Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology (JXH-1055) - Bangor University - Introduction Slides

Foundations of Sport and Exercise PIN: **** https://checkin.bangor.ac.uk/ Psychology JXH-1055 Introduction Germano Gallicchio...

Foundations of Sport and Exercise PIN: **** https://checkin.bangor.ac.uk/ Psychology JXH-1055 Introduction Germano Gallicchio g.gallicchio at bangor.ac.uk Audio & video  Learning outcomes Receive information about this module and about your lecturer(s) Be able to describe what sport and exercise psychology is and what sport and exercise psychologists do Understand major historical developments in this discipline Get an overview of career opportunities and future directions  Suggestions for optimal learning Attend lectures, seminars, etc. No phones during lectures (except for entering attendance pin) Ask for breaks when you need one Ask for clarification as soon as possible Take notes… …ideally using paper and pencil, but do not copy the slides …review your notes Study from books and articles. The slides are not the primary study resource. Do the suggested homework Be proactive  Blackboard Ultra https://my.bangor.ac.uk -> left panel menu or https://blackboard.bangor.ac.uk/ Gwybodaeth – Information Module Handbook and Timetable information Dosbarthiadau – Classes Teaching material (slides, papers, recordings, etc.)  Blackboard Ultra https://my.bangor.ac.uk -> left panel menu or https://blackboard.bangor.ac.uk/ Asesiadau – Assessments Information on the assessments Porth Cyflwyno - Submission Portal The assessments (Exam, Essay, etc.)  Definitions Sport and Exercise Psychology - Scientific study of people’s behaviour in sport and exercise contexts - Practical application of that knowledge ABC of Psychology Affect Behaviour Cognitions one’s feelings one’s actions one’s thoughts Sport Psychology as a part of Sport Science  Two objectives Sport & Exercise  Two objectives Sport Objective A: Sport Psychology Understand the effects of psychological factors on physical or motor performance Examples: - What are the effects of anxiety on basketball free-throwing accuracy? - Does greater self-confidence improve a child’s ability to learn to swim? - Do psychological skills (e.g., imagery) facilitate injury recovery?  Two objectives Exercise Objective B: Exercise Psychology Understand the effects of physical activity on psychological development, health, and well-being Examples: - Does running reduce anxiety and depression? - Does taking physical education classes improve a child’s self- esteem? - Do children become more aggressive by participating in youth sports?  Target populations Children People with disabilities Elderly Recreational athletes Elite athletes  Three roles of sport and exercise psychologists Research Goal: Advance knowledge in the field Where: University or Research Institute Teaching Goal: Educate future sport and exercise psychologists Where: usually in a University Consulting Goal: depending on the client (e.g., well-being, performance) Where: Athletic teams, military, fitness industry  Two specialties Clinical sport and exercise psychologists - Identify and treat individuals with emotional disorders (e.g., anxiety, depression, eating disorders) - Require clinical license on top of sport and exercise psychology training Educational sport and exercise specialists - Not licensed for clinical psychologists - Extensive training in kinesiology - Provide “mental coaching” through psychological skills  Three orientations Psychophysiological Physiological activity (e.g., brain waves, heart rate) as markers of psychological states (e.g., concentration, attention) Cognitive-behavioural Mental processes (e.g., memory, attention, language, perception) driving observable behaviour (e.g., performance, decisions) Social-Psychological Study of how individuals are influenced by the social environment and vice versa  Attention Video: Selective Attention test https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJG698U2Mvo Video: More Selective Attention test https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IGQmdoK_ZfY Video: Skysports’s Ronaldo tested to the limit https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t03LHpeWnpA  History of sport and exercise psychology #6 Contemporary Sport and Exercise Psychology #5 Multidisciplinary science and practice #4 Academic discipline #3 Preparation for the future #2 First laboratory testing #1 Early years  History of sport and exercise psychology #6 Contemporary Sport and Exercise Psychology #5 Multidisciplinary science and practice #4 Academic discipline 1890-1920s #3 Preparation for the future Philosophical perspective Experimental perspective #2 First laboratory testing E.g., Why do cyclists ride faster when racing in groups than individually? #1 Early years  History of sport and exercise psychology #6 Contemporary Sport and Exercise Psychology #5 Multidisciplinary science and practice #4 Academic discipline 1920-40s #3 Preparation for the future Development of laboratories in various western countries #2 First laboratory testing Testing athletes on reaction times, concentration, aggression, etc. #1 Early years  History of sport and exercise psychology #6 Contemporary Sport and Exercise Psychology #5 Multidisciplinary science and practice #4 Academic discipline 1940-60s University professors teaching #3 Preparation for the future sport and exercise psychology #2 First laboratory testing First consultants hired by professional athletic teams #1 Early years  History of sport and exercise psychology #6 Contemporary Sport and Exercise Psychology #5 Multidisciplinary science and practice #4 Academic discipline 1960-80s #3 Preparation for the future Kinesiology (sport and exercise science) becomes a discipline #2 First laboratory testing Sport and exercise psychology as part of kinesiology #1 Early years  History of sport and exercise psychology #6 Contemporary Sport and Exercise Psychology #5 Multidisciplinary science and practice #4 Academic discipline 1980-90s #3 Preparation for the future Sport and exercise psychology becomes a separate discipline #2 First laboratory testing Specialty scientific societies and journals #1 Early years  History of sport and exercise psychology #6 Contemporary Sport and Exercise Psychology #5 Multidisciplinary science and practice #4 Academic discipline 2000-present #3 Preparation for the future Exponential growth Esteemed academic discipline #2 First laboratory testing Recognised practical importance Driving knowledge in other fields #1 Early years  Review questions Discuss in small groups: #1 Think of examples of sport and exercise psychology science or practice that you have come across. #2 What is sport and exercise psychology? What are its two objectives? #3 Describe the three main roles of sport and exercise psychology specialists.  Scientific knowledge vs Practical knowledge Sport and exercise psychology is a scientific discipline Systematic approach to studying a question Control of conditions Scientific method Empirical (based on observations) Objective evidence and not opinions Critical analysis of measurements and ideas  Scientific knowledge vs Practical knowledge Not a speculative guess… Scientific method …but a set of interrelated facts on a certain phenomenon Describes the what of a certain phenomenon Theory Explains the how and why of its mechanisms Supported by empirical evidence Makes testable predictions  Scientific knowledge vs Practical knowledge Guided by trial-and-error learning Based on systematic observation, personal experience, introspection, intuition, …and scientific method Compared to scientific knowledge: More holistic (global) Quicker to implement novel ideas Produces fewer or no explanations Affected by bias and less reliable  Critical reflection on an experimental study in sport and exercise psychology You are interested in studying the effects of two strategies of penalty taking in football/soccer. Strategy A. Pick a target and ignore any goal-keeper’s movements Strategy B. Observe the goal-keeper movements during the run-up and then decide where to place the ball How would you design an experimental study to test which strategy leads to better performance outcome? Participants, Instructions, Measurements, Groups/Conditions, Analysis Attention Link: Bangor’s IPEP work on performance psychology https://www.bangor.ac.uk/new s/2023-09-26-unlocking-the- secrets-of-flawless-putts- understanding-human- performance-in-high Foundations of Sport and Exercise PIN: **** https://checkin.bangor.ac.uk/ Psychology JXH-1055 Concepts in Motivation Germano Gallicchio g.gallicchio at bangor.ac.uk Audio & video Step 1. Contact the Lab Lead