COR 007_ EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE FQE REVIEWER.pdf

COR 007: EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE FIRST QUARTER EXAM COVERAGE: Module 1: Understanding the Origin of the Universe Focus on the following: a. Modern Theories about the Universe b. Theories about the formation of Solar System c. Advancement a...

COR 007: EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE FIRST QUARTER EXAM COVERAGE: Module 1: Understanding the Origin of the Universe Focus on the following: a. Modern Theories about the Universe b. Theories about the formation of Solar System c. Advancement and Discoveries on the Solar System Module 2: Describe the Earth and Earth Systems Focus on the following: a. Earth’s Characteristics that Support Life b. Earth’s Subsystem Module 3: Identify Minerals and Rocks Focus on the following: a. Physical and Chemical Properties of Minerals b. Three main types of Rocks Module 4: Analyzing the Exogenic Processes of Earth's Materials Focus on the following: a. Physical Weathering b. Chemical Weathering Module 5: Analyzing the Endogenic Processes of Earth's Materials Focus on the following: a. Metamorphism c. Types of Stress Module 6: Exploring the Process of Deformation of Earth's Crust Focus on the following: a. Evidences of Wegner’s Continental Drift Theory b. The three main types of boundaries Module 8: Going Back to the History of the Earth Focus on the following: a. Dating Method b. Fossil Markers Module 9: Identifying the Hazards Caused by Geological Events and Hydrometeorological Events Focus on: a. Earthquakes Module 10:Marine and Coastal Processes and their Effects Focus on: a. Coastal Hazards Module 11: Identifying the Concepts of Life Focus on the following: a. Characteristics of Life b. Classic Experiments Module 12: Exploring the Level of Organization in Living Focus on: a. Levels of Biological Hierarchy Module 13:Analyzing the System of Bioenergetics Focus on the following: a. Cell theory b. Photosynthesis and Glycolysis CONCEPT NOTES Modern theories on the origin of the universe: Big Bang Theory- According to the big bang theory, the universe was once very small and very hot, and then it expanded over time until it reached its peak (which may be perceived as a massive explosion for some) around 13.7 billion years ago (considered the age of the universe). Oscillating Universe Theory - The oscillating universe followed the general theory of relativity equations of the universe with positive curvature. This curvature results in the expansion of the universe for a time, and then to its contraction due to the pull of its gravity in a perpetual cycle of big bang and big crunch. Steady State Theory-This theory states that the universe is always expanding in a constant average density. Cosmic Inflation Theory- The term inflation refers to the rapid expansion of space-time. According to this theory, the early universe was a rapidly expanding bubble of pure vacuum energy. Formation of the Solar System Nebular Hypothesis- In this theory, the whole Solar System starts as a large cloud of gas that contracts under self-gravity. Planetesimal and Tidal Theories- In both theories, a star supposedly passed close to the sun. The gravitational pull of the passing star raised tides found on the surface of the sun Some of this erupted matter was detached and plunged into elliptical orbits around the sun. Some of the smaller masses quickly cooled to become solid bodies called planetesimals Significant Discoveries on the Solar System Pluto was reclassified by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) as a dwarf planet instead of being the ninth planet of the solar system. In 2006, it was observed to belong to a different region, the Kuiper belt, which is found at the outer region of the solar system and is mostly composed of frozen volatiles (or gases), comets, and asteroids. (Choi, 2014) Earth’s Characteristics that Support Life The presence of water allowed the first photosynthetic organisms to thrive. Earth is situated within a habitable zone the distance from a seat where liquid water can exist in its liquid form. Heat coming from Earth is caused by radiogenic heat from radioactive decay of materials in the core and mantle, and extruded via active tectonic activities such as volcanism and plate movement.The heat provided by the sun is in the form of radiation which enters Earth. Having an atmosphere capable of providing heat like in a greenhouse, the atmosphere is therefore a vital part of photosynthesis. Earth’s System Geosphere- Geosphere covers all of the solid part of Earth, from its surface up to the deeper depth of the core. It includes the interior structure, rocks and minerals, landforms, and all physical processes on land that shape Earth's surface. Hydrosphere- The hydrosphere encompasses all the waters found on Earth.Water covers about 70% of Earth's surface and most of it is water that makes up the oceans.Only 3% of water on the surface is fresh; the remaining 97% resides in the ocean.The hydrologic cycle involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-Atmosphere system. Atmosphere- The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, the rest is of other gasses such as carbon dioxide, argon, and water vapor. Cryosphere- The cryosphere is the frozen water part of the Earth system. Biosphere- is where certain organisms function to consume