - Olympic lifting exercises are effective for improving the ability to produce high accelerations against heavy resistance - Training with accelerative movements can provide specificity of training - Bracketing technique = athlete performs sport movement with less than normal and greater than normal resistance. - Changing implement loading could have negative effects on technique because the body needs time to adjust to the motor pattern necessary for the movement with the added load. - Friction - The resistive force encountered when one attempts to move an object while it is pressed against another object. - Fr is the resistive force, k = coefficient of friction for the two particular substances; Fn = the normal force that pushes the objects together. - It takes more force to initiate movement than to maintain it. - Sleds are useful for horizontal resistance that it hard to give in the weight room. - Static friction is always higher than sliding friction. - Fluid Resistance - The resistive force encountered when moving through a fluid - Surface drag = the friction between fluid passing along an object - Form drag = from the way in which a fluid presses against the front or rear of an object passing through it. - Cross-sectional area has a large effect on form drag - Fr = k X v - Fr = resistive force - K = constant that reflects the physical characteristics of the cylinder and piston, the viscosity of the fluid, and the number, size, and shape of the openings - V = piston velocity relative to the cylinder - Fluid-resisted machines involve alternate concentric actions of antagonistic muscle groups whereas free weights and weight machine use the alternating of concentric and eccentric muscle actions - Therefore, fluid-resistive machines do not provide optimal specificity of training for the many sports that involve eccentric muscle actions (running, jumping, and throwing) - Elasticity - The resistance provided by a standard elastic component is proportional to the distance it is stretched. - Fr = k X x - Fr = resistive force - K = constant of the physical characteristics of the elastic component - x = the distance that the elastic component is stretched beyond its resting length - Problem with these devices - Start with low resistance and end with high resistance - Opposite of human muscles which show a drop in force capability toward the end of the range of motion. - The adjustability is limited by the number of elastic components available to provide resistance. - Bands on vertical jump machines provide greatest resistance at the top of the jump mainly causing the jumper to drop back to the ground faster, rather than resisting the muscles (gluteus and quads which have greatest force potential early in the movement), which can lead to injury risk as the jumper is landing faster due to the bands. - Joint Biomechanics: Concerns in Resistance Training - Rates of injury are the highest in team sports, intermediate for running and aerobics, and lowest in cycling, walking, and resistance training. - 4 injuries per 1000 hours of participation from resistance training. - 0.35 injuries per 100 players per season in football players - The risk of getting injured while resistance training is low compared to other sport and conditioning activities. - Factors to consider in avoiding RT injuries - Back - Back muscles are at a great mechanical disadvantage - Be wary of injuries to the two lowest lumbar vertebrae (L4 and L5) (or L5 and S1) - High compressive forces on the vertebrae during lifting - Keep low back in a moderately arched position to reduce risks of damage to disks. - Intra-abdominal pressure and lifting belts - Valsalva maneuver is great for adding rigidity to the entire torso, but it has RISKS such as chest pressure, heart pressure, increased blood pressure, and blacking out - You can create the fluid ball in abdomen without the Valsalva maneuver and that is the safest way to create the intra-abdominal pressure needed to safe the back from injuries. - Weight Belts - Not needed for exercises that do not directly affect the lower back - If directly stressing the back, can use a belt if the weight is maximal or near maximal. Beltless sets allow for building and adaptation of the deep abdominal muscles that increase intra-abdominal pressure when it is needed. - Belts are almost not needed if safe resistance training techniques are used. - Shoulders - The shoulder joint has the greatest range of motion which increases in vulnerability to injury. - Stability of the shoulder relies on glenoid labrum, rotator cuff muscles, and the pectorals to keep the humerus in place. - Make sure to warm-up with lighter weights and train all movements of the shoulder in a balanced way. - Knees - Prone to injury because of its location between two long levers. - Knee wraps provide direct help in extending the knee. - On basis of lacking evidence, athletes should minimize the use of knee wraps to only lifts with maximal or near maximal sets and make sure the load, volume, and recovery are appropriate to prevent knee injuries. - Elbows and Wrists - Overhead lifts are the biggest problem. - More often overhead use in sports and over-use injuries. - No need to avoid resistance training before physeal closure - Chapter 2 study answers - 1\. **C** - 2\. **D** - 3\. **A** - 4\. **A** - 5\. **C** **Chapter 3: Bioenergetics of Exercise and Training** - Hydrolysis = the breakdown of one molecule of ATP to yield energy - Catalyzed by adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) - Biological energy systems: phosphagen, glycolysis, and oxidative systems (Krebs cycle and ETC) - Energy stored in the chemical bonds of ATP is used to power muscular activity. Replenishment of ATP is done by the above systems. - Phosphagen System - Short-term, high intensity exercise - Highly active at the start of all exercise. - Creatine Kinase is rate limiting enzyme - Low CP storage means that this energy source is very short lived - Adenylate kinase = takes 2 ADP and makes an ATP + AMP - AMP stimulates glycolysis - Controlled by the mass action effect - The rate of product is influenced by concentrations of reactants - Glycolysis - Forming Lactate NOT lactic acid! - Lactate Dehydrogenase is rate limiting enzyme - Lactate is not the cause of fatigue! H+ accumulation with the creation of lactate accumulates dropping pH, inhibits glycolytic reactions, and directly interferes with excitation-contraction coupling by interfering with appropriate calcium roles in muscle contraction (force generator) - Pi from breakdown cause key losses of function with calcium leading to fatigue. - Most H+ accumulation is from simple hydrolysis of ATP like myosin ATPase for example. - Lactate is used in gluconeogenesis in the liver via the Cori Cycle - Max rate of lactate production for type II is 0.5; type I is 0.25. - Bicarbonate (HCO3-) buffering clears lactate - Light activity in post exercise period increases lactate clearance. - Glycolysis Leading to the Krebs Cycle - NADH and Pyruvate are transported if sufficient oxygen in the mitochondria - Pyruvate becomes Acetyl-CoA by rate limiting enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase complex - Glucose becomes 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 H2O before entering the Krebs Cycle - Energy Yield of Glycolysis - 4 ATP are resynthesized during Glycolysis HOWEVER - 1 ATP is used when PFK converts fructose 6 phosphate to fructose 1,6 phosphate. - 1 ATP is used if the source of glucose was the blood because when the glucose enters the cell from the blood it must be catalyzed by hexokinase to (phosphorylate) maintain the glucose concentration gradient. - If source is muscle glycogen, no need for phosphorylation therefore no use of ATP. - TOTAL ATP resynthesis by substrate