and attend the lab Brain Lab → Miss Heart Lab → Mr James Thipkanlaya Jaiaue Hodgetts Step 2. Report lab completion On Blackboard Step 3. Complete online test On Blackboard, before the deadline  Heart Lab To complete the heart lab session and unlock your assessment please scan the QR code, input your details and preferred date and time to complete and I will be in contact with you to organize Any questions please contact: [email protected]  Learning outcomes Be able to define motivation and basic related concepts Be able to describe the basics of Cognitive Evaluation Theory Be able to describe the basics of Achievement Goal Theory Be able to describe the basics of Attribution Theory Experience collecting self-report data to measure motivation Questionnaire activity  Definition Etymology / origin of the word From Latin “motus” meaning “motion” Working definition What “moves” somebody  Cognitive Evaluation Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1991) The way in which rewards are interpreted has an impact on motivation  Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Intrinsic: activity undertaken for its own pleasure Purpose Extrinsic: activity undertaken for instrumental benefit Intrinsic: experiential rewards Rewards Extrinsic: social or objective rewards (e.g., trophies, praise) Pressure when Intrinsic: less pressure (concerned with the experience) competing Extrinsic: more pressure (concerned with the benefit) Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Intrinsic is often the ideal type Theoretically distinct But practically overlapping in real life: more of one is associated with less of the other  Intrinsic vs Extrinsic One can turn into the other Intrinsic is often the ideal type Theoretically distinct I hate But practically overlapping in real life: these kids more of one is associated with less of the other  HMIEM (Lalande & Vallerand, 2014) situational Intrinsic Extrinsic Amotivation motivation motivation contextual global Achievement Goal Theory (Nichols, 1984) Task / mastery Ego / performance / outcome  Achievement Goal Theory (Nichols, 1984) Task Ego Questionnaire activity Achievement Goal Theory (Nichols, 1984) Approach vs Avoidance  Trichotomous model (Elliot, 1999) Task Ego  Two-by-two model (Elliot, 1999) Task Ego  Attribution Theory (Weiner, 1986) Locus of Locus of Stability causality control  Attribution Theory (Weiner, 1986) Locus of causality Stability Locus of control Memory Tip Recommended reading Foundations of Sport and Exercise PIN: **** https://checkin.bangor.ac.uk/ Psychology JXH-1055 Introduction to the Brain Germano Gallicchio g.gallicchio at bangor.ac.uk Audio & video Step 1. Contact the Lab Lead and attend the lab Brain Lab → Miss Heart Lab → Mr James Thipkanlaya Jaiaue Hodgetts Step 2. Report lab completion On Blackboard Step 3. Complete online test On Blackboard, before the deadline  Heart Lab To complete the heart lab session and unlock your assessment please scan the QR code, input your details and preferred date and time to complete and I will be in contact with you to organize Any questions please contact: [email protected]  Today’s learning outcomes Describe structure and function of - Neuronal cells - Cerebral Cortex The neuron All neurons have the same basic structure Soma It includes many structures: - Nucleus - Cytoplasm - Organelles Dendrites Receive “information” from other neurons For each neuron, there are many Organized in branches (dendritic tree) The structure and shape of the dendrites change for different neuron types  Axon Transmits “information” away from the soma and eventually to other neurons For each neuron there is only one axon (but there can be collaterals). Some axons are “wrapped in” myelin, which “speeds up” the transmission “Information” flow: Electrochemical communication When stimulated, the dendrites change their chemicals and an electrical “post-synaptic” potential is generated This potential is conducted passively towards the soma (and then to the axon hillock) The potentials generated by many dendrites is summed (some positive, some negative). If the resulting potential is large enough, it generates an action potential in the axon The action potential is a fast change in electrical potential that reaches the synapse Synapse Small gap between neurons Synaptic communication Synaptic communication Synaptic communication Synaptic communication Different neurons  Different neurons Types of neurons (Queensland brain institute): https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/types-neurons Different neurons Different neurons Different neurons  How do neurons code information? The amplitude of an action potential does not vary, but number of action potentials propagated per second varies along a continuum This rate of responding (also called the “spiking rate”) relates to the informational “code” carried by that neuron Some neurons may have a high spiking rate in some situations (e.g., during speech) but not others (e.g., during vision), whereas other neurons would have a complementary profile Neurons responding to similar types of information tend to be grouped together (regional functional specialisation).  White and grey matter White Matter Grey Matter Grey Matter is predominantly White matter is predominantly glia and neurites neuron somas  White and grey matter Types of Neuroglia (Queensland brain institute): https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain-basics/brain/brain-physiology/types-glia  Brain Cells neurons glia cells … sense changes in the environment … support neuronal activity … communicate changes to … insulate neurons other neurons … nourish neurons … take decisions... still object of study … command responses  Video summary https://youtu.be/6qS83wD29PY?t=8  Nervous System central peripheral spinal cord brain somatic visceral brain stem cerebrum cerebellum limbic system cerebral cortex basal ganglia  Nervous System central peripheral The Central Nervous System includes the spinal cord and the brain spinal cord brain somatic visceral brain stem cerebrum cerebellum limbic system cerebral cortex basal ganglia  Nervous System central Theperipheral Brain includes the brain stem, the cerebrum, and the cerebellum spinal cord brain somatic visceral brain stem cerebrum cerebellum limbic system cerebral cortex basal ganglia  Nervous System central The cerebrum peripheral includes multiple structures (e.g., cerebral cortex) spinal cord brain somatic visceral brain stem cerebrum cerebellum limbic system cerebral cortex basal ganglia  Cerebrum’s organization Cortex Four lobes: Frontal Parietal Occipital Temporal Subcortex Thalamus Basal ganglia Limbic system Cerebellum Interactive Brain Model https://www.brainfacts.org/3d-brain#intro=false&focus=Brain Cerebral Cortex Two hemispheres (left, right) Wrinkled like a sheet compressed in a small space: gyri and sulci  Cerebral Cortex Different regions defined by layered composition of cells (cytoarchitecture) Termed Brodmann Areas Architecture of the cerebral cortex  Cerebral Cortex Four lobes P ARIETAL F RONTAL T EMPORAL O CCIPITAL  Cerebral Cortex Frontal Lobe Functions: Plan; Select goals and motor actions Respond; execute motor actions and inhibit automatic responses to distractions Social appropriateness  Cerebral Cortex Parietal Lobe Functions: Integrates and processes sensory information from our thoughts and environment  Cerebral Cortex Temporal Lobe Functions: Stores long term information that are mainly composed of our knowledge, personality, and life experiences (i.e. memories)  Cerebral Cortex Occipital Lobe Functions: Processes visual information  Cognition language attention movement memory sensation perception  Interactive View of the Brain https://www.brainfacts.org/3d-brain#intro=false&focus=Brain Foundations of Sport and Exercise PIN: **** https://checkin.bangor.ac.uk/ Psychology JXH-1055 Orienting of Attention Germano Gallicchio g.gallicchio at bangor.ac.uk Audio & video Step 1. Contact the Lab Lead and attend the lab Brain Lab → Miss Heart Lab → Mr James Thipkanlaya Jaiaue Hodgetts Step 2. Report lab completion On Blackboard Step 3. Complete online test On Blackboard, before the deadline  Heart Lab To complete the heart lab session and unlock your assessment please scan the QR code, input your details and preferred date and time to complete and I will be in contact with you to organize Any questions please contact: [email protected]  Today’s learning outcomes definition of attention visuospatial attention and its typologies spatial cueing effects attention (and deception) in sports  What is attention? Everyone knows what attention is. It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration of consciousness are of its essence. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others, and is a condition William James which has a real opposite in the confused, dazed, scatterbrain state.  What is attention? Everyone knows what attention is. It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration of consciousness are of its essence. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others, and is a condition William James which has a real opposite in the confused, dazed, scatterbrain state.  What is attention? Everyone knows what attention is. It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration of consciousness are of its essence. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others, and is a condition William James which has a real opposite in the confused, dazed, scatterbrain state.  What is attention? Everyone knows what attention is. It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, ofisone Attention out of what a selective seem several process simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration of consciousness are of its essence. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others, and is a condition William James which has a real opposite in the confused, dazed, scatterbrain state.  Attention is a selective process Change blindness Inattentional blindness https://youtu.be/FWSxSQsspiQ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJG698U2Mvo  Visuospatial attention There are several theoretical models of visuospatial attention (we will not go through each of them) It is useful to think of attention as a spotlight moving in space  Visuospatial attention Selecting a certain location or object in space, so that processing of those stimuli is facilitated Events occurring in that location: - are processed more quickly - produce greater neural activity in related regions - are detected at lower thresholds Orienting of visuospatial attention = aligning of attention with a source of sensory input or with an internal representation (memory)  Orienting of visuospatial attention Keep your eyes on the fixation cross and read each letter in clockwise order c t o + r v e  Orienting of visuospatial attention overt covert Directing the sensorial organs Attention is directed in space towards the region of space of independently of the sensorial interest. organs (e.g., eyes) For vision, moving head and eyes so that the location or object is reflected onto the fovea Foveation = moving the eyes so that a certain stimulus is projected onto the fovea Covert or overt? Why should I employ you?  Spatial cueing task Participants are instructed to keep their eyes on the fixation cross and to press a button when they see a target (like this ) in either the left of right box. Before the target onset, a cue (like this ) appears in the middle Sometimes the cue is informative, sometimes not. congruent condition (valid cue) +  Spatial cueing task Participants are instructed to keep their eyes on the fixation cross and to press a button when they see a target (like this ) in either the left of right box. Before the target onset, a cue (like this ) appears in the middle Sometimes the cue is informative, sometimes not. incongruent condition (invalid cue) + The cue (in both the congruent and incongruent conditions) prompts an endogenous shift in visuospatial attention  Spatial cueing: two types endogenous exogenous Attention is directed voluntarily, Attention is directed guided by intentions, top-down, involuntarily, driven by the in a goal-directed fashion environment, bottom-up, in a stimulus-driven fashion  Spatial cueing: two types endogenous exogenous Like in the previous example, the The exogenous cue captures the endogenous cue points to a attention automatically (e.g., to direction (e.g., right) and the the right) and the participant participant directs voluntarily (top- directs their attention down) their attention accordingly involuntarily (bottom-up)  “Posner” task Study of attention through endogenous orienting of covert visuospatial attention Mental chronometry = time needed to perform certain tasks Michael Posner Check a video interview here: https://youtu.be/uYUdwS7-WvA  “Posner” task Valid-cue trial. The target appears in the expected location. Two examples: time time Among all trials with a cue (the arrow), 80% of the times the cue was valid (that is the arrow pointed in the direction where the target would have appeared)  “Posner” task Invalid-cue trial. The target appears in the unexpected location. Two examples: time time Among all trials with a cue (the arrow), 20% of the times the cue was invalid (that is the arrow pointed in the opposite direction where the target would have appeared)  “Posner” task Neutral trial. No expected location. Two examples: time time For some trials, no cue was presented, and the target had equal probability to appear left or right  “Posner” task: instructions Participants were instructed to - Maintain their eyes on the fixation cross (checked through EOG) - Detect the target as fast as possible by pressing a button How were they supposed to move their attention? a. Overtly b. Covertly  “Posner” task Valid-cue trials - 80% probability that the target appeared in the cued location - allowed to examine the benefits of attending to the correct location Invalid-cue trials - 20% probability that the target appeared in the non- cued location - allowed to examine the costs of attending to an incorrect location Neutral trials - 50% probability that the target appeared in either location - allowed to compare the previous two with a control condition  “Posner” task Questions: Why did Posner decide to make the cue 80% of the times valid? Why not 100%? - If it were 100%, then the cue would never be invalid, and Posner could not study the cost of attending to an incorrect location Why then 80% and not 50%? - To create expectation: the participant oriented their attention to the cued direction because most of the times the cue pointed in the correct direction  “Posner” task Benefit of attending to the correct location = faster detection  “Posner” task Cost of attending to the incorrect location = slower detection Possible sport application: Can you distract an opponent (e.g., (by making a fake) to slow down their reactions to your movements?  “Posner” task That was a simplification. His studies are much more complex. One (of many) idea: a valid cue does not always cause facilitation… If the cue is exogenous and the cue-target delay is longer than expected, the target is detected more slowly… This phenomenon is known as inhibition of return If you want to read more about his studies, search his name on Google Scholar Michael Posner  Social spatial cueing Directional changes in eye movements are a strong socially-relevant cues to shift our attention in a specific direction https://youtu.be/GCp-zxSqopw Sebanz and Shiffrar (2009)  Sebanz and Shiffrar (2009) Questions: Are experts better than novices at detecting sport fakes? Do experts focus their attention on different cues than novices?  Sebanz and Shiffrar (2009) Study 1 Participants Task 12 experts 18 novices Watch: - 30 movies depicting passes - 30 movies depicting fakes - 30 pictures depicting passes - 30 pictures depicting fakes Chose if what they watched was: - pass - fake  Sebanz and Shiffrar (2009) Study 1 Stimuli Movies were created by filming successful passes and fakes Movies stopped at a critical ambiguous moment Pictures were taken as the last frames of each video  Sebanz and Shiffrar (2009) Study 1 Follow-up question: Are experts better because they pick up dynamic (rather than static) cues? Results Both experts and novices performed above chance level, for both movies and pictures: they could distinguish fakes from passes Experts outperformed novices (i.e., they gave more correct responses) when movies were presented  Sebanz and Shiffrar (2009) Study 2 Participants Task 14 experts 8 novices Watch: - 12 point-light movies with passes seen from the front (0°) - 12 point-light movies with fakes seen from the front (0°) - 12 point-light movies with passes seen from half profile (30°) - 12 point-light movies with fakes seen from half profile (30°) Chose if what they watched was: - pass - fake  Sebanz and Shiffrar (2009) Study 2 Stimuli Movies were created by filming successful passes and fakes while the actor wore a special suit with kinematic markers Different perspectives (front, half- profile) were created by rotating the same video  Sebanz and Shiffrar (2009) Study 2 Results: Novices performed at the chance level Experts performed above chance: they could distinguish fakes from passes Experts performed better when watching from the front