Biological Control Agents PDF

CRPT04 REVIEWER a. By far the majority are in the order Hymenoptera UNIT IV: NATURE OF BIOLOGICAL  *Parasitica" within the Hymenopteran CONTROL AGENTS suborder Apocrita...

CRPT04 REVIEWER a. By far the majority are in the order Hymenoptera UNIT IV: NATURE OF BIOLOGICAL  *Parasitica" within the Hymenopteran CONTROL AGENTS suborder Apocrita  largest subgroups are the superfamily Why Consider Biological Control? Chalcidoidea and Ichneumonoidae followed There are many problems with over-reliance on by the Proctotrupoidea pesticides PARASITICA  Environmental hazards  Chalcidoid wasps  Occupational hazards  Ichneumon wasps  Emergence of secondary pests  Proctotrupoidea  Pesticide resistance Chrysidoidea (“lineages”) Biological control is considered environmentally safe and "friendly" Vespoidea Effective - there have been hundreds of successes Orussidae (“rare”) Cost-effective - there is great potential return for b. The flies (order Diptera) small investment  largest of which is the family Tachnidae Why use Biological Control?  smaller families such as Pipunculidae, Conopidae, and others Invasive species  Other families of flies that are not primarily The pesticide treadmill parasitolds or parasites, or at least not primarily protelean, do nonetheless include Insecticide resistance protelean species Limited pesticide development Tachinidae Chemical pesticides not effective Pipunculidae Human/environment health Conopidae Emblemasoma auditrix (“protelean”) Craticulina c. The "twisted-wing parasites" (order Strepsiptera), which is a small group consisting entirely of parasitolds. Scotinophara coarctata Corioxenidae Biological Agents: PARASITES/PARASITOIDS d. The beetles (order Coleoptera) parasitoid was coined in 1913 by the German writer  least two familes, Ripiphoridae and O.M. Reuter (and adopted in English by his Rhipiceridae reviewer, William Morton Wheeler)  argely parasitoids, and rove beetles (family There are four insect orders that are particularly Staphylinidae) of the genus Aleochara renowned for this type of life history.  moth family Epipyropidae (ectoparasitoids of planthoppers and Cicadas) a) By far the majority are in the order  genus Cyclotorna (feeding on ant larvae) Hymenoptera b) The flies (order Diptera) Ripiphoridae c) The twisled-wing parasites" (order Rove beetles Strepsiptera) d) The beetles (order Coleoptera) Epipyropidae Cyclotorna  I. Deposits eggs into small pockets they cut into  Stethorus is important in controlling spider the edge of leaves with their ovipositor. mites and others specialize in scale Insects II. A caterpillar chewing these leaves may  This common Colorado insect is found unknowingly swallow some of the eggs, and feeding on bean leaves when they get into the caterpillar's gut, they  Larvae are yellow and spiny hatch and burrow through the gut wall and  Spotting and color in the adult stage into the body cavity. III. Some trigonalids, once in a caterpillar or PREDATORY BUGS sawfly larva, need their vehicle to fall prey to  True bugs (Order: Hemiptera) are predators a social wasp. of insects and mites. All feed by piercing the Biological Agents: PARASITES/PARASITOIDS prey  More common, but less frequently observed,  Single host, always killed are the various light brown damsel bugs, also  Attacked all life stages called nabid bugs  There likely are more than 1 million species  Predatory bugs are the small (less than 1/8 of parasites inch) minute pirate bugs  Rule of thumb, parasites attack only one life stage of a host (e.g., egg or larva) and attack fewer species of host or prey than do predators.  Mostly two insect orders Wasps Flies Biological Agents: PREDATORS  Predators kill multiple prey and often both adults and Immatures are predaceous.  Predators may be polyphagous (attack many species)  Variety of arthropod taxa are predaceous  Predators are common in all habitats  Many are easily and not easily recognized  Typically highly mobile  Pray selection often size-dependent Thrips True bug Lacewing Ground beetle Ladybird beetle Syrphid fly Fire ant Wasps-hornet Differences in beak and head shape between damsel bug and assassin bug LADYBIRD BEETLE  Often called ladybugs, lady beetles are the most familiar insect predator.  