level Glycolysis = 2 ATP for blood glucose substrate and 3 ATP for muscle glycogen glucose substrate. - Control of Glycolysis - Limiting enzymes of glycolysis include (PFK, hexokinase, and pyruvate kinase) - Lactate Threshold and Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation - Lactate Threshold = exercise intensity or relative intensity at which blood lactate concentration begins an abrupt increase from baseline concentration - LT = VT - LT = 50% to 60% of VO2 max UT; 70% to 80% T - OBLA (4 mmol/L) - Lactate Threshold is trainable with **high intensity** exercise. - The Oxidative System - Used during low intensity activities. - Uses CHO and Fats as fuel source - Protein does not provide a significant contribution to energy production except during long-term starvation (training low) and long bouts of exercise (\> 90 mins) - High intensity aerobic exercise will use 100% CHO if it is available - If not available or if not high intensity, then fat usage. - Glucose and Glycogen Oxidation - For one molecule of Glucose, 6 NADH and 2 FADH2 during glycolysis go to ETC. NADH = 3 ATP, FADH2 = 2 ATP; therefore 38 ATP from one Glucose when oxidized through ETC. Sometimes considered 36 ATP because NADH from pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA becomes FADH2 after being transported to the ETC via a shuttle. - Fat Oxidation (Beta) - Triglycerides broken down by HPL into Glycerol and Fatty Acids - Fatty Acids enter mitochondria and undergo beta oxidation - Results in acetyl-CoA and hydrogen protons - 3 16 carbon chain free fatty acids lead to over 300 ATP molecules. - Protein Oxidation - BCAAs (Leucine, Isoleucine, and Valine) can be oxidized in skeletal muscle - Waste products of BCAA degradation is eliminated through ammonia formation - Ammonia can cause fatigue because it is toxic and lower pH - Control of the Oxidative System - Rate limiting step of Krebs is conversion of isocitrate to alpha-ketoglutarate - Rate limiting enzyme is isocitrate dehydrogenase - If no NAD+ or FAD2+, then Krebs Cycle is reduced - GTP accumulation = succinyl CoA increases = inhibition of oxaloacetate + acetyl-CoA to citrate + CoA which is what restarts the Krebs cycle to keep cycling - Energy Production and Capacity - Table 3.2 and 3.3 need to know - The extent to which each of the three energy systems contributes to ATP production depends primarily on the intensity of muscular activity and secondarily on the duration. At no time, during either exercise or rest, does any single energy system provide the complete supply of energy. - Substrate Depletion and Repletion - Depletion of Phosphagens and Glycogen creates performance limitations - Phosphagens - High intensity exercise depletes phosphagens faster - Complete Repletion of CP can occur in 8 minutes - Aerobic Endurance training can increase resting concentrations of phosphagens and decrease repletion act a given submaximal power output - Resistance training by building Type II muscle fibers and creating muscle hypertrophy (more phosphagen storage) can help adapt depletion and repletion of phosphagens - Glycogen - Muscle glycogen more important during high intensity exercise - Liver glycogen more important during low intensity exercise - Optimal Repletion appears with 0.7 to 3 g of CHO ingested every 2 hours following exercise - Muscle Glycogen can be completely restored in 24 hours - Bioenergetic Limiting Factors in Exercise Performance (**Table 3.4**) - Goal of training must be to delay fatigue therefore increasing performance - Glycogen depletion is the main limiting factor for both long-duration, low-intensity exercise and high-intensity exercise - Other factors - Increased Pi's - Ammonia accumulation - Increased ADP - Impaired Ca2+ release from SR - Oxygen Uptake and Aerobic and Anaerobic Contributions to Exercise - Oxygen Uptake = measure of the body's ability to take in oxygen and deliver it to the working tissues - Oxygen Deficit = when the anaerobic mechanisms need to supply energy until aerobic can keep up and create steady state - Oxygen Debt = postexercise oxygen uptake - EPOC = oxygen uptake above resting levels - Chart on page 58 explains EPOC - Metabolic Specificity of Training - The use of appropriate exercise intensities and rest intervals allows for the "selection" of specific primary energy systems during training and, because this is more reflective of the actual demands of the sport, results in more efficient and productive regiments for specific athletic events with various metabolic demands. - Interval Training - Work-to-rest ratios (specific to energy pathways of activity or sport) - **Table 3.6** shows work-to-rest ratio to train specific energy systems - High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) - One of the most effective forms of exercise for improving physical performance - 9 HIIT variable to manipulate - Intensity of Active \* - Duration of Active \* - Intensity of Recovery \* - Duration of Recovery \* - \# of cycles in each set - \# of sets - Rest time between sets - Rest intensity between sets - Mode of exercise - [Intensity] and [durations] of **active and recovery portions of each cycle** are the most important factors - Benefits of HIIT - Stimulus for both oxidative adaptation and myocardial hypertrophy - Increased VO2 max - Increased H+ buffering - Increased Glycogen - Increased anaerobic thresholds - Increased time to exhaustion - Increased time-trial performance - Combination Training - Adding aerobic endurance training to anaerobic training can help enhance recovery because recovery is an aerobic event. - Although oxidative metabolism is important for increased postexercise VO2, lactate removal, and PCr restoration from heavy anaerobic exercise, care must be used because aerobic training can inhibit power output and muscular strength gains and adaptations of resistance training. - Specific anaerobic training can increase aerobic endurance and enhance recovery. - No need for [extensive] endurance training to recover from anaerobic events. Some endurance training is still okay. - Specific and appropriate anerobic training can actually increase aerobic performance qualities without inhibiting aerobic training adaptations - Chapter 3 Answers 1. B 2. A 3. A 4. C 5. D Chapter 4: Endocrine Responses to Resistance Exercise - Endocrine System played a role in developing the theory of periodization. - General Adaptation Syndrome - Alarm Reaction (Reduction of Function) - Adaptation (Increased Resistance to Stress) - Timely Removal of stimulus is important to allow recovery - Progressive Overload (Apply Stress, Remove, Re-Apply) - Ability to manipulate hormonal responses creates a difference in the successful outcome of the training program - Synthesis, Storage, and Secretion of Hormones - Endocrine glands (hormone releasers) are stimulated by chemical signals or direct neural stimulation - When stimulated, the endocrine glands release hormones into the blood - Hormones cause hormone specific and local effects - Besides Blood -- Intracrine, autocrine, and paracrine - Intracrine / Autocrine = cell releases a hormone to act on itself (IGF-I) - Paracrine = cell releases hormone to act on adjacent cells - SHBG = sex hormone binding globulin - Protein from testosterone and estrogen - Can bind and initiate cAMP pathways - Unusual because most hormones need to be separated from protein to have a function - Muscle as the Target for Hormone Interactions - Hormones are intimately involved with protein synthesis and degradation mechanisms that are part of muscle adaptations to resistance exercise - Anabolic, Catabolic, and Permissive Hormones allow the process of adaptation - Catabolic Hormones can block the effect of mTOR - Role of Receptors in Mediating Hormonal Changes - Hormones causes specific changes to