Sociology Test PDF

Week 1 lecture 1 Homo economicus or homo sociologicus The science of society Science as a prediction “Many ‘hard’ scientists regard the term ‘social science’ as an oxymoron. Science means hypotheses you can test, prove and disprove. Social science is little more than observation putting on airs”...

Week 1 lecture 1 Homo economicus or homo sociologicus The science of society Science as a prediction “Many ‘hard’ scientists regard the term ‘social science’ as an oxymoron. Science means hypotheses you can test, prove and disprove. Social science is little more than observation putting on airs” Michael Kinsley, The Washington Post, 2009 Can we be scientific about something so subjective? “Theories on political behaviour are best left to CNN, pollsters, pundits, historians, candidates, political parties and the voters” Senator Tom Coburn (2008) Quoted Glenn (2009) Chronicle of Higher Education Origins of Western Sociology The ‘Age of Reason’ or ‘Enlightenment’ of the 17-18th Cent. French Revolution of 1789 – changing social & political order Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th Centuries: A new industrial economy and mass production The development of modern science Urbanisation and the growth of cities Political change and the emergence of democracy and individual rights Loss of community Key development: move from religion & ‘common sense’ to science to understand the world A science of society But just how can we create a science of society? Societal patterns as the aggregate of individual choices? What influences individual choices? Incentives (the costs and benefits) Needs (biological and psychological drives) Utilitarianism “Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do…” Jeremy Bentham (1838) JEREMY BENTHAM Part of the ‘Scottish enlightenment’ Famously wrote ‘The Wealth of Nations’ in 1776 Laid the principles of the ‘division of labour’  Introduced the concept of the market through the ‘invisible hand’: “It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages” We can explain human behaviour through self-interest and the operation of ‘incentives’ plus supply and demand in ‘markets’ Supported the rights of individuals Adam Smith - ‘’The Invisible Hand’’ “…every individual …neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it ….[but] by directing his industry…., he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention.” “…..nor is it always the worse for the society. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. “ Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (par. IV.2.9; 1759) Assumptions: People have relatively stable ‘preferences’ (wants and needs) People are ‘self-regarding’, that is, will choose what’s best for them and theirs People will try to maximise the benefits and minimise the costs People may make mistakes, but these will be random and not systematically biased Are people self-interested and utility maximising? A test: THE ULTIMATUM GAME Joe Henrich PhD project investigating the participation of the Machiguenga people of the Peruvian Amazon in the wider market economy Became interested in the economic decisions of people in different societies Economists assume that economic reasoning is the same everywhere People will, with the odd mistake, follow the incentives offered The Machiguenga  Machiguenga live in mobile single family plots or extended family hamlets in tropical forest Economically independent at the family level Most sharing and exchange among kin Cooperation above family level is almost unknown and there is little hierarchy or political complexity The Ultimatum Game Rules of the game Two players are allotted a sum of money (usually enough that the outcome matters) but remain anonymous to each other Player 1 (the “proposer”) offers a proportion of the total sum to the second person (the “responder”) The responder can accept the offer and receive the amount offered and the proposer receives the remainder (the initial sum minus the offer) If the responder rejects the offer, then neither player receives anything Economic incentives Economic incentives would predict that the proposer should offer the smallest, non-zero amount possible to maximise pay-off (no one will ever know) Responders should always accept as they face a choice between zero and something Results Machiguenga both make and accept low offers In contrast, elsewhere low offers are rare and likely to be rejected (50% +) Los Angeles participants see Sociologists are interested in the way that groups structure social interaction: who mixes with who? Social interaction: Builds trust and a sense of obligation Shapes the flow of resources and ideas Contributes to social norms and beliefs Influences sense of identity Allport’s ‘’The Nature of prejudice’’ 1954 Contact hypothesis But inter-group contact only reduces prejudice and supports social integration only if: 1. The participants have the same status level 2. They have at least some common goals 3. These goals can only be reached by cooperation 4. Integration is supported by respected authorities Marriage as a measure of group segregation Patterns of marriage between groups is a handy measure of segregation People do not usually marry strangers Marriage between different groups indicates other forms of interaction Marriage within groups is endogamy Marriage outside of group is