a different set of organisms to allow energy transfer from one group of organisms to another and to allow certain materials to recycle. Most plants are capable of making their own food through photosynthesis and certain animals consume them. Protozoa are one-celled animals found worldwide in most habitats. Most species are free living, but all higher animals are infected with one or more species of protozoa. Physical and Chemical Properties of minerals Hardness refers to the measure of the mineral's resistance to scratching. To measure the relative hardness of minerals, the Mohs scale is used. The harder the mineral, the greater its resistance to scratching. It grades 10 fairly common minerals on a scale from 1 being the softest to 10 being the hardest. For example, a piece of chalk (talc) has a hardness of 1. Chalk can be easily scratched by an iron nail that has a hardness of 4. Luster refers to the reaction of a mineral to light. It determines how brilliant or dull the mineral is. Adamantine, having the hard, sparkly look of a diamond. The three main types of rocks include: Igneous Rock-It is formed when magma (molten rock deep within the earth) cools and hardens.Its key features are the following: 1.) usually made of two or more minerals; 2.) may be light or dark colored; 3.) usually made of mineral crystals of different sizes; 4.) sometimes has openings or glass fibers; 5.) may be fine-grained or glassy (extrusive) Intrusive igneous rocks cool underground. Deep in the crust, magma cools slowly. Slow cooling gives crystals a chance to grow. Intrusive igneous rocks have relatively large crystals that are easy to see. Extrusive igneous rocks form above the surface. The lava cools quickly as it pours out onto the surface. Extrusive igneous rocks cool much more rapidly than intrusive rocks. The rapid cooling time does not allow time for large crystals to form. Sedimentary Rock- It is formed from particles of sand, shells, pebbles, and other fragments of material.Its key features are the following: 1.) often contains fossils; 2.) often has layers, flat or curved; 3.) usually composed of pieces cemented or pressed together; 4.) has great color variety; 5.) may have cross-bedding, mud cracks, worm burrows, raindrop impressions. Metamorphic Rock- It is formed under the surface of the earth from the metamorphosis (change) that occurs due to intense heat and pressure (squeezing). Exogenic Process Weathering is the disintegration of rocks, soil, and minerals together with other materials through contact with Earth's subsystems. Physical weathering is the breakdown of rocks by mechanical forces concentrated along rock fractures.Also, geological process of rocks breaking apart without changing their chemical composition. For example, waves crashing against a rocky shoreline, slowly breaking apart the rocks into smaller pieces. Chemical weathering is the process by which rocks break down by chemical reactions.Oxidation (the reaction of a substance with oxygen) and hydrolysis (the chemical breakdown of a substance when combined with water) are chemical processes that contribute to chemical weathering. Another contributor to chemical weathering is acid rain which may cause metals or stones to corrode or deteriorate and change their properties because of the reaction to acids by some of the minerals in soil and rocks that make them up. Endogenic Process Metamorphism. It is the process of changing the materials that make up a rock. The chemical components and geologic characteristics of the rock changed due to heat (temperature) and pressure that are increasing or decreasing. Types of Metamorphism 1. Contact Metamorphism Happens when rock minerals and texture changes due to heat. 2. Regional Metamorphism A change in the rock happens in a larger area, a large-scale action of heat and pressure. Agents of metamorphism: Heat – the most important because it provides energy to drive the reactions that result in the recrystallization of minerals Pressure Chemically active fluids Geological stress is the force (from the pushing and pulling of plates) that acts on the rocks thereby creating different behavior or characteristics. 1. Compressional stress- rocks push or squeeze against one another The stress produced is directed toward the center.Compressional stress is usually what takes place in folding, which results in mountain building. 2. Tensional stress- rocks are pulled apart. Rocks may separate in opposite directions or move farther away from one another. 3.Shear stress- some of the portions of a plate at the edges may break away in different directions, eventually making the plate smaller in size. 4. Confining stress- the crust becomes compact, making it look smaller. Evidences of Wegner’s Continental Drift Theory 1. Tillites are glacial deposits from rock strata in areas that were once covered with snow.It is understandable if tillites are found in polar climates or areas where there is snow. However, for places  that are presently known to be tropical and desert like, such as Africa, Madagascar, and India, finding ice deposits would seem unreasonable if not for the concept of drifting continents 2. Rock layers may be profiled to determine the history, age, and composition of materials in the environment. Part of the evidence of continental drift is the similarity of rock layers found in mountains that are on the opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachian Mountains, the Caledonian Mountains of Scotland. the Scandinavian (or Scandes) Mountains of Norway, and the Atlas Mountains of Morocco were thought to have been one mountain range during the time of Pangaea. The three main types of boundaries: 1. Convergent (collisional) boundaries are where plates meet. This happens when two tectonic plates move toward each other brought by mantle convection (or the current convection from the heat of the mantle).Two possible landforms can be created: trench and mountains. 