Adult lady beetles are round to oval, brightly colored and often spotted  Larvae are elongated, usually dark colored, and flecked with orange or yellow  MANTIDS  Mantids are general predators that feed on almost any insects of the right size  They have one generation per year  Chinese mantid, is sometimes available for sale PREDATORY MITES  Predatory mites are a little larger than spider mites but are more rounded in shape and faster moving than their prey. Differences in wing vein pattern between damsel bug  Low humidity can restrict their activity and assassin bug  More susceptible to insecticides than are plant-feeding species LACEWING SPIDERS (Non-insect)  Adult stage is a pale green insect with large, clear, highly-veined wings that are held over  Generalist feeders the body when at rest  Wide range of hunting strategies  Green lacewings lay a distinctive stalked egg  Non-consumptive effects  Lacewing larvae emerge in four to 10 days Wolf spider (Lycosa pseudoannulata)  In general shape and size, lacewing larvae are superficially similar to lady beetle larvae Dwarf spider (Anyphaena formosana) SYRPHID FLY Lycosid spider (Pardosa pseudoannulata)  Flower flies or Hover flies Pupa 3. PATHOGENS OF INSECT  Most are brightly colored, yellow or orange and black, and may resemble bees or yellow  Pathogens are viruses or microorganisms jacket wasps that cause disease  Larval stage of the syrphid fly that preys on  The pathogens that cause disease in insects insects fall into four main groups: viruses  Controlling aphid infestations early in the bacteria season, when cooler temperatures Similar fungi in appearance to syrphid fly larvae is a small, protozoa bright orange predatory midge (Aphidoletes) A. VIRUSES GROUND BEETLES  Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites,  Found under debris, in soil cracks or moving meaning that they can reproduce only in along the ground living cells and are composed in the simplest  General feeders with powerful jaws form of a nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA,  Spends part or all of its life on the soil surface and a protein shell referred to as the capsid. may be prey for these insect  More complex viruses also contain a HUNTING WASPS lipoprotein envelop.  insect viruses are divided into two broad  Many take their prey, whole or in pieces, nontaxonomic categories, the occluded back to their mud, soil or paper nests to feed viruses and the nonoccluded viruses to the immature wasps  Occluded viruses are so named because  Polistes paper wasps, when hunting, may after formation in infected cells, the thoroughly search plants and feed on mature virus particles (virions) are caterpillars occluded within a protein matrix, forming a paracrystalline bodies that are generically referred to as either inclusion or occlusion bodies.   Nonoccluded viruses, the virions occur  Many of these are different viruses (i.e., viral freely or occasionally form paracrytalline species). NPVs replicate in the nuclei of cells, arrays of virioins that are also known as generally causing an acute fatal disease. inclusion bodies A.7. Granulosis Virus A.1. Iridoviruses  The GVs, of which over 100 isolates are  Nonoccluded viruses with a linear double- known, ate closely related to the NPVs but stranded DNA genome differ from the latter in several important  (family Iridoviridae) respects.  produce large, enveloped, icosahedral virions  The virions of GVs are similar to those of (125-200 nm) NPVs but contain only one nucleocapsid per envelope. A.2. Cytoplasmic Polyhedrosis Viruses  GVs are known only from lepidopterous  (family Reoviridae) insects.  