specific tissues and cells - Receptors are either integrated into cell membrane (polypeptide receptors) or cytosol (steroid and thyroid hormone receptors) - Cross-Reactivity = receptors partially interact with other hormones - Allosteric Binding Sites = substances other than hormones can enhance or reduce the cellular response from the hormone - When adaptation is no longer needed, [downregulation] occurs - Categories of Hormones - Steroid Interactions - Cortisol, Testosterone, and Estradiol - Fat-Soluble, passively diffuse across membranes - Hormone-Receptor Complex (H-RC) = shift and activation of receptor - First H-RC binds to Second H-RC, then nucleus arrival at DNA - H-RC recognizes specific elements of the specific gene, and that specific part is transcribed from the DNA (mRNA) - mRNA is translated into the specific protein from the specific hormone - Polypeptide Interactions - Growth Hormone and Insulin - Cannot cross cell membrane thus needing secondary messengers - Insulin causes translocation of GLUT4 from cytosol to allow more glucose into the cell to decrease blood glucose levels - Amine Interactions - Synthesized from Tyrosine or tryptophan - Epi, norepi, Dopamine (T), and Serotonin (Tryptophan) - Need secondary messengers - NOT REGULATED DIRECTLY VIA NEGATIVE FEEDBACK - Heavy Resistance Exercise and Hormonal Interactions - The increase in anabolic hormone concentrations allow higher performance of heavy resistance exercise - Endocrine system is sensitive to the needs of activated muscle - Acute hormonal secretions - Amount and type of stress - Metabolic Demands - Need for changes in metabolism - Hormonal secretions from resistance exercise are specific to the stress created by resistance exercise - Activation of high-threshold motor units is unique to resistance exercise - The specific force produced in activated fibers stimulates receptor and membrane sensitivities to anabolic factors and hormones that lead to muscle growth and strength changes. - Mechanisms of Hormonal Interactions - When exercise acutely increases the blood concentrations of hormones, the probability of interaction with receptors might be greater - If function is close to genetic maximum, then sensitivity decreases - A wide variety of hormonal mechanisms with different effects based on program design, age, sex, training level, and adaptation potential provides many possible adaptation strategies for the maintenance or improvement of muscle size and strength. - Hormonal Changes in Peripheral Blood - Large increases in hormone concentration indicate higher probabilities of interactions with receptors - Hormone responses are tightly linked to the characteristics of the resistance exercise protocol - Adaptations in the Endocrine System - Amount of Synthesis and Storage of hormones - Increased Transportation of hormones - Decreased time for hormone clearance - Amount of degradation that takes place over time - How much blood-to-tissue fluid shift occurs during exercise - Increased receptor affinity; uncommon to exercise - Number of Receptors - Size of secretory cells - Magnitude of signal - Degree of interaction between hormone and cell - Primary Anabolic Hormones - Testosterone - Primary androgen that interacts with skeletal muscle - Dihydrotestosterone primary for sex-linked tissues - Binding of T to receptor is the key to stimulating anabolic functions - Increased T concentration indirectly marks increased motor unit activation and metabolic demands beyond hemostatic conditions - Promotes Growth Hormone to increase protein synthesis - High-Intensity aerobic endurance exercise = increased peripheral T - Increased T to combat the catabolic tissue response from Aerobics - Exercise Variables can increase serum T in boys and younger men \ 3,900 feet elevation, acute physiological adjustments begin to occur to compensate for [reduced partial pressure of O2] - Table 6.3 - Takes 10 -- 14 days for HR and CO to return to normal values - Acclimation changes revert in about a month upon return to sea level - 3-6 weeks is needed for adaptation at moderate altitude (2,220 to 3,000 M) - Hyperoxic Breathing - Breathing oxygen enriched gas mixtures during rest periods increases performance - Smoking - Smoking and its side effects are very harmful to athletes and lead to a very decreased performance output - Blood Doping - Artificially increasing RBCs - EPO - Effects of altitude appear to be lessened with blood doping - Heat exposure is less detrimental when someone blood dopes - High hematocrit levels may increase risk for embolic events (stroke), myocardial infarction, DVT, or pulmonary embolism - Genetic Potential - Because of the small gains possible with training elite athletes, careful program design and monitoring become even more critical - Age and Sex - Max aerobic power decreases as we age - Overtraining and Markers in Aerobic Training - Overtraining syndrome can lead to dramatic performance decreases in all athletes; the most common cause is intensified training without adequate recovery - CV Responses - RHR increased or decreased - Biochemical Responses - Increased CK levels - Decreased Lactate Levels due to Decreased Glycogen Levels and usage - Endocrine Responses - Decrease of 30% or more to the ratio of free testosterone to cortisol - Increased SNSA and Catecholamines mark OTS - During submax effort - Strategies for Prevention - Good nutrition - Sleep - Recover - **MEMORIZE Markers of Aerobic Overtraining on page 131** - Detraining - Tapering = planned reduction of volume of training before an athletic competition - In trained athletes, VO2 Max is reduced 4% to 14% with 4 week detrain and 6% to 20% with \> 4 weeks of detraining - Proper exercise variation, intensity, maintenance programs, and active recovery periods can adequately protect against serious detraining effects Chapter 6 quiz A's 1. D 2. D 3. D 4. A 5. C **Chapter 7: Age and Sex Related Differences and Their Implications for Resistance Exercise** - RT = safe and effective method of conditioning for individuals with various needs, goals, and abilities - When designing and evaluating RT programs, strength and conditioning professionals need to understand age and sex related differences in body composition, muscular performance, and trainability and their implications for each individual - Resistance Exercise = specialized method of conditioning whereby an individual is working against a wide range of resistive loads to enhance health, fitness, and performance. - Childhood = period of life between birth and development of secondary sex characteristics (puberty) - Adolescence = period between puberty and adulthood - Adulthood = end of puberty to the rest of the lifespan - Youth or Young athletes = childhood or adolescent athletes - Older and Senior = men and women over the age of 65. - Muscular Strength can be expressed in absolute or relative - Children - Fundamental Principles of growth, maturation, and development need to be understood - Training of young athletes is becoming more intense therefore factors for acute and chronic injuries needs to be considered as well - The Growing Child - Growth = increase in body size or size of a certain body part - Development = natural progression from prenatal to adulthood - Maturation = process of becoming mature and fully functional - Chronological Age versus Biological Age - Chrono age (months or years) is NOT accurate to define a stage of maturation or development because growth is not constant or linear and it is very different for different people - Better to use biological age (skeletal age, somatic maturity, or sexual maturation) - In girls, the onset of a period (menarche) is the marker of sexual maturation - In boys, the closest markers are pubic hair, facial hair, and deepening of the voice - In