exogamy Peter M Blau - ‘’Inequality and heterogeneity’’ --> Structural Opportunity Group segregation occurs because of meeting opportunities “There is no mating without meeting” The higher the population %, the greater the chance of meeting Less ‘overlap’ in other characteristics means less chance of meeting Structural opportunities and social reproduction Homophily Homophily is the preference to mix with those of like characteristics: “Birds of a feather flock together” “Like prefers like” Mixing with like-others can be more rewarding because of similarity in beliefs, norms and values It requires less effort and reduces the chance of conflict It may also reflect other preferences based on prejudice Henri Tajfel Social Identity theory and the’’ minimal group paradigm’’ People’s readiness to adopt an ‘us versus them’ mentality was pioneered by Henri Tajfel. Tajfel developed the ‘minimal group paradigm’, an experimental protocol which arbitrarily allocates individuals to groups (but they don’t know this). Participants are then asked to allocate resources between ‘in-group’ and ‘out-group’ members (who they don’t know).In experiments, participants favour in group members and will pay to make sure out group gets less Self-esteem and group status Is in group favouritism simply a cognitive tendency to divide the world into ‘us’ and ‘them’? What is the motivation to divide into groups and treat one better than the other? SIT (SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY) argues that people’s self-esteem derives not only from our own status and accomplishments, but also from the groups to which we belong Identity an self-esteem are intimately bound up with perceptions of group status By boosting group status, we boost our own status Testing Social identity theory Does denigrating other groups therefore boost own group and thus self-esteem? In an experiment, Fein & Spencer (1997) threatened the self-esteem of one group by telling them they had not done well on an IQ test. Participants then watched a video of an interview. Half of the accompanying CVs implied the candidate was an ethnic minority, half not. Participants whose self-esteem was threatened rated the minority candidate worse and having done so, experienced a boost in self-esteem Conclusions All of us are members of multiple groups providing a complex patchwork of social identity. Affiliation can be assigned both subjectively and objectively. The test of group existence is ties and cohesion.Human beings evolved in groups and evolved group identity and bias as a result. Individual self-esteem is bound up with group identity. Threats to group individual status can result in out group prejudice Week 3 lecture 2 Ethnicity, integration and discrimination Migration and ethnicity Migration brings individuals and groups into new social environments  How does migration change the ethnic diversity and demographics of host societies? How are migrants and their off-spring integrated into host societies, if at all? Employment and the labour market Language acquisition Experience of discrimination International migration Migration is not a new phenomena What is new is that migration is now often into Europe rather than outward: 1500-1800: European settlement in Africa, Asia, America and Oceania 1800-1914: 48 million Europeans migrate to the Americas, Australia and New Zealand 1945-73: migration of ‘guest workers’ from former colonies to Western Europe 1990-Present: Migration to Europe from Africa and Middle East plus internal migration in Europe from 2004 with accession of Eastern European and Baltic Objective and subjective identity Parental origin is ‘objective’ but identity is often more ‘subjective’. Individuals often provided more than one original ancestry. Ethnic origins were multi-layered, e.g European or Italian or often Sicilian etc. Ethnic group identity does not necessarily imply a cohesive community with shared beliefs, values or norms. Migration and integration Normative or empirical? Integration can be viewed as a normative issue: “migrants should/should not integrate” Sociologists study integration as an empirical issue One-sided or multi-sided? Does integration concern only ethnic minorities or both the ethnic minority and majority populations? Uni-dimensional or multi-dimensional? Consider integration on one dimension or many? Economic integration: similarity and difference between minority and majority groups in realising valued goals; education, employment, income Cultural integration: degree of similarity and difference between minority and majority groups in cultural beliefs, norms and practices; language use, religio, values, behaviors eg diet Social integration: the extent of social ties and connections between minority and majority group members; inter-marriage, friendship ties, membership of similar organisation What determines integration? (1)Group effects moderate the integration process (2)Ethnic origin conditions, e.g Gender role attitudes Religious practices Migration motives Language (3)Ethnic community conditions, e.g interactions with host society, e.g. Muslim migrants to muslim countries fair well, but face discrimination in non-muslim societies A larger existing proportion of the same ethnic group can hinder acquisition of a new language, e.g Mexican migrants to the US v Australia (4)Integration varies by the characteristics of the receiving country, irrespective of the migrants ethnic origins (5)Integration or ‘multicultural’ policies May promote acceptance by also impede integration (6)Institutional conditions, e.g. Education transition timing: Early transition hinders children of migrants Credentialist labour markets: Strong self-regulation of professions hinders entry Discrimination in Ireland: A field experiment → McGinnity, F., Nelson, J., Lunn, P., & Quinn, E. (2009). Discrimination in Recruitment Evidence from a Field Experiment. Equality Research Series. Dublin.  