occluded double-stranded RNA viruses with Use of Viruses as Insect Control Agents a genome divided into 9 orn10 segments of RNA  The best example of the use of a virus as  commonly referred to as CPVs, cause insect control agents is the use of the NPV of chronic disease and reproduce only in the the European spruce sawfly, Gilpinia stomach of insects, hercyniae, as classical biological control agents. The European spruce sawfly was A.3. Entomopoxviruses introduced into eastern Canada from  (family Poxviridae) northern Europe around the turn of the last  occluded double-stranded DNA viruses that century and had become a severe forest pest produce large, enveloped virions (150 nm X by the 1930s. 300 nm) that replicate in the cytoplasm of a  NPVs in insect control, one baculovirus, the wide range of tissues in most hosts, causing AcMNPV noted earlier, has been developed an acute, fatal disease. as an expression vector for producing a large number of foreign proteins in vitro. A.4. Ascoviruses  (Ascoviridae) B. BACTERIA  new family of DNA viruses, at present known only from larvae of species in the  relatively simple unicellular microorganisms lepidopteran family Noctuidae, where they that lack internal organelles such as a nucleus have been reported from several common and mitochondria, and reproduce by binary pest species such as the cabbage looper, fission cotton budworm, corn earworm, and fall  spore-forming bacilli (family Bacillaceae), armyworm. Ascoviruses cause a chronic, especially B. thuringiensis fatal disease of larvae. - B. sphaericus A.5. Baculoviruses - Paenibacillus popilliae - P. larvae  (family Baculoviridae)  large, enveloped, double-stranded, occluded DNA viruses. These viruses are divided into two main types, commonly known as the nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPVs) and the granulosis viruses (GVs). A.6. Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus  The NPVs (Fig. 16) are known from a wide range of insect orders but have been most commonly reported by far from lepidopterous insects, from which well over 500 isolates are known.  B.3. Paenibacillus popilliae  Highly fastidious bacterium that is the primary etiological agent of the so-called milky disease of scarab larvae.  Disease is initiated when grubs feeding on the roots and vegetative cells invade the midgut epithelium, where they grow and reproduce, changing in form as they progress toward invasion of the homocoel (body cavity) B.1. Bacillus thuringiensis B.4. Serratia entomophila  complex of bacterial subspecies that occur commonly in such habitats as soil, leaf litter,  Novel bacterium caused amber disease in the on the surfaces of eaves, in insect feces, and grass grub as a part of the flora in the midgets of ma y  Adheres to the chitinous intima of the insect species foregut, where it grows extensively,  moderately sensitive to the toxins, such as eventually causing the larvae to develop an Spodoptera species (caterpillars commonly amber color; the result of infection is death. known as armyworms)  It is now used to treat infested pastures in  insecticidal compounds including (3- New Zealand exotoxin, zwittermicin A, and vegetative insecticidal proteins (Vips) C. FUNGI  diverse group of eukaryotic organisms  lacking chloroplasts  live either as saprophyte or as parasites of plants and animals  vegetative phase, known as a thallus  During vegetative growth, the mycelium consists primarily of hyphae fungi are divided into five major subdivisions,  genera Coelomomyces and Lagenidium (subdivision Mastigomycotina) – AQUATIC  genera Metarhizium and Beauveria  production of parasporal body during (subdivision Deuteromycotina) – sporulation that contains one or more protein TERRESTRIAL endotoxins in crystalline form fungi usually infect insects by active penetration B.2. Bacillus sphaericus through the cuticle.  rod-shape; tolerant to high temperature AQUATIC FUNGI  toxic to certain mosquito species two types (species) that attack mosquito larvae  1593 and 2297 isolates were obtained from soil and water samples at mosquito breeding  Coelomomyces (class Chytridiomucetes: sites order Blastocladiales)  1593 was isolated from a dead adult blackfly - obligately parasitic fungi that have a  Toxicity as the result of protein endotox-ins complex life cycle involving an illustration of that are produced during sporulation and sexual (gametophytic) and asexual assembled into parasporal bodies (sporophytic) generations.  Toxins bind to micro-villi of the midgut - largest genus of insect-parasitic fungi ephithelium, causing hypertrophy and lysis - This oomycete fungus is easily cultured on of cells, destroying the midgut and killing the artificial media mosquito larva. - motile zoospore invades a mosquito larva through the cuticle.   