adequately nourished children, there is no evidence that physical training delays or accelerates growth and maturation in girls or boys - Gold standard for assessing biological maturation is to do a skeletal age assessment - Compare X-rays of children to a standard and check ossification of bones in the left wrist - Alternate method is to do a visual assessment of the development of secondary sex characteristics - Tanner Classification Stage 1 -- 5 - Very invasive therefore, S&C coaches should NEVER use this method - Most realistic and feasible means is by Somatic assessments - Degree in growth in overall stature or smaller, subdimensions of the body - Longitudinal Growth curve analysis, percentages and predictions of final adult height, and the prediction of peak high velocity (PHV) - PHV = age at maximum rate of growth during the pubertal growth spurt - May need to be measured every 3 months - NONINVASIVE - S&C professionals should individualize training program design based on each child's technical competency, training age, and maturity level - During peak height velocity, young athletes may be at a risk of injury especially at the growth plates - If the child complains of pain during growth spurt periods, the S&C professional should consider the possibility of an overuse injury and refer the child to a medical practitioner - Muscle and Bone Growth - Muscle mass steadily increases throughout development - At birth, 25% of BW is MM - 40% of BW is MM by adulthood - During Puberty (boys), Testosterone, GH, and IGF, have a marked increase in concentration which = increase in muscle mass and widening of shoulders - During Puberty (girls), Increase in estrogen causes increased body fat deposition, breast development, and widening of the hips - Peak MM occurs in Males (16-20 years) and Females (18-25 years) - Growth Cartilage in children is located at the epiphyseal plate, the joint surface, and the apophyseal insertions. Damage to the growth cartilage may impair the growth and development of the affected bone. However, the risk of such damage can be reduced with appropriate exercise technique, sensible progression, and instruction by qualified S&C professionals - Developmental Changes in Muscular Strength - In boys, peak strength gains occur 1.2 years after PHV and 0.8 years atter PWV, with bodyweight being the clear indicator - On average, peak strength is around 20 years old for an untrained woman and between 20-30 for an untrained man - As the nervous system develops, the expression of sport skill with develop along with it - Don't expect children to pick up and express sport or S&C skill in the same way as adults - Early-maturates develop into mesomorphic or endomorphic body types and late-maturates develop into ectomorphic body types. - Youth Resistance Training - Always underestimate the children's physical abilities and gradually increase the volume and intensity of training - Begin children in RT with exercises that match their maturity level, physical abilities, and individual goals - Responsiveness to RT in Children - Training induced gains from a short-duration, low-volume, and low-intensity training program are NOT DISTINGUISHABLE from gains attributable to normal growth and maturation - Intensity and Volume of Training must be adequate for gains to be noticed beyond natural growth gains - Very important to have consistent and continuous training to maintain the strength advantage of exercise-induced adaptations - Preadolescent boys and girls can significantly improve their strength above and beyond growth and maturation with RT. Neurological factors, as opposed to hypertrophic factors, are primarily responsible for these gains. - Potential Benefits - Favorably alter selected anatomic and psychosocial parameters - Reduce Injuries from sport or recreational play - Improve motor skills and sport performance - Decreased body fat - Increased Insulin Sensitivity - Enhanced Cardiac Function - Obese youth athletes enjoy RT because it is NOT AROBICALLY TAXING - Potential Risks and Concerns - Majority of weight room injuries occur due to poor supervision, instruction, and inappropriate technical competency and training loads - **If children and adolescents are taught how to RT properly and understand RT guidelines and procedures, the risk of epiphyseal plate fracture is very minimal.** - Program Design Considerations for Children - View RT as one part of a well-rounded exercise program for a child - Children must have the emotional maturity to receive and follow directions before any training program should be followed - 2 important areas of concern in developing YRTP are the quality of instruction and rate of progression - Focus on proper technique! - Focus on intrinsic factors = skill development, personal successes, and HAVING FUN! - Can use 1RM to measure strength if proper coaching expertise is available - OTHERWISE, use predictive 1RM equations from 5RM or 10RM - OR, field-based measures of different jump protocols - STUDY Youth Resistance Training Guidelines on page 144 - Female Athletes - RT is an essential component of any training program that a female follows - Women are capable of tolerating and adapting to stresses of RT - Sex differences - An understanding of sex-related differences is important for optimizing performance and decreasing the injury risk - Body Size and Composition - Women have more body fat, less muscle mass, and lower bone mineral density - Women tend to be lighter in total body weight - Women need more body fat percentage than Men for overall health - Strength and Power Output - In terms of absolute strength, women are generally weaker than men because of lower muscle quantity; HOWEVER, women and men are equal when strength is expressed relative to muscle cross-sectional area. Muscle quality is not sex specific. Men just have more muscle mass. - In terms of power output, women generally produce less power when expressed compared to total body weight, but men and women are equal in power output capabilities when expressed compared to Relative FFM. - Resistance Training for Female Athletes - Despite sex differences, women and men seem to respond to RT in a similar way - Responsiveness to RT in Women - Relative short-term gains in hypertrophy are similar between sexes - More complex movements may require a longer neural adaptation period thereby delaying muscle hypertrophy in the trunk and legs - Female Athlete Triad - Interrelationships between energy availability, menstrual function, and bone mineral density - Amenorrhea = absence of a menstrual cycle for more than three months. Caused by decreased secretion of LH - S&C professionals must ensure that nutritional intake supports the training prescription to stimulate recovery and adaptation. - Females involved in sports where scores are based on aesthetics (dance or gymnastics) are at a high risk for eating disorders and should be referred to trained medical and dietary professionals if need be - Program Design Consideration for Women - Only difference is the amount of absolute resistance used for a given exercise - Upper Body Strength Development - The addition of one or two upper body exercises or one or two extra sets may be beneficial for women who have difficulty performing multi-joint free weight exercises - Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) Injury in Females - Female athletes 6x greater risk of ACL tear than male players - The most significant contributing factor is neuromuscular deficiency which leads to abnormal biomechanics - To reduce the risk of ACL injury: - Encourage year-round training - Teach and ensure learning of proper biomechanics in a variety of environments - Use a proper warm-up - Older Adults - Competitive weightlifting ability decreases 1.0 to 1.5% per year until