2. Divergent boundaries are where plates move away from each other. Plates move apart because of the magma that is being pushed upward in boundaries of the plates. When this happens, the slowly moving plates transport newly formed crust away from the ridge as it spreads in both directions where the plates go. 3.Transform boundaries are where plates slide past each other. Neither plate gets subducted. Geologists use two types of dating methods: 1. Relative dating- Relative dating is a method used to determine the relative order of geologic events. This is done through stratigraphy (succession of rocks) where the order of rock formations correlates to geologic time. This method does not provide actual numerical dates for the rocks, but all are just estimates based on the profile of the strata which includes chemical composition, rock type, and presence of organisms. Law of superposition, a major principle of stratigraphy stating that within a sequence of layers of sedimentary rock, the oldest layer is at the base and that the layers are progressively younger with ascending order in the sequence. Index fossils play a crucial role in the field of geology, aiding scientists in dating and correlating rocks. These fossils are valuable indicators of specific time periods and help geologists reconstruct Earth’s history. Absolute dating methods can tell which sediments were deposited first and also the approximate age of the specimen. The most used and accepted form of absolute dating is radioactive decay dating. Radiocarbon dating, or carbon-14 dating, is a scientific method that can accurately determine the age of organic materials as old as approximately 60,000 years.It is based on the fact that living organisms—like trees, plants, people, and animals—absorb carbon-14 into their tissue. When they die, the carbon-14 starts to change into other atoms over time. Scientists can estimate how long the organism has been dead by counting the remaining carbon-14 atoms. Geologic Time Scale ✓ a system of chronological measurement that relates rock layers to time. ✓ it describes the timing and relationships between events that have occurred throughout Earth’s history Earthquake Earthquake is the trembling of the Earth’s surface that occurs when the energy stored within the Earth in the form of strain in rock layers is released. Can humans predict earthquakes? As for now, we cannot predict when an earthquake will happen. The only thing scientists can do is to forecast an earthquake: they know that on certain segments of certain faults an earthquake is due, because of the past earthquake records (in corals and sediments), and because of the strain built-up by the plates’ motions. The Philippines has suffered from an inexhaustible number of deadly typhoons, earthquakes, volcano eruptions and other natural disasters. This is due to its location along the Ring of Fire, or typhoon belt – a large Pacific Ocean region where many of Earth’s volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur. What to Do During an Earthquake? Stay as safe as possible during an earthquake. Be aware that some earthquakes are actually foreshocks and a larger earthquake might occur. Minimize your movements to a few steps that reach a nearby safe place and stay indoors until the shaking has stopped and you are sure exiting is safe. If indoors DROP to the ground; take COVER by getting under a sturdy table or other piece of furniture; and HOLD ON until the shaking stops. If there is no a table or desk near you, cover your face and head with your arms and crouch in an inside corner of the building. Protect yourself by staying under the lintel of an inner door, in the corner of a room, under a table or even under a bed. Stay away from glass, windows, outside doors and walls, and anything that could fall, (such as lighting fixtures or furniture). Stay in bed if you are there when the earthquake strikes. Hold on and protect your head with a pillow, unless you are under a heavy light fixture that could fall. In that case, move to the nearest safe place. Use a doorway for shelter only if it is in close proximity to you and if you know it is a strongly supported, load bearing doorway. Stay inside until the shaking stops and it is safe to go outside. Research has shown that most injuries occur when people inside buildings attempt to move to a different location inside the building or try to leave. Be aware that the electricity may go out or the sprinkler systems or fire alarms may turn on. If outdoors Do not move from where you are. However, move away from buildings, trees, streetlights, and utility wires. If you are in open space, stay there until the shaking stops. The greatest danger exists directly outside buildings; at exits; and alongside exterior walls. Most earthquake-related casualties result from collapsing walls, flying