Lagenidium gigantenum (class Oomycetes  Sarcomastigophora (flagellates and order Lagenidium) amoebae)  Coelomomyces (class Chytridiomucetes: order  Apicomplexa (sporozoa) Blastocladiales)  Microspora (microsporidia)  Acetospora (haplosporidia, now thought to TERRESTRIAL FUNGI be a type of parasitic alga)  selected species of hyphomycetes such as M.  Ciliophora (ciliates). anisopliae and B. bassiana for use as microbial insecticides. Antagonist of Plant Pathogens ENTOMOPHTHORALES  Antagonism (the inhibitory relationships  large order of the class Zygomycetes between microorganisms including plants)  epizootics in populations of hemipterous and - (i) amensalism i.e. antibiosis and lysis, homopterous insects - (ii) competition, and  few species of the genus Conidiobolus are - (iii) parasitism and predation. able to cause mycoses in some mammals  Coelomomyces (L. gigantenum) (i) Amensalism (Antibiosis and Lysis) most important genera found attacking insects  a phenomenon where one population adversely affects the growth of another  Conidiobolus (aphids), population whilst itself being unaffected by  Erynia (aphids), the other population.  Entomophthora (aphids),  Antibiosis is a situation where the  Zoophthora (aphids, caterpillars, beetle) metabolites secreted by organism A inhibit  Entomophaga (grasshoppers, caterpillars). organism B, but organism A is not affected. CLASS HYPHOMYCETES NOXIOUS SUBSTANCES AGAINST SOIL- BORNE PLANT PATHOGENS SECRETED BY  belong to the fungal subdivision ROOTS Deuteromycotina (imperfect fungi)  B. bassiana and M. anisopliae  Maize, clover, lentil (glycine, phenylalanine)  Paecilomyces fumosorosea (for whiteflies)  Other legumes, flax (hydrocyanin acid)  Verticillium lecanii (for aphids and whiteflies  Pine (volatile mono-and sesquiterpenes) in glasshouses) ANTIMICROBIAL SUBSTANCES  Hirutella thompsonii (for mites)  Nomurea rileyi (for noctuid caterpillars).  Aldehydes  Alcohols Why none of the hyphomycetes fungi have been commercially successful as a microbial insecticides in  Acetone developed countries?  Organic acid  Non-volatile and volatile compounds 1. Related to their biological properties 2. Inefficient yields, the formulations are bulky Siderophores and preservation of fungal viability.  other extracellular metabolites which are D. PROTOZOA secreted by bacteria  known as microbial iron chelating  large and diverse group of eukaryotic compounds because they have a very high unicellular motile microorganisms chelating affinity for Fe3+ they transport it  can be free-living and saprophytic, into the cells. commential, symbiotic, or parasitic.  Feeding is by ingestion or more typically by (ii) Competition adsorption, and vegetative reproduction is by  a rivalry where two or more parties strive for binary or multiple fission. a common goal which cannot be shared Divided into a series of phyla is based primarily on where one’s gain is the other’s loss mode of locomotion and structure of locomotory organelles, the kingdom includes; A. Competitive Saprophytic Ability (Garrett,  Bacillus penetrans (Meloidogyne sp.) 1950) 3. Mycophagy – phenomenon on feeding on fungi by  “the summation of the physiological amoebae characteristics that make for success in Antagonistic soil amoebae competitive colonization of dead organic substrates”  Arachnula  four characteristics which are likely to  Archelle contribute to the competitive saprophytic  Gephyramoeba ability  Geococcus (i) rapid germination of fungal propagules  Saccamoeba and fast growth of young hyphae towards a  Vampyrella source of soluble nutrients, (ii) appropriate enzyme equipment for Soil Pathogen degradation of carbon constituents of plant tissues  Cochliobolus sativus (iii) excretion of fungistatic and bacteriostatic  Graminis var. tritici, growth products including antibiotics, and  Fusarium oxysporum (iv) tolerance of fungistatic substances  Phytophthora cinnamomi produced by competitive microorganisms. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENT OF WEEDS B. Inoculum Potential (Garrett, 1956) of that species.  