age 70 when larger decreases occur - Age-related Changes in Musculoskeletal Health - Bone mass and Muscle mass decline with age - Osteopenia = bone density between -1 and -2.5 SD of the young adult mean - Osteoporosis = BMD below -2.5 SD of the young adult mean - Advancing age is associated with a loss of muscle mass, which is largely attributable to physical inactivity. A direct result of the loss of muscle mass is the loss of muscular strength and power. - STUDY TABLE 7.1 on page 149 - Age-related Changes in Neuromuscular Function - Decreases in muscular strength and power, reaction time, and impaired balance and postural stability contribute to falling in seniors - Seniors rely on increased cocontraction as a compensatory mechanism to offset their increased balance difficulties and postural sway. - Use low-intensity plyometrics, balance and dynamic stabilization exercises, and proprioception training to develop the ability to react more effectively with the ground and decrease the emphasis on cocontarction of agonist and antagonist muscle groups - RT for Older Adults - Significant improvements in muscular power, muscle mass, BMD, and functional capabilities - Muscular Strength is an important factor in decreased mortality risk - Responsiveness to RT in Older Adults - Though aging is associated with several undesirable changes in body composition, older men and women maintain their ability to make significant improvements in strength and functional ability. Aerobic, resistance, and balance exercise are beneficial for older adults, but only RT can increase muscular strength, muscular power, and muscle mass - Program Design for Older Adults - Safety Recommendations for RT of older adults - Prescreening to assess previous or current medical conditions - 5-10 minute warm-up - Static stretching needs to be before and/or after - Do NOT overtax the musculoskeletal system - Avoid the Valsalva Maneuver - 48-72 hours of recovery between exercise sessions - Perform exercises with pain free range of motion Chapter 7 quiz Q's and A's 1. **D** 2. **A** 3. **C** 4. **D** 5. **B** **Chapter 8: Psychology of Athletic Preparation and Performance** - Excellence in athletic performance is the result of sound skill and physical training accompanied by optimal rest and recovery cycles and appropriate diet. - Role of sport psychology is to help athletes achieve more consistent levels of performance at or near their physical potential by carefully managing their physical resources through appropriate psychological strategies and techniques. - Ideal performance state = the ultimate goal of every athlete - Physiological Efficiency = physical energy required to perform a task - Role of Sport Psychology - Measure Psychological phenomena - Investigate relationships between psychological variables and performance - Apply theoretical knowledge to improve athletic performance - Ideal Performance State - Absence of fear -- no fear of failure - No thinking about or analysis of performance - A narrow focus of attention on the activity at hand - A sense of effortlessness - A sense of personal control - A distortion of time and space, time slows "the game slows down" - Athletes trust their skill and conditioning levels and just "let it happen" - Energy Management: Arousal, Anxiety, and Stress - Mental energy is controlled by our emotions - Temporary feelings states that correspond to hormonal responses - They can beneficial or detrimental to human performance depending on how they are Interpreted - Training athletes to tap into their emotions for elevated energy, while maintaining a sense of control over those emotions, is key toward generating ideal performance state - Arousal = blend of physiological and psychological activation in an individual that refers to the intensity of motivation at any given time in the athlete - Anxiety = Negatively perceived arousal characterized by nervousness, worry, apprehension, or fear - Cognitive anxiety = cognitive component (negative perception) - Somatic anxiety = physical symptoms - State anxiety is the actual experience of apprehension and uncontrolled arousal. Trait anxiety is a personality characteristic, which represents a latent disposition to perceive situations as threatening - Stress = substantial imbalance between demand and response capability - Eustress compromises positive mental energy and physiological arousal - Distress compromises cognitive and somatic anxiety - Influence of Arousal and Anxiety on Performance - What is the relationship between arousal and performance? - Drive Theory = direct and linear progression - The more psyched up an athlete gets the better they perform - Not this simple, much more complex, athletes can get too psyched - Skill Level - Increasing Skill level can allow athletes to perform better during states of less-than or greater-than optimal arousal - Task Complexity - Simple or well-learned skills are less effective by a high degree of arousal - Complex skills are negatively affected by high arousal; therefore, the goal is to keep arousal low during these high-pressure complex skill situations - Inverted U-Theory - Arousal facilitates performance up to an optimal level, beyond which further increases in arousal state are associated with negative performance - Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning Theory - Different people, in different types of performance, perform best with very different levels of arousal. - Different from Inverted U in 2 ways: - Ideal Performance does not always occur at the midpoint of arousal - Best performance can occur within a small range of arousal - Positive and Negative emotions can enhance or impair performance - Any emotion can be perceived as positive or negative by different athletes - Catastrophe Theory - U-theory said that the decrease of performance with overstimulation was gradual - Catastrophe theory states that the decline is very sharp and all the sudden - When increases in physiological arousal occur in the presence of cognitive anxiety, a sudden drop rather than a gradual decline in performance occurs - Reversal Theory - The way in which arousal and anxiety affect performance depends on the individual's interpretation of that arousal. - Athletes have within their power the ability to reverse their interpretation of their own arousal - This theory is important because it emphasizes that one's interpretation and not just the amount of arousal is significant - Motivation - Defined as the direction and intensity of effort - Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation - Intrinsic Motivation - Desire to be competent and self-determining - Athletes are driven by their love for the game and the rewards they feel from participation in that sport - They genuinely want to learn and improve because of their love for the game and how much fun they have playing the game - Must have appropriate goals to drive competence and self-determination - Giving this athlete some decision making is good for their self-determination - Extrinsic Motivation - Comes from some external source - Play for trophies, awards, praise, social approval, and fear of punishment - Achievement Motivation - A person's efforts to master a task, achieve excellence, overcome obstacles, and engage in competition or social comparison - Whichever athlete has the higher achievement motivation will be the better athlete because they have a greater appetite for competition - Motive to achieve success (MAS): the capacity to experience pride in one's accomplishments - Motive to avoid failure (MAF): the desire to protect one's ego and self-esteem - More about avoiding perception of shame that comes with failure not as much avoiding failure all together - MAS athletes strive in situations that are uncertain or challenging (50% probability chance of success) - MAF athletes strive in situations where it is either very likely of success or extremely difficult to achieve success; either one helps avoid shame - Confronted by a very challenging goal (gaining significant amounts of lean muscle during a hypertrophy phase), MAF might reduce effort because they fear failure, MAS might heighten effort - Motivational Aspects of Skill Learning (Self-Controlled Practice) - Involves the athletes in decision-making related to practice structure - It promotes feelings of competence and autonomy which can help increase motivation, performance, and skill learning - Positive and Negative Reinforcement in Coaching - Positive Reinforcement: increasing the probability of a behavior that is considered acceptable - Negative Reinforcement: increases the probability of a behavior by reducing something that the athletes do not enjoy - Positive Punishment: decreases probability of a behavior by adding something "bad" - Negative Punishment: decreases probability of a behavior by removing something of value to the athletes - Reinforcement is arguably better because it focuses on what athletes should do and what they did right - Attention and Focus - Defined as the processing of both environmental and internal cues that come to awareness - Selective attention: commonly referred to by athletes as their level of focus, is the suppression of task-irrelevant stimuli and thoughts - Attentional Styles - Individuals tend to experience shifting categories of attentional styles during performance - Two dimensions 1. Direction (internal-external) 2. Width (broad-narrow - Creates 4 quadrants of attentional focus - Broad-external (Assess) - Broad-Internal (Analyze) - Narrow-External (Act) - Narrow-Internal (Prepare) - Psychological Techniques for Improved Performance - Improving one's use of mental skills can enhance performance - Relaxation Techniques to Control Elevated Arousal and Anxiety - Diaphragmatic Breathing - Deep, rhythmic breathing for relaxation - Belly breathing - Deep inhale and a controlled exhale - Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PMR) - The athletes learn to become aware of somatic tension and thereby control - The hope is that a relaxed body equals a relaxed mind - Autogenic Training - Series of exercises designed to produce physical sensations in the body - Because it eliminates the need for uncomfortable levels of muscle tension, older athletes or athletes in rehabilitation from injury may find autogenic better than PMR - Relaxation Techniques are designed to reduce physiological arousal and increase task-relevant focus. These techniques are of extreme importance when one is executing complex or novel tasks or performing in high-pressure situations - Systematic Desensitization - Combines mental and physical techniques that allow an athlete to replace fear response to various cues with a relaxation response - Counterconditioning - Need to reasonably skilled at PMR and imagery - Construct a progression of events and situations that are perceived as fearful - Imagery - Cognitive skill in which the athlete creates or recreates an experience in his or her mind - Rehearsing successful execution of a skill during imagined competitive conditions can provide the subconscious mind with positive memories, thus increasing the athlete's sense of confidence and preparedness for the sport - Mental Imagery allows athletes to get used to actual competitive experience over longer periods of time despite minimal real-world competitive opportunity - Self-Efficacy - The belief that one can successfully perform a desired behavior - Comes from several sources including: - Performance Accomplishments - Vicarious Experiences - Verbal Persuasion - Imaginal Experience - Physiological States - Emotional States - Influences people's choice of activity, their level of effort in that activity, and how much persistence they will have in the face of challenging obstacles - Self-Talk - Intrapersonal communication used to enhance self-efficacy, aid in directing proper focus, assist in regulating arousal levels, and reinforce motivation - Positive and instructionally focused self-talk have been found to improve performance in lab settings; actual performance can be based on individual and environmental differences - Goal setting - Process whereby progressively challenging standards of performance are pursued with defined criterion of task performance that increases the likelihood of perceived success - Reasons why goal setting improves performance - Goals direct an athlete's attention by prioritizing efforts - Goals increase effort - Goals increase positive reinforcement through the feedback given to athletes - Process Goals - Those over which the athlete has full control over - If effort is expended, success occurs with a high probability - Success in contingent on effort - Outcome Goals - The athlete has little control - Focus on competitive result of an event - Contingent not only on effort, but also on the efforts and abilities of others - Short-term goals - Directly related to current training or competition - Increase likelihood of success because they are relatively close to the athlete's present ability level - Long-term Goals - Overarch the series of linked short-term goals - Athlete may see more relevance in everyday practice goals if they help attain the ultimate level of performance - Enhancing Motor Skill Acquisition and Learning - What may facilitate learning for one athlete may have a different effect on another - Learning-Performance Distinction - Learning is a process that results in permanent change - Performance is the execution of the skill in the current environment - Practice Schedule - Practice is essential and just mere repetitions is not enough to change behavior - Whole versus Part Practice - Whole = the motor skill in its entirety - Part = separates the motor skill into a series of subcomponents - When subcomponents are interrelated then whole practice is best (lunge); when subcomponents are not highly interrelated then part practice is very effective (power clean) - If part practice, THEN - Segmentation = subcomponents with clear breaks between them (clean) - Fractionalization = subcomponents that occur simultaneously (Push Press) - Simplification = adjusts the difficulty of the tasks by changing task characteristics - Methods for bringing the parts back into the whole - Pure-part training = after all components have been practiced multiple times, then the skill is practiced in its entirety - Progressive-part training = practice first two parts in isolation, then perform the two together in unison, then practice third, then all three together, etc. - Repetitive part training = practice only the first part in isolation, then add subsequent parts until the whole movement is performed - Random Practice - Multiple skills are practiced in a random order during a given practice session - Squat depth jump, depth jump with lateral movement, a split-squat jump, and a side-to-side push-off in a random order - Variable Practice - Variations of a single skill within the same practice session - Different versions of the same box jump - Observational Learning - Practice through observation - Prerecorded videos or live demonstrations - Partner work can facilitate learning - Instructions - Varying the amount of instruction given can improve motor skill learning - Explicit instructions: gives the athletes the "rules" for effective execution of a given task - Guided Discovery: provides instructions about the overall movement goal and important prompts for task accomplishment without telling the athlete exactly how to do it (tell the goal of a squat depth jump and key reminders to avoid injury) - Discovery: instructs the athlete of