than from half- profile Interpretation: Visual expertise AND Motor expertise How would you follow up this study? Foundations of Sport and Exercise PIN: **** https://checkin.bangor.ac.uk/ Psychology JXH-1055 Executive Functions Germano Gallicchio g.gallicchio at bangor.ac.uk Audio & video Step 1. Contact the Lab Lead and attend the lab Brain Lab → Miss Heart Lab → Mr James Thipkanlaya Jaiaue Hodgetts Step 2. Report lab completion On Blackboard Step 3. Complete online test On Blackboard, before the deadline  Heart Lab To complete the heart lab session and unlock your assessment please scan the QR code, input your details and preferred date and time to complete and I will be in contact with you to organize Any questions please contact: [email protected]  Today’s learning outcomes definition of executive functions anatomy of the executive functions unity and diversity of executive functions shifting updating inhibition executive tasks  What are executive functions? Set of functions that controls all cognitive processes For example: - Which processes are silenced/heightened - How processes are coordinated Synonym: Executive functions = Cognitive control  What cortical regions are responsible for the executive functions? Prefrontal cortex Inter-species differences  Three anatomical groups Lateral PFC Medial PFC Orbital PFC aka ventromedial PFC Functional areas Functional areas  The tragic story of Phineas Gage The first well documented case of selective lesion to the PFC He was a railroad worker In an accident, a metal rod passed through his skull He survived… …but he became a different person  The tragic story of Phineas Gage Before Responsible and smart After Able to walk and talk… BUT… Inability to control himself No inhibition Impatient A short film (not for the soft-hearted) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NFO6ts6vZic&t=518s Miyake et al. 2000  How many executive functions? Executive functions are responsible for goal-directed behaviour Ongoing debate on how many executive functions we have Three executive functions have been studied more than others These three have been proposed to be the building blocks for all others Shifting Goal-directed Updating and behaviour monitoring Inhibition  Three core executive functions Ability to switch between two different types of mental activity Shifting Individuals with lesions to the anterior cingulate cortex have troubles with switching Updating and Perseveration: failure to switch away from a monitoring certain mental activity Imagine you are doing Task A and suddenly you Inhibition now need to do a Task B. This switch takes time: the switch cost. Can you think of sports where you need to switch “tasks” quickly?  Three core executive functions Ability to maintain and update information for further processing Shifting In a monitoring activity, it allows to replace “old” information with “new” information Updating and It is linked to the concept of Working Memory, monitoring where information is retained for current processing (i.e., active manipulation). Inhibition Individuals with lesions to the dorsolateral PFC have troubles with updating and monitoring Can you think of sports where you need to update and monitor information?  Three core executive functions Ability to deliberately stop a dominant, prepotent response Shifting It allows to override automatic, habitual responses Updating and Individuals with lesions to the medial PFC have monitoring troubles with inhibition Impulsivity: failure to suppress a dominant Inhibition response and tendency to seek immediate rewards Can you think of sports where you need to inhibit some information?  Why are executive functions important? Some examples: Shifting Seeing things from different perspectives Creative thinking Updating and Making sense of anything that unfolds over time monitoring (holding in mind what happened earlier) Behaving out of habit Inhibition Exerting self-control  Measuring shifting: global-local task Navon stimuli Figures containing global and local shapes. The lines of the global shapes is made of smaller shapes. Shapes used could be: circle, X, triangle, square. Some examples: Global: triangle Global: square Global: triangle Local: square Local: triangle Local: circle  Measuring shifting: global-local task Instructions: Categorize either the global or the local shape. If the figure is of a certain colour (e.g., red), tell the global shape. If the figure is of a certain other colour (e.g., yellow), tell the local shape. Respond: triangle  Measuring shifting: global-local task Instructions: Categorize either the global or the local shape. If the figure is of a certain colour (e.g., red), tell the global shape. If the figure is of a certain other colour (e.g., yellow), tell the local shape. Respond: square  Measuring shifting: global-local task Instructions: Categorize either the global or the local shape. If the figure is of a certain colour (e.g., red), tell the global shape. If the figure is of a certain other colour (e.g., yellow), tell the local shape. Respond: circle  Measuring shifting: global-local task Instructions: Categorize either the global or the local shape. If the figure is of a certain colour (e.g., red), tell the global shape. If the figure is of a certain other colour (e.g., yellow), tell the local shape. Respond: triangle  Measuring shifting: global-local task Repeat and Switch trials global Repeat the same task as in the previous trial global Switch task compared to the previous trial Repeat local Switch local Repeat global Switch global Repeat local local  Measuring shifting: global-local task Consider the Reaction times of switch and repeat trials Repeat Switch Switch Repeat Repeat Switch Switch Repeat Repeat Switch Switch Repeat  Measuring shifting: digit-letter task Digit and letter pairs Instructions: categorize the digit (even or odd) or the letter (vowel or consonant) Repeat Switch Letter Repeat Letter Digit 5A Digit 3U 6C 4D  Measuring shifting: digit-letter task The digit-letter pair moves from one quadrant to the next clockwise For the two upper quadrants, do the letter task For the two lower quadrants, do the digit task Measuring shifting: number-letter task  Measuring updating and monitoring: n-back task Instructions: For each letter presented on the screen, remember the one presented just before and press a button if it is the same n=1 1-back A H H J T T Measuring updating and monitoring: n-back task  Measuring inhibition: Flanker task Instructions: Tell the direction of the central arrow but ignore the other arrows  Measuring inhibition: Flanker task Instructions: Tell the direction of the central arrow but ignore the other arrows  Measuring inhibition: Flanker task Instructions: Tell the direction of the central arrow but ignore the other arrows  Measuring inhibition: Flanker task Instructions: Tell the direction of the central arrow but ignore the other arrows  Measuring inhibition: Flanker task congruent incongruent trials trials  Measuring inhibition: Flanker task Instructions: Focus on the central letter (the target) Press the right key if the target is either H or K. Press the left key if the target is either C or S HHHKHHH  Measuring inhibition: Flanker task Instructions: Press the right key if the target is either H or K. Press the left key if the target is either C or S CCCSCCC  Measuring inhibition: Flanker task Instructions: Press the right key if the target is either H or K. Press the left key if the target is either C or S HHHSHHH  Measuring inhibition: Flanker task Instructions: Press the right key if the target is either H or K. Press the left key if the target is either C or S CCCKCCC  Measuring inhibition: Stroop task Instructions: Tell the colour of the print and ignore what the word says congruent red green blue incongruent green blue red **** **** neutral ****  Measuring inhibition: Stroop task congruent incongruent trials trials  Executive functions and endurance sports Using executive Functions is effortful It is easier to continue doing what you are doing rather than changing it (shifting) It is easier to keep using the same information rather than using new one (updating) It is easier to give into temptation rather than resisting (inhibition) Endurance sports (e.g., swimming) require to continue performing beyond the point where you would like to stop due to mental (and physical) fatigue Brain Endurance Training: training our executive functions (especially inhibition)… …so that when doing endurance activities, we resist the temptation to stop.  Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology JXH-1055 PIN: **** https://checkin.bangor.ac.uk/ Germano Gallicchio g.gallicchio at bangor.ac.uk Mental fatigue and Exercise Start recording Study / Work Abroad Opportunities Step 1. Contact the Lab Lead and attend the lab Brain Lab → Miss Heart Lab → Mr James Thipkanlaya Jaiaue Hodgetts Step 2. Report lab completion On Blackboard Step 3. Complete online test On Blackboard, before the deadline  Heart Lab To complete the heart lab session and unlock your assessment please scan the QR code, input your details and preferred date and time to complete and I will be in contact with you to organize Any questions please contact: [email protected]  Learning outcomes Factors that limit psychomotor performance Self-control and the strength model Self-control and mental fatigue The effects of “ego depletion” on self-control Psychobiological model of mental fatigue Motivation Cognition Strategies to improve self-control Strategies to increase resilience to mental fatigue Desire-goal conflict  Delayed gratification https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5DGAsjUa6cA The “Marshmallow study” Eat the candy now (option A) But if you wait and don’t eat it until I am back, I’ll give you another one, so you have two (option B).  Delayed gratification https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XcmrCLL7Rtw The “Marshmallow study” Walter Mischel What we found in many studies is that the choices they make have very serious connections to how their lives work out… Willpower and self-control are cognitive skills--which we have Self-control been able to identify--which are quite easily teachable not only to children but to adults…  Strength model of self-control Self-control Questionnaire Second task  Strength model of self-control Self-control Ego depletion Second task  Strength model of self-control Ego depletion  The “two-task” paradigm Manual transcription omitting some letters Stroop Task green blue Manual transcription red no omissions Task 1 Task 2  The “two-task” paradigm Task 2 It does not matter what the second task is, as long as it requires self-control It does not matter what the first task is, as long as it requires self-control Shared resources among “self-control” tasks? Inhibition Shared mechanism among “self-control” tasks? Inhibition Updating and ? monitoring Shifting Strength model of self-control  Psychobiological model of mental fatigue The decision to stop is taken when perceived effort is greater than the potential motivation to sustain such effort Psychobiological model of mental fatigue Psychobiological model of mental fatigue Psychobiological model of mental fatigue Psychobiological model of mental fatigue Psychobiological model of mental fatigue Psychobiological model of mental fatigue Psychobiological model of mental fatigue proposed cascade of events: Increasing Reduced mental motivation fatigue Decreased Build-up of Dopamine Adenosine in the ACC Psychobiological model of mental fatigue proposed cascade of events: Increasing Reduced mental motivation fatigue Decreased Adenosine Build-up of Dopamine Neurotransmitter that Adenosine inhibits the release of in the ACC Dopamine  Psychobiological model of mental fatigue proposed cascade of events: Increasing Reduced mental motivation ACC = Anterior Cingulate fatigue Cortex Area near the Prefrontal Cortex, involved in self- control and perception of effort Decreased Dopamine Build-up of Neurotransmitter involved Dopamine Adenosine with motivated behaviour in the ACC and executive functions Psychobiological model of mental fatigue proposed cascade of events: Increasing Reduced mental motivation fatigue Decreased Build-up of Dopamine Adenosine in the ACC  Psychobiological model of mental fatigue This model has not yet been tested on humans. Increasing Reduced mental motivation fatigue But there is some indirect support: - Suppressing the build-up of adenosine mitigates the effects of mental fatigue Decreased Build-up Dopamine of in the ACC Adenosine - Mental fatigue is associated with altered functionality in the Anterior Cingulate Cortex and the Prefrontal Cortex Mental fatigue and exercise PSYCHOLOGY PHYSIOLOGY Mental fatigue and exercise PSYCHOLOGY PHYSIOLOGY Mental fatigue and exercise PSYCHOLOGY PHYSIOLOGY  Strategies to improve performance Self-control is like a muscle. PSYCHOLOGY It can be trained. Self-control Self-control Self-control performance performance 2-week training (pre-training) (post-training) No self-control  Strategies to improve performance Self-control is like a muscle. PSYCHOLOGY It can be trained.  Strategies to improve performance Self-control is like a muscle. PSYCHOLOGY It can be trained. Self-control Stop Signal Task Stop Signal Task (Executive functions) (Executive functions) 2-week training (pre-training) (post-training) No self-control  Strategies to improve performance Self-control is like a muscle. PSYCHOLOGY It can be trained.  Strategies to improve performance Fatigue inoculation training can decrease perception of effort PHYSIOLOGY  Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology JXH-1055 PIN: **** https://checkin.bangor.ac.uk/ Germano Gallicchio g.gallicchio at bangor.ac.uk Mental aspects of performance Start recording Study / Work Abroad Opportunities Step 1. Contact the Lab Lead and attend the lab Brain Lab → Miss Heart Lab → Mr James Thipkanlaya Jaiaue Hodgetts Step 2. Report lab completion On Blackboard Step 3. Complete online test On Blackboard, before the deadline  Heart Lab To complete the heart lab session and unlock your assessment please scan the QR code, input your details and preferred date and time to complete and I will be in contact with you to organize Any questions please contact: [email protected] Board of directors Psychological skill training  Learning outcomes Understand fundamental concepts in: - goal setting - imagery - self-talk - imagery  Goal setting “Alice: Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go from here? The Cheshire Cat: That depends a good deal on where you want to get to. Alice: I don't much care where. The Cheshire Cat: Then it doesn't much matter which way you go.”  Goal setting “If you don’t know where you are going, you might wind up someplace else.”  Why do New Year’s resolution fail? SMARTS INSPIRED?  Why do New Year’s resolution fail? Internalized Specific Nurturing Measurable Specific Action-oriented Planned Realistic In your control Timetabled Reviewed regularly Self-determined Energizing Documented  Goal setting outcome of a specific event interpersonal comparison outcome it depends on other people not fully controllable related to own performance personal standard of competence performance largely under own control "what" strategy towards performance goal process action plan "how" Example of goal setting in a novice powerlifter  Goal setting practice 1. Write down a goal that feels important and meaningful to you. __________________________________________ __________________________________________ 2. Is it SMARTS? Specific …yes?…no? Measurable …yes?…no? Action-oriented …yes?…no? Realistic …yes?…no? Timetabled …yes?…no? Self-determined …yes?…no? 3. Re-write it in SMARTS format __________________________________________ __________________________________________  Mechanisms It breaks down a large problem into smaller components It directs focus It allows using towards task- incentives Why related actions does it work? It increases It elicits effort self- and confidence commitment  Imagery “Before every shot I go to the movies inside my head. Here is what I see. First, I see the ball where I want it to finish, nice and white and sitting up high on the bright green grass. Then, I see the ball going there, its path and trajectory and even its behavior on landing. The next scene shows me making the kind of swing that will turn the previous image into reality. These home movies are a key to my concentration and to my positive approach to every shot.”  Definition Multisensory experience in absence of actual perception Also known as… visualization, mental rehearsal, mental practice A form of simulation Including multiple sensorial modalities We can imagine events/actions that have not occurred  Sensorial Modalities Visual sense: images of the event/action Kinesthetic sense: feeling of the body as it moves Auditory, Tactile, Olfactory senses… why? To enhance vividness → effectiveness Sensorial Modalities  Mechanisms Why does it work? Functional equivalence hypothesis  Variables First person (internal) Perspective Third person (external) you Agency someone else above Viewing behind angle side Etc spontaneous (triggered) Deliberation delibertate (intentional)  How to make it effective PETTLEP framework  How to make it effective PETTLEP framework  How to make it effective PETTLEP framework  How to make it effective PETTLEP framework  How to make it effective PETTLEP framework  How to make it effective PETTLEP framework  How to make it effective PETTLEP framework (some) uses  Self-talk Dialogue with oneself Out loud (overt) or quietly (covert) Positive “I can do well” “I love this” Negative “I am so bad. Just like always.” “You practice is rubbish!” Instructional “Keep the elbow higher than the wrist” “Look at the ball” Motivational “Come on! Just one more lap!” “Nearly done, keep up!”  