the deliberate use of natural enemies to reduce the density of a particular weed to a  Biological control of Forties annosus by tolerable level. inoculating the freshy cut stumps of pine with  is not eradication but simply the reduction of Peniophora gigantea is a result of competition, the weed population to an economically low as is the control of Pseudomonas tolaasii on level. mushroom by other bacteria (Baker and imported moth (Cactoblastis cactorum) Cook, 1974).  Species of Trichoderma and Gliocladium are  prickly pear cacti (Opuntia spp.) the two potent antagonists which produce  St. Johnswort Hypericum perforatum antibiotics to destroy mycelia of other fungi. (Millepertius perfore) (iii) Predation and Parasitism METHODS USED IN BIOCONTROL OF Predation - is an apparent mode of antagonism where WEEDS a living microorganism is mechanically attacked by 1. Augmentation of natural enemy populations. the other  Includes the periodic release and/or Parasitism - is a phenomenon where one organism distribution of natural enemies consumes another organism, often in a subtle, non- debilitating relationship. 2. Application of “biological herbicides” 1. Mycoparasitism - when one fungus is parasitized PROCEDURES IN CLASSICAL BIOLOGICAL by another one the phenomenon CONTROL a) Hyperparasite – the parasitizing fungus A. Determine the sustainability of the weed for this b) Hypoparasite – parasitized fungus approach 2. Nematophagy - phenomenon of eating upon 1. Weed species which are valued in other situation nematodes by fungi. are not good candidates for this approach Examples of nematode trapping fungi - E.g. blue weed (Echium vulgate) (viperine)  Arthrofyotrys 2. Weeds that are closely related to economic crops  Dactylaria Dactyleela are not good candidates for this method  Phialospora heteroderae (cysts nematode) - wild cats (Avena fatua) (folle avoine) Spore forming bacterium 3. Native weed species are not generally amenable to diversity of feeding habits (Beck 1972, Dadd this approach 1973, Hagen 1986b).  Thompson (1976, 1082) used a defined 4. Weeds of cropland under intensive cultivation are artificial medium to examine the quantitative generally not suited to this approach requirements for supporting larval growth of 5. Minor weed problems are not generally suited to Exerister roborator. this approach History of Parasitoid Nutrition 6. If eradication of the weed is desired (e.g poisonus weeds), the methods is generally not applicable  Salt (1941) probably was the first to emphasize the complexity of parasitoid B. Conduct a survey overseas to determine if there are nutrition in studies that demonstrated that any parasites available for introduction against the weed the host influences growth and survival of the developing parasitoid as well as sex ratio, C. Determine the potential effectiveness of the parasite fecundity, longevity and vigor of the adult PLANT PATHOGENS AS BIOCONTROL OF wasp (Clausen 1939, Salt (1941). WEEDS  The relationship applies when a parasitoid is reared on different host species of variable A. Conventional approach size as well as when reared on different sized - achieved against skeleton weed (Chondrilla juncea), individuals of a single host species (Salt 1940, the major weed of wheat in Australia. Host-specific Jowyk & Smilowitz 1978, Mellini & rust, Puccinia chondrillina, was collected in Italy and Campadelli 1981, Sandlan 1982) introduced into Australia in 1971.  Large females obtained from large hosts failed to oviposit on small hosts, whereas B. Biological Herbicides small females accepted hosts of all sizes. - A new approach to biocontrol of weeds has recently Utilization of Food been pioneered in Arkansa with the application of a spore suspension of an endemic fungus. The fungus  show high efficiencies in food utilization. controlled 99 per cent of a serious weed (Northern  Parasitoids examined for food utilization jointvetch) in rice, include Coccygomimum (= Pimpla) instigator (F.), Pteromalus puparum (L.) (Chlodny 1968), Gelis macrurus (Thompson), etc. CHAPTER 4: ASSESSMENT, MASS  mean net conversion efficiency, (= PRODUCTION AND FIELD RELEASES proportion of assimilated food converted to body mass (11-62%) A. Assessment of Effectiveness of a Natural Enemy  mean of 37% that was ≤ than for many groups of insect herbivores and detritivores. 