overall goal of the task with no direction (squat to this depth any way you can) - Feedback - Provides the athlete with information about the movement pattern and the associated goal - Intrinsic Feedback = provided to the athlete by the athlete's senses - Augmented Feedback = provided to the athlete via observer or coach - Knowledge of Results provides athlete with information on the execution of the task (can compare or not compare) - Knowledge of Performance provides the athlete with information about his or her movement pattern (use of force plates or video analysis) - Feedback can be used to facilitate both learning and performance. The timing and frequency of the feedback have different influences on performance and learning. While concurrent feedback is beneficial for competition, delayed feedback that is initially frequent and decreases with time will facilitate learning of complex movement patterns Chapter 8 Quiz Q's and A's 1. A 2. D 3. B 4. B 5. C **Chapter 9: Basic Nutrition Factors in Health** - Good nutrition provides athletes with the nutrients necessary for general health, growth, development, and repairing and building muscle tissue, as well as the energy needed to train, compete, and maintain mental focus and concentration - Given the amount of misinformation and conflicting nutrition circulating on the internet, in print, and via word of mouth, nutrition can be very confusing for athletes - Role of Sports Nutrition Professionals - Sports Dietician is a registered dietitian with specific education and experience in sports nutrition (The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND) Board certification Certified Specialist in Sport Dietetics (CSSD) distinguishes registered distinguishes registered dieticians that have expertise ins sports nutrition - Sport Nutrition Coach is not registered but has basic training in nutrition and exercise science; they can have certifications which are a little bit more advanced nutritional information without being an expert in complex situations - A sports nutritionist with an advanced degree can discuss literature on a particular topic and can obtain sports nutrition certifications such as IOC diploma in Sport Nutrition. - Experienced sports dieticians help athletes make the connection between plate and performance. They have advanced knowledge, skills, and expertise in sports nutrition - Standard Nutrition Guidelines - MyPlate - Provides calorie guidelines and portion recommendations - Those who are more physically active should adjust the guidelines to meet their more specific dietary needs - MyPlate is a starting point; get a variety of foods from each food group - If missing an entire group of foods, then contact the sports dietician - **STUDY TABLE 9.1 and 9.2** - Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI's) - Complete set of nutrient intakes for use when evaluating and planning diets for healthy individuals - DRIs apply to a person's usual intake - RDAs = the average daily nutrient requirement adequate for meeting the needs of most healthy people within each life stage and sex - AI = average daily nutrient intake level when RDA cannot be established - UL = the max average daily nutrient level not associated with any adverse effects - EAR = the average daily nutrient level considered sufficient to meet the needs of half of the healthy population within each life stage and sex - Macronutrients - Protein - Essential for maintaining health, reproduction, and cellular structure and function - Although stated as protein recommendations, they are actually amino acid recommendations - RDA for protein for men and women 19 years and older is 0.8g/kg BW/ day - AMDR = 10% to 35% of total calories per day - In practice, sports dieticians should first establish an athlete's protein intake and then add CHO and fats as determined by the total calorie needs - Concerns about RDA for Protein - RDA might not be high enough for proper bone health, weight management, and building and repairing muscle - Athletes require more than the RDA for protein to build and repair muscle. Depending on the sport and training program, 1.0 to 1.7 g per kg BW of protein is recommended - Carbohydrates - Monos, di's, and poly's - Glycogen - Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load - GI ranks CHOs according to how quickly they are digested and absorbed - GL = GI times grams of CHO divided by 100 - Fiber - DRI = 21 -- 29 grams per day for women and 30 -- 38 grams per day for men - CHO requirements for athletes - Athletes adapt to dietary changes in CHO intake. Though athletes who regularly consume CHO use them as energy during aerobic exercise, consistent intake of a low-CHO diet leads to a greater reliance on fat as a fuel source - Athletes who perform and train with high intensities need a higher CHO diet than low - Fats - Triglycerides = glycerol and three fatty acids - Fat serves many functions such as insulation and protection of organs, regulation of hormones, carries and stores ADEK, and repairs cell membranes - Cholesterol - LDL bad and HDL good - Fat and Performance - Both IMTGs and FFA are potential energy sources during exercise - Consistent aerobic training increases the muscle's capacity to use fatty acids - The human body has enough fat to fuel long training sessions or competition if intensity is low to moderate - Vitamins - Organic substances needed in very small amounts to perform metabolic functions - Water Soluble equal B vitamins and C - Fat Soluble include ADEK - Minerals - Inorganic substances that contribute to the structure of bone, teeth, and nails; are a component of enzymes; and perform a wide variety of metabolic functions - For athletes, minerals are important for bone-health, oxygen-carrying capacity, and fluid / electrolyte balance - Iron and Calcium are the two most important to consider for athletes because of their roles in performance - Iron - Important for functioning and synthesis of hemoglobin which transfers oxygen throughout the body - Iron deficiency is the most prevalent nutrition deficiency in the world - Women of childbearing age, teenage girls, pregnant women, and toddlers are at the greatest need for Iron - Heme Iron is absorbed better than non-heme iron - Consuming Vit C helped increase the absorption of non-heme iron - Calcium - Helps grow bones in length and density - Calcium is also very important for muscle contraction ability - Fluid and Electrolytes - Water represents 45% to 75% of a person's body weight - Essential for body temperature regulation, nutrient transportation, waste product removal, and maintaining fluid balance and therefore blood pressure - Athletes must watch hydration status because sweat losses that exceed fluid intake can lead to hypo hydrated states - Dehydration - Fluid Balance - AI for water is 3.7 L for men and 2.7 L for women - 3.0 L for a pregnant woman and 3.8 L for lactating women - All sources of fluid contribute to meeting a person's water needs - Preventing Dehydration - Athletes should try to prevent water losses exceeding 2% of BW while also restoring electrolytes lost through sweat - A very wide range of fluid losses, in the form of sweat, exists among athletes. Therefore, each athlete should develop an individualized hydration plan - Electrolytes - Majority Sodium Chloride - Lesser Extent in order potassium, magnesium, and calcium - Sodium influences fluid regulation - All of the electrolytes lost through sweat are important for muscle contraction; therefore, if not replaced properly, performance is reduced - Athletes who exercise intensely or for hours and hydrate excessively with only water or no- or low-sodium beverage may dilute their blood sodium to dangerously low levels - Fluid Intake Guidelines - Athlete should start exercise or training in a