Mechanisms concentrate on relevant cues manage increase their emotions Why motivation does it work? more expend efficient greater movement effort patterns  Relaxation techniques and anxiety Physical techniques Multimodal techniques Mental techniques  Relaxation techniques Physical techniques Breathwork Progressive relaxation training Imagery Self-talk Mental techniques Meditation (Mindfulness) Meditation (breath focus) Biofeedback Multimodal techniques Stress inoculation training Systematic desensitization Relaxation and arousal (down)regulation  Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology JXH-1055 PIN: **** https://checkin.bangor.ac.uk/ Germano Gallicchio g.gallicchio at bangor.ac.uk Seminar Navarro et al., 2013 Start recording Study / Work Abroad Opportunities Step 1. Contact the Lab Lead and attend the lab Brain Lab → Miss Heart Lab → Mr James Thipkanlaya Jaiaue Hodgetts Step 2. Report lab completion On Blackboard Step 3. Complete online test On Blackboard, before the deadline  Heart Lab To complete the heart lab session and unlock your assessment please scan the QR code, input your details and preferred date and time to complete and I will be in contact with you to organize Any questions please contact: [email protected]  Today’s learning outcomes Understand the basic structure of a scientific paper Be able to describe the aim of the study Be able to describe what the researchers did and what they found Be able to discuss the implications of the results  Football/soccer penalty How does the mere presence of the goalkeeper influence the accuracy of the shot?  Two strategies - Before the run-up, choose the target location - Do not choose a target location before the run- - Aim at the target location up - Shoot at the target location regardless of what - During the run-up try to anticipate where the the goalkeeper does goalkeeper will dive - Shoot in the opposite direction  Arguments in favour of the strategy Time is too short to plan and execute accurate kick after goalkeeper moves. If goalkeeper initiates move within 400ms of the kick, kickers are less likely to place ball in empty half of goal, and kicks are less precise.  Arguments in favour of the strategy Keeper-independent strategy promotes more adaptive gaze fixations. Fixation allows for gathering of visual information, and proprioception about eye position can help control aiming action.  Arguments in favour of the strategy Descriptive evidence from international competitions that goalkeepers cannot save shots to the corner (Armatas et al. 2007) Biomechanical studies show that as long as you kick with moderate force (speed > 22m/s), it is impossible for keeper to intercept the ball (Kerwin & Bray, 2006) Can you ignore the goalkeeper?  Navarro et al. (2013) Focus on: What were the aims of this study? Read the paper How many participants did they test? Who (individually) were they (experts, novices)? - Introduction What were the independent variables? In - Method other words, what was manipulated? - Results What were the dependent variables? In other - Discussion words, what was measured?  Participants How many? a. N = 27 b. N = 10 c. N = 18 d. N=2 What expertise? a. Recreational players b. National amateur league c. National professionals d. Mixed ability  Task Take penalties using the goal-independent strategy Which strategy did they How many experimental instruct the participants conditions did the to use? authors use? a. Whichever the players a. None, they used 3 groups preferred of people b. Goal-independent b. They used 3 conditions strategy c. They used 5 conditions c. Goal-dependent strategy d. It depended on the d. It depended on which participant condition  Condition A: no goalkeeper Hit one of the two targets (chosen by the experimenter)  Condition B: with goalkeeper Hit one of the two targets (chosen by the experimenter)  Condition C: with knowledgeable goalkeeper Hit one of the two targets (chosen by the experimenter) Performance coding Performance coding Performance coding Performance coding Performance coding Accuracy Accuracy Average speed  Navarro et al. (2013) Focus on: Read the paper How did the number of “hit”, “miss”, and (individually) “failure” change across the three conditions? - Introduction How did the number of “saved” and “not - Method saved” change across the three conditions? - Results How did absolute and variable error change - Discussion across the three conditions?  (Some) Results Performance 140 120 100 *** Number of hits 80 60 40 20 0 No Goalkeeper Goalkeeper Knowledgeable Goalkeeper 80 Condition 70 60 Number of misses 50 40 30 *** 20 10 0 No Goalkeeper Goalkeeper Knowledgeable Goalkeeper Condition  (Some) Results Relative to Target Centre 170 160 150 Absolute error (cm) 140 130 Relative to Goal Centre 260 120 110 250 100 Absolute error (cm) No Goalkeeper Goalkeeper Knowlegeable 240 Goalkeeper Condition 230 220 210 200 No Goalkeeper Goalkeeper Knowledgeable Goalkeeper Condition (Some) Results  Discuss the real-life impact of the two strategies - Before the run-up, choose the target location - Do not choose a target location before the run- - Aim at the target location up - Shoot at the target location regardless of what - During the run-up try to anticipate where the the goalkeeper does goalkeeper will dive - Shoot in the opposite direction  Navarro et al. (2013) Homework Read the paper Try to recreate the graphs presented in these (individually) slides today - Introduction Do the authors relate their results to any - Method theories? - Results Do the authors make any applied - Discussion recommendations, e.g. for sports performance or coaching? Response activation Ironic effect  Real-life example July 5, 2014 semi-finals of the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil Netherlands - Costa Rica https://www.theguardian. com/world/video/2014/jul /07/tim-krul-world-cup- football-video  Journal of Sports Sciences ISSN: 0264-0414 (Print) 1466-447X (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/rjsp20 The mere presence of a goalkeeper affects the accuracy of penalty kicks Martina Navarro, John van der Kamp, Ronald Ranvaud & Geert J. P. Savelsbergh To cite this article: Martina Navarro, John van der Kamp, Ronald Ranvaud & Geert J. P. Savelsbergh (2013) The mere presence of a goalkeeper affects the accuracy of penalty kicks, Journal of Sports Sciences, 31:9, 921-929, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2012.762602 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2012.762602 Published online: 29 Jan 2013. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 3412 View related articles Citing articles: 11 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rjsp20 Journal of Sports Sciences, 2013 Vol. 31, No. 9, 921–929, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2012.762602 The mere presence of a goalkeeper affects the accuracy of penalty kicks MARTINA NAVARRO1,2, JOHN VAN DER KAMP2,3, RONALD RANVAUD1, & GEERT J. P. SAVELSBERGH2,4 1 Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Brazil, 2Research Institute Move, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 3Institute of Human Performance, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, and 4Institute for Biomedical Research into Human Movement and Health, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester (Accepted 20 December 2012) Abstract The keeper-independent strategy, in which a football penalty kicker selects a target location in advance and ignores the goalkeeper’s actions during the run-up, has been suggested to be the preferable strategy for taking a penalty kick. The current in-field experiment investigated the question of whether the goalkeeper can indeed be ignored. Ten intermediate- level football players were instructed to adopt a goalkeeper-independent strategy and to perform penalty kicks directed at one of two targets located in the upper corners of the goal under three conditions: without a goalkeeper, in the presence of a goalkeeper (who tried to save the ball), and in the presence of a goalkeeper who was informed by the penalty kickers where they intended to direct the ball. The mere presence of a goalkeeper impaired shot accuracy. The shots were more centralised, that is, biased toward the goalkeeper. The effects were enhanced for the condition in which the penalty kicker knew the goalkeeper was knowledgeable about ball direction. The findings were consistent with the response activation model that holds that aiming at a target can be biased toward salient visual non-targets. The implications for adopting and practising goalkeeper-independent strategies are discussed. Keywords: penalty kicking, far aiming, keeper-independent strategy, response activation model, ironic effects Introduction penalty kickers are supposed to have an overwhelm- ing advantage over goalkeepers, adopting and train- The study of penalty kicks in football has become an ing the more favourable strategy (or one that is increasingly popular research topic that attracts superior to the kicker’s current strategy) may signifi- interest not only from areas that are directly sports- cantly improve success rate, which on average seems related, such as biomechanics (Graham-Smith, Lees, conspicuously low (i.e., approximately 20–25% of & Richardson, 1999; Lees & Owens, 2011) and the shots are missed or saved, Jordet, Hartman, (sport-) psychology (Jordet, Hartman, & Vuijk, Visscher, & Lemmink, 2007). 