1. Comprehensive life table  Howell & Fisher (1977) reported the highest 2. An understanding of expected yield gains nutritional efficiencies for a parasitoid in the attributable to natural enemies ichneumonid V. canescens. - larva net conversion efficiency of 65% B. Nutrition and Mass Production of Biological - 95% a ssimilation when maintained Control Agents on the host (Anagasta) 1. Nutrition of Natural Enemies - net conversion efficiency to the adult was 20%  Nutrition is thus the action or processes of transforming substances found in foods into PREDATORS body materials and energy to do all the things  also been thought to be highly efficient, for attributed to life. reasons similar to that for parasitoids. This is ……. through nutrition we have a direct and especially true when predators spend much essential connection between an time waiting for their food environmental factor, foodstuff and the vital  Studies on food utilization of 11 predators processes of the insect organism. was reviewed by Slansky & Scriber (1985). - House (1977)  similar net conversion efficiencies (4-64%,  Qualitative nutritional requirements of all mean = 34%), but higher assimilation insects are very similar in spite of a great  efficiencies (37-98%, mean = 86%) than those CHAPTER 5: METHODS AND APPROACHES of parasitoids TO BIOLOGICAL CONTROL Nutritional Requirements in Development Quarantine and Exclusion  Qualitative nutritional requirements of Primary function of a biological control quarantine insects, determined by use of defined and facility; deficient artificial diets 1. provide a secure area  All insects have similar requirements: 30 2. eliminate extraneous host or host plant chemicals, essential amino acids, water material soluble growth factors, polyunsaturated fatty 3. last chance to study and evaluate potential acid, minerals, and energy source biological control agents  Nutritional requirements of entomophagous insects are similar, and similar to those of Use of Resistant Host Plants non-entomophagous species. Plants have two ways of defense against - “RULE OF SAMENESS” herbivores: - consider that rearing a single generation on 1. Direct Defense a synthetic or semi-synthetic diet did most studies.  affects herbivores directly through physical  The quantitative balance of different or chemical means, such as thorns, toxins, nutrients is a critical and dominating factor digestibility reducers. determining dietary acceptability and  toxins such as alkaloids, phenolics, suitability (House 1969, 1974). terpenoids, which are lethal for herbivores in some cases. Predator Culture In Vitro  Other substances such as tannins and phenolics as digestibility reducers  Among the first reared artificially from egg to adult  Adults fed on raw liver or meat being kept for months on these food in the absence of prey 2. Indirect Defense * Coleomegilla maculata maculata  promote the effectiveness of carnivores  The culture methods were refined, and a diet  plant substances prolonging herbivore of fresh yeast and glucose supported larval development development (Szumkowski 1961a, b).  induced plant volatiles  diet of 40% brewer’s yeast, 55% sucrose, inorganic salts, cholesterol, RNA, wheat germ oil and vitamins. PHILIPPINES e-PHYTOSANITARY * C. maculata lengi CERTIFICATION SYSTEM Parasitoids Culture In Vitro  implemented in 2010 DA Administrative Order  In vitro culture offers a simple alternative for No. 02-2010 mass culture (Mellini 1978, Greany et al. BPI – Bureau of Plant Industry 1984) and also enables dietary and nutritional manipulations for fundamental BAI – Bureau of Animal Industry studies of nutrition and biochemistry.  Diptera. - - A variety of natural foodstuffs, BFAR – Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources including fish and liver products, were SPSIC – Sanitary and Phytosanitary Import utilized in early rearing attempts with Clearance parasitoids.  38% pupation among larvae reared on the eRFI – electronic Request for Inspection host, Choritoneura fumiferana (Clemens), 88% pupated when reared on the artificial medium.