hydrated state, avoid losing 2% of body weight during exercise, and rehydrate completely after exercise and before the next training session - During Activity - Prolonged exercise in hot conditions - 20 to 30 mEq of sodium per liter - 2 to 5 mEq of potassium per liter - CHO concentration of 5% to 10% - After Activity - Athletes should consume 1.5L of fluid for each kg BW Chapter 9 quiz Q's and A's 1. A 2. B 3. D 4. C **Chapter 10: Nutrition Strategies for Maximizing Performance** - Precompetition, During Event, and Postcompetition Nutrition - Pre and During nutrition affect the athlete's performance both physiologically and psychologically - Precompetition Nutrition - Helps provide fluid to maintain adequate hydration and CHO to maximize blood glucose and stored glycogen levels while also satisfying hunger - Glycogen is needed for high intensity exercise \> 70 % VO2 max - If glycogen is depleted, muscular fatigue follows - Glycogen in the liver is used for the rest of the body - Glycogen in the muscle is used by the muscle - All precomp meals should take timing, meal and fluid composition, event or sport, and individual athlete preferences into account - Precomp meals should be familiar to the athlete (tried in practice) - Also low in fat and moderate in protein to avoid GI distress - Aerobic Endurance Sports - Very important for endurance athletes who compete in long-duration activity \> 2 hours in the morning after an overnight fast - CHO precomp can significantly enhance glycogen stores and improve exercise time to exhaustion - Consumption of high carb meal preexercise improved endurance running capacity by 9% - High carb meal plus sports drink during the run improved running capacity by 22% - General Recommendations - Urine specific gravity should be \< 1.020 - 1 to 4 g per kg BW CHO and 0.15 to 0.25 g per kg BW CHON 4 hours before the event - 2 hours before the event should be 1 g per kg BW CHO - During prolonged activity in hot weather, consume sports drink containing 20 to 30 mEq of sodium per liter, 2 to 5 mEq of potassium per liter, amd CHO concentration of 5% to 10% - When consumed closer to competition, meal should be smaller and be of liquid food sources like gels and gummies - The primary purpose of the precompetition meal is to provide sufficient fluid to maintain hydration and CHO to maximize blood glucose and stored glycogen while also satisfying hunger - Carbohydrate Loading - High CHO intake in days prior to an event - Common is 3 days of high carb intake with tapered exercise during the week prior to the competition - 8 to 10 g CHO per kg BW - 10 to 12 g CHO per kg BW 36-48 hours prior to a marathon - CHO loading great for men; mixed reviews for females - Main challenge with CHO loading in females appears to be their overall daily caloric intake - Women who normally consume \< 2400 calories per day may find it hard to consume high amounts of CHO - CHO loading is an effective strategy to maximize glycogen storage. However, athletes must consume 8 to 10 g of CHO per kg BW per day during the loading period to notice any benefit - During-Event Nutrition - Important factor during aerobic endurance events that last longer than 45 minutes, intermittent-activity sports, or when an athlete has multiple events in one day - Proper hydration is important for performance as well as prevention of overheating, dehydration, and heat illness - CHO sports drink of 6% to 8% is ideal because sports drinks over 8% decrease gastric emptying and can cause some GI distress - Children have a different guideline - 40 kg should drink 5 ounces of cold water or flavored salted beverage every 20 minutes during practice - 60 kg should drink 9 ounces every 20 minutes even if they do not feel thirsty: also 15 to 20 mmol/L of sodium concentration - Aerobic Endurance Sports - CHO during prolonged exercise can improve performance while reducing exercise-induced stress and suppression of immune system functioning - Sports drinks provide CHO, but they cannot keep up with an athlete's CHO utilization during prolonged intense exercise - Athletes training intensely can burn 600 to 1200 calories or more per hour - CHO intake ranging from 28 to 144 g per hour can decrease reliance on glycogen stores, extend time to exhaustion, and improve performance by providing a steady stream of CHO for energy use - Consumption of multiple types of CHO (glucose and fructose) increases the rate of CHO absorption because both transport systems can be used - Athletes given 36 g of glucose and fructose every 15 minutes had a better 100 km cycling time than cyclists only given glucose every 15 minutes - Rinsing with CHO improves performance lasting 1 hour by 2-3% - Intermittent High-Intensity Sports - Team sports like soccer, tennis, basketball, football, and tennis - Tennis players should consume 200 to 400 ml per changeover because their matches can be 4 hours, and they can lose 2.5 L of fluid per hour via sweat - Mixed reviews for soccer; a few studies show improved performance while others do not - Strength and Power Sports - Maintain their glycogen stores, which may decrease muscular fatigue in slow-twitch fibers and possibly lead to better performance, by supplementing with CHO before and during competition - Postcompetition Nutrition - Helps rehydrate, replenish glycogen stores, and repair muscle tissue - What they consume during this period helps prepare the athlete for their next bout of activity - Rehydration strategies need to be individualized as much as possible - Aerobic Endurance Events - Replenish CHO stores for next exercise session and consume enough protein and fat to build and repair muscle and cell membranes - Glycogen Synthesis two phases - First phase is insulin independent and last 30 to 60 minutes - Second phase last several hours, and synthesis occurs at a much slower pace - Glycogen synthesis occurs at a rapid rate when 1 to 1.85 g per kg BW of CHO are consumed immediately after exercise - May not need to eat right away; within 2 hours is fine in most cases - Some research says that protein is important for rebuilding muscle in endurance athletes while other research does not - Best advice is to include higher amounts of protein for muscle repair and other adaptation functions - High-Intensity Intermittent Sports - Fully replacing muscle glycogen before a subsequent bout of exercise can help improve performance in that bout of exercise - Consuming protein postexercise helps decrease some markers of muscle damage - Strength and Power Sports - During recovery period, strength and power athletes should eat higher glycemic CHOs immediately postexercise if they must compete or train again over the course of a 24-hour period - Supplementing with protein after a muscle-damaging bout of resistance exercise increases acute muscle protein synthesis - Maximal synthesis of protein synthesis occurs from 20 to 25 g (8.5 to 10 g of EAA) of high-quality, high-leucine, fast protein in younger individuals while 40 g or more for older adults - 2 to 3 g of Leucine will maximally muscle protein synthesis in younger adults - Concurrent Training - Consumption of CHO after endurance events and prelift can help suppress skeletal muscle breakdown - RT supports greater rates of MPS during exercise compared to CHO control - Protein at Mealtime - RT can increase muscle sensitivity to AA for 24-48 hours - For optimal muscle remodeling, experts suggest consuming at least 20 to 30 g or protein per meal and eating meals every 3 to 4 hours - **Look at Table 10.3 for Sport Specific Protein Needs** - Nutrition Strategies for Altering Body Composition - Typically need to gain muscle, lose body fat, or both - First step is determining caloric needs - BMR is approximately 65% to 70% of caloric expenditure per day - Second largest energy requi