2012; Navarro et al., 2012, Wood & Wilson, Kuhn (1988; see also Morya, Ranvaud, & 2011), but also from areas as diverse as economics Machado-Pinheiro, 2003) was the first to investigate (Bar-Eli, Azar, & Lurie, 2009; Bar-Eli, Azar, Ritov, the strategies that penalty kickers adopt. He distin- Keidar-Levin, & Schein, 2007; Coloma, 2007) and guished two strategies that are now identified as the mathematics (Vars, 2009). Since the outcomes of ‘keeper-independent’ (i.e., originally dubbed ‘open important football matches are progressively more loop’ by Kuhn) and ‘keeper-dependent’ (i.e., first likely to be decided by penalty kicks (e.g., most called ‘closed loop’) strategies (van der Kamp, recently 2 out of 7 matches in the knock-out stage 2006). In the former strategy, the penalty kicker of the Union of European Football Association chooses where to aim the ball before the run-up (UEFA) EURO 2012), many of these studies pri- and holds to that choice during the run-up and marily focus on delineating the most favourable kick. Any action of the goalkeeper during the run- strategy for taking a penalty kick (van der Kamp, up is ignored. Alternatively, in the second strategy, 2011; Wood & Wilson, 2011). Considering that the penalty kicker intends to kick the ball to the side Correspondence: Martina Navarro, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, USP Av. Prof Lineu Prestes, 1524, Cidade Universitaria 05508-900, Sao Paulo/SP, Brazil. E-mail: [email protected] © 2013 Taylor & Francis 922 M. Navarro et al. opposite to which the goalkeeper dives. To this end, favourable for achieving success. Moreover, a few he or she tries to anticipate the direction of the goal- biomechanical studies (Graham-Smith et al. 1999; keeper dive by obtaining information from the goal- Kerwin & Bray, 2006) measured the time that goal- keeper’s action during the run-up. keepers take to dive and reach different areas of the At first glance, a shot to the side opposite to the goal. Based on these measurements it is clear that if goalkeeper’s dive prevents the goalkeeper from inter- penalty kickers choose to kick at one of the upper cor- cepting the ball and lessens the requirement for kick- ners with moderate force (i.e., with a speed > 22 m· s−1), ing accuracy. After all, the ball is shot to the empty then it would be impossible for a goalkeeper to half of the goal. Yet, research has indicated that the intercept the ball. This is true, even if the goal- keeper-dependent strategy can only be successful if keeper anticipates the direction of the ball with a the information about the direction of the goal- movement onset as early as 300 ms before the keeper’s dive can be picked up relatively early in kicker’s foot-ball contact. Finally, the goalkeeper the run-up. Van der Kamp (2006, 2011; see also independent strategy permits a more adaptive pattern Morya, Ranvaud, et al., 2003) showed that if goal- of gaze fixations (Noël & van der Kamp, 2012; keepers make their first move within approximately Wood & Wilson, 2011), a prerequisite to be suc- 400 ms prior to foot-ball contact, kickers are less cessful in aiming tasks. Without focusing on the likely to succeed in placing the ball to the empty goalkeeper, penalty kickers can direct their atten- half of the goal and furthermore kick accuracy tional focus to areas that are more important for the tends to be poor. In other words, penalty kickers accurate execution of the kick, such as the target need a minimum amount of time to be able to and the ball (Noël & van der Kamp, 2012). determine the side to which to kick the ball and Although it seems clear that to adopt a keeper- accurately perform the kicking action. Navarro independent strategy is the more favourable choice, et al. (2012) suggests that these effects are further it may be difficult for penalty kickers to completely exacerbated under high-pressure. The keeper- ignore the goalkeeper. Penalty kickers can be influ- dependent strategy may also be challenging due to enced unwillingly by the actions (and possibly the constraints related to visual attention. It is well- mere presence) of a goalkeeper, with performance established that focusing on and fixating a target suffering as a consequence. Masters, van der Kamp, prior to and during the movement is essential in far and Jackson (2007) demonstrated that if goalkeepers aiming tasks in general (Vickers, 2007). Fixation not simply stand marginally off-centre, even if the penalty only allows the pickup of visual information neces- kicker is not consciously aware of this, there may be sary for accurate control of movement parameters an influence on the kicker’s shot direction. such as direction and force of the aiming action Furthermore, van der Kamp and Masters (2008) (e.g., Vickers, 1996), but eye movements also demonstrated that a goalkeeper’s posture influences makes non-visual information available (e.g., efference the perception of their size, resulting in subtle influ- copy, or eye muscle propriocepsis) that can be ences on the location to which the penalty kicker exploited for accurate spatial control of the aiming shoots the ball. Finally, Wood and Wilson (2010b) action (Land & Hayhoe, 2001; Land, Mennie, & showed that if a goalkeeper waves his arms, this Rusted, 1999; Wilson, Stephenson, Chattington, & attracts visual attention of the penalty kicker, leading to Marple-Horvat, 2007). In penalty kicking a focus on sub-optimal gaze patterns and impaired shot accuracy. (or eye movements toward) the goalkeeper rather It may be that the mere presence of the goalkeeper than the target area jeopardises accuracy (Bakker, affects shot accuracy. An analogy can perhaps be Oudejans, Binsch, & van der Kamp, 2006; Noël & found in the literature on the role of visual non- van der Kamp, 2012; van der Kamp, 2011; Wilson, target objects (that are not necessarily physical obsta- Wood, & Vine, 2009). Notwithstanding the risks cles) in reaching and grasping tasks (Howard & associated with the keeper-dependent strategy, it is Tipper, 1997; Tipper, Howard, & Jackson, 1997; likely that penalty kickers at times adopt it, and Welsh, Elliott, & Weeks, 1999). These studies have according to some authors more often than not reported that visual non-target objects that surround (Kuhn, 1988; Wood & Wilson, 2010a). the target influence the trajectory of the target-directed In contrast to the keeper-dependent strategy, the hand movement by either veering away from keeper-independent strategy seems the more cau- (Howard & Tipper, 1997; Tipper et al., 1997) or tious and powerful approach for taking penalty towards the visual non-target object (Welsh et al., kicks. First, descriptive analyses from international 1999; Welsh & Elliott, 2004). To explain these competitions reveal that goalkeepers never saved effects, the response activation model (Welsh & shots that are directed at one of the two upper corners Elliott, 2004; for an alternative explanation, see of the goal (Armatas, Yiannakos, Papadopoulou, & Howard & Tipper, 1997) proposes that prior to Galazoulas, 2007; Morya, Bigatão, Lees, & Ranvaud, the execution of an action attention is distributed 2003), suggesting that aiming at these areas is throughout the environment. As a result, both target  Goalkeeper affects the accuracy of penalty kicks 923 and non-target objects activate automatic indepen- activation model. In addition, a third condition was dent and parallel action response processes. Both