glass, and falling objects. If in a moving vehicle Stop as quickly as safety permits and stay in the vehicle. Avoid stopping near or under buildings, trees, overpasses, and utility wires. Proceed cautiously once the earthquake has stopped. Avoid roads, bridges, or ramps that might have been damaged by the earthquake. Coastal hazards A. Coastal Erosion- The seawater through wave actions as strong winds, or a combination of all of these loosens the soil on the shore, which eventually destroys the integrity of land. Structures that are built in coastal areas are prone to coastal erosion. B. Submersion- As global atmospheric temperatures rise, oceans and seas become warm and expand. Rising global temperatures also speed the melting of glaciers and ice caps. These changes cause sea level to rise and seawater to extend to the land. C. Storm Surges- It may occur in coastal areas when typhoons make landfall. The strong wines of the cyclone push the waters toward the shore, sometimes generating huge waves capable of destroying sea walls and structures facing the sea. Characteristics of Life Keeping Things Constant- All living things are able to maintain a more-or-less constant internal environment. They keep things relatively stable on the inside regardless of the conditions around them. Homeostasis- the process of maintaining a stable internal environment. Cells- All forms of life are built of at least one cell. A cell is the basic unit of the structure and function of living things. Pasteur's Test- Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) opposed the concept of spontaneous generation.The process of heating (called sterilization) was used by Pasteur to eliminate contaminants. Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation by conducting an experiment where he used the process of pasteurization. Exploring the Level of Organization in Living Things The highest level of organization for living things is the biosphere; it encompasses all other levels. The biological levels of organization of living things arranged from the simplest to most complex are: atoms, molecules, organelle, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystem, and biosphere. Organelle- a structure that has specific function within the cell. The cell is the basic building blocks of all organisms. Tissue-are groups of similar cells performing specific functions within an organism. Organs are collections of tissues grouped together performing a common function, it is not only present in animals but also in plants. An organ system is a higher level of organization that consists of functionally related organs. Organisms are the living individual entities, simply defined as any living thing that is composed of various organ system that function altogether A group of organisms of the same species living together within a specific area/habitat are collectively called population. A community is a group of organisms composed of different species living together and interacting in certain area or habitat. An ecosystem is a group of organisms having an interaction or interrelationship with the non-living environment such as air, nitrogen in the soil or rainwater. Biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems and it represents the zones of life on earth which means a part of the planet that is capable of supporting life. Example of how tissue, organs and organ systems work together in plants: Plant tissues form organs (such as leaves, stems, or roots), each of which perform a specific set of functions. Together, organs often work to form organ systems. Vascular plants have two distinct organ systems: a shoot system, and a root system. The shoot system consists of two portions: the vegetative (non-reproductive) parts of the plant, such as the leaves and the stems, and the reproductive parts of the plant, which include flowers and fruits. The shoot system generally grows above ground, where it absorbs the light needed for photosynthesis. The root system, which anchors the plant into the ground, absorbs water and minerals, and serves as a storage site for food is usually underground. Cell Theory three principles, or postulates, which are as follows: 1. All living things are made of at least one cell. 2. Cells are the basic unit of life. 3. All cells come from preexisting cells. Cell Theory gives information about the structure and function of all living things. Cell wall distinct organelle found only in plants and bacteria. Animal cells have centrosomes (or a pair of centrioles), and lysosomes, whereas plant cells do not. Trivia: Red blood cells are responsible for delivering oxygen to the body via hemoglobin. As a result, they are designed to incorporate the hemoglobin in order to supply it, and hence they lack cell organelles such as the nucleus and mitochondria. Plants, algae, and a group of bacteria called cyanobacteria are the only organisms capable of performing photosynthesis. Because they use light to manufacture their own food, they are called photoautotrophs (“self-feeders using light”). Facts about glycolysis: Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol (outside the mitochondria) and is the first stage in cellular respiration.There are two types of respiration: aerobic(with oxygen) and anaerobic(without oxygen). The products of glycolysis include two molecules of pyruvate, two molecules of ATP, and two molecules of NADH.