created to enhance any effect that might be present action response processes race toward activation by increasing the salience of the goalkeeper. To this (see McGarry & Franks, 1997). It is the resulting end, the kicker informed the goalkeeper of the combined activation of these independent processes intended target before taking the kick. Knowing that in the end determines the details of the action that the goalkeeper is aware of the target location response directed to a target object. Inhibitory pro- should not be relevant to the outcome, if kickers cesses are responsible for eliminating competing shoot with sufficient accuracy and power, but it action responses to non-target objects. The influence may increase the goalkeeper’s salience or threat. On of the inhibitory processes is dependent on the the one hand, if a kicker can ignore the presence of moment (relative to the onset of the action response) the goalkeeper, as is required for the goalkeeper- that the visual non-target is presented and on its independent strategy, then ball placement should salience. In the case of a visual non-target object that not depend on whether or not a goalkeeper is pre- is present very early and is indistinct, inhibitory sent. This means that the number of target hits and processes will result in negative activation, affecting the distance between the target and where the ball the combined activation such that the movement intersects the goalmouth should not differ across veers away from the non-target object. However, the conditions. On the other hand, if a kicker cannot response activation process for a visual non-target fully ignore the presence of the goalkeeper, that is, object that is presented late and/or is very salient if the presence of a goalkeeper functions as a visual is much more difficult to inhibit. The response non-target object, then shots may be biased away or toward the non-target object will be incorporated towards the goalkeeper, depending on the goal- in the combined final action response, resulting in the keeper’s salience. movement being attracted toward the non-target object. In the penalty kick, if the kicker adopts a goalkeeper-independent strategy, the goalkeeper Methods may be considered as a visual non-target object. In Participants this scenario, the response activation model predicts that even the mere presence of the goalkeeper can Twenty-seven male skilled university footballers, affect, unconsciously, the placement of the ball rela- who played competitively in Dutch amateur leagues, tive to the target (i.e., corner). The direction of this volunteered to take part. The pretest consisted of 20 effect (i.e., away from or closer to the goalkeeper) shots aimed at a 1 m by 1 m target straight in front of will depend, in large part, on the degree of salience them, placed on a wall at a distance of 11 m. The of the goalkeeper (e.g., arm waving may make the pretest was conducted to ascertain that the partici- goalkeeper more salient, resulting in closer shots, pants were sufficiently skilled to aim the ball in one Wood & Wilson, 2010a). The mere presence of the of the two top corners during the main experiment. goalkeeper may affect ball placement, even when a The first 10 participants (mean age = 19.1 years, goalkeeper-independent strategy is adopted. s = 1.9) who hit the target at least 18 times (i.e., We examined whether penalty kickers are able to 90% success) were selected to participate in the main adopt a strategy in which they totally ignore the goal- study. In addition, two amateur goalkeepers (26 and keeper. Although previously researchers have shown 29 years in age) participated in the experiment. The that this is the more favourable strategy, the question approval of the local ethical committee was obtained of whether the simple presence of a goalkeeper may before the experiments were carried out, and parti- jeopardise kicking accuracy and speed has not been cipants provided informed consent prior to testing. addressed. This effect may be present even though kickers are fully aware that a goalkeeper is incapable Apparatus of intercepting a ball directed to one of the two upper corners (at least when the kick is sufficiently Participants took penalty kicks on an official grass powerful). Thus, in the current study, participants pitch. The size of the goal, the distance of the penalty were required to shoot the ball hard enough, aiming spot from the goal and the ball were all in accor- at a specified area of the goal, located in the upper dance with FIFA laws. Two pieces of orange PVC corners, with and without the presence of a goal- canvas measuring 1.8 m in width and 1.6 m in height keeper. Comparing shot accuracies in these condi- were attached between the crossbar and each goal- tions should uncover whether the presence of a post, indicating the two target areas (Figure 1). The goalkeeper can be ignored (as is presumed with a size and location of these target areas were chosen goalkeeper-independent strategy) or whether his or based on descriptive analyses from international her presence as a visual non-target object affects shot competitions, showing that in these areas it is very placement along the lines suggested by the response difficult if not impossible for goalkeepers to save a 924 M. Navarro et al. Figure 1. Schematic representation of the experimental set-up showing a front view of the goal with a PVC canvas in the goalmouth with the two target areas. penalty. At the centre of each PVC canvas, there was The three first blocks always belonged to different a target, consisting of black circle 22 cm in diameter conditions and their order was counterbalanced (i.e., the same as the ball diameter). Participants across participants. The sequence of blocks four to were explicitly instructed to aim for the circle six was identical to the first three blocks. This design (although all kicks landing within the target area allowed for taking any effects of fatigue or learning were counted as a success, see below). The place- during the last blocks into account. However, no ment of the target was to preserve the difficulty for differences were observed between the first three the goalkeeper to defend the shot, but reduce the risk blocks and the last three blocks, which indicated of missing the goal altogether. The centre of the that participants did not get fatigued or were other- target areas (i.e., at 0.8 m from the crossbar and wise affected in the course of the experiment. 0.9 m from the goalpost) was considered optimal for aiming a penalty kick: it is beyond a goalkeeper’s Procedure reach, but reasonably safely within the goalmouth in the where case kicking accuracy is somewhat After providing informed consent, participants jeopardised. were informed about the characteristics of a keeper- A CREATIVE VADO digital video camera independent strategy, particularly the importance of (25 Hz) was positioned 1 m behind and 1 m to the disregarding the goalkeepers’ actions when taking side of the penalty mark, and recorded the goal- the penalty kick, since it would in any case be impos- mouth. The video recordings were analysed off-line sible for the goalkeeper to defend a well-placed ball. for shot accuracy. To measure ball flight times, a Immediately before the start of the experiment, par- pinhead microphone was placed 50 cm to the right ticipants were instructed to aim for the centre of the of the ball to register the foot-ball contact, while two target with enough power (i.e., ball speed at least microphones were attached to the PVC canvas to approximately 22 m · s−1). It was emphasised that register the impact of the ball. The continuous sig- with these requirements met, it would be impossible nals of the microphones were amplified and fed into for the goalkeeper to save the ball (Graham-Smith a computer (1000 Hz). A LabVIEW software pack- et al., 1999), even if they would correctly anticipate age was used to synchronise the signals of the the direction of the kick and dive to the same side microphones. that the ball went. Furthermore, participants were instructed that they should ignore the goalkeeper’s actions (whenever the goalkeeper was present) and Design simply kick the ball to the designated target area with A repeated measures design was used. Participants enough force. Before each penalty kick, they were took six blocks of penalty kicks in three conditions: told which target area to aim towards (i.e., left or without the presence of a goalkeeper (‘no goal- right side of the goal). keeper’ condition), with the presence of a goalkeeper Goalkeepers were instructed to try to save the who was unaware of the direction of the shot (‘goal-