Fictious CVs were sent to lower administration, lower accountancy and retail sales positions, response rates were counted 240 pairs of matched job applications – same CV, 1 with Irish name one with name indicating a minority origin Matched types: Irish/African Irish/Asian Irish/German Conclusions: Migration across borders is not a new issue but the direction of migration has changed.Migration highlights difference across ethnic groups and issues of integration and assimilation.Levels of integration vary because of the characteristics of the migrants and the host society.Economic integration of migrants varies across countries and Ireland is similar to the UK. However, field research suggests that discrimination against specific migrant groups is extensive Week 4 lecture 1 Materialism, rationality and history DOes the material world shape our consciousness? You’ve seen evidence that societies differ in their economic behaviour because of variation in beliefs, values and culture.But is culture simply a reflection of the material environment? Culture may shape decision making, but perhaps culture and beliefs simply reflect longer run differences in material environments? The interaction of material and cultural factors Social scientists (read economists) have been reluctant to see culture as a determinant of economic phenomen. Culture is perceived as transient and superficial. What really matters are the incentives and disincentives in the environment. Two propositions (one weak, one strong): (1) Economic interests shape beliefs (self-serving bias) (2) Material production shapes culture & consciousness Upton Sinclair 1931 ‘’it is difficult to get a man to understand something, when his salary depends on his not understanding it’’ Karl Marx 1818-1883 One of the most important thinkers in human history His work developed a theory that linked the experience and needs of individual’s to the historical development of societies Born Trier, Western Germany to Jewish family who converted to Lutheranism Built on the economics of Smith, Ricardo and Mill Developed a ‘materialist’ science of human societies Marx: Feuerbach’s Inversion Rejected the notion that ideas determine social life. ‘Theses on Feuerbach’ (1845) Marx asked in ‘The German Ideology’ (1847): where does the spirit come from? How could these ideas be substantiated? Instead: ideas are the products of social and economic structures, not the other way around. There is a real material world; in order to gain knowledge, we must participate in it, not just theorise about it. Marx argued that this ‘inversion’ allows us to study the world empirically – a social science. Marx and Materialism The most fundamental aspect of human existence is the necessity to produce the means of existence (e.g. food, shelter). The production of the means of existence is prior to all other activities. The way production is organised determines human existence in the last analysis. Ideas, consciousness, culture (the ‘spirit’) are all dependent upon the prior capacity to produce the material means of existence “The first premise of all human existence and, therefore, of all history, (is that humans) must be in a position to live in order to ‘make history’. But life involves before anything else, eating and drinking, a habitation (shelter/home), clothing and many other things. The first historical act is thus the production of the means to satisfy these needs, the production of material life itself.” Marx, The German Ideology, 1845 “In the social production of their life, men enter into definite relations that are indispensable and independent of their will, relations of production which correspond to a definite stage of development of their material productive forces. The sum total of these relations of production constitutes the economic structure of society, the real foundation, on which rise legal and political superstructures and to which correspond definite forms of social consciousness. The mode of production of material life conditions the social, political and intellectual life process in general” The Base-Superstucture The material basis of life or mode of production has two components: Forces of production: use resources such as energy, raw materials, tools and machines Relations of production: people engage in economic relationships and cooperate to produce the goods Marx argued that the ‘isolated human producer’ of the utilitarian political economists (David Ricardo, Adam Smith) did not exist. Humans are social beings and work is always a collective activity. To produce their means of existence they enter into relationships. These relationships are not always between individuals or entered into without coercion. Georg Hedel 1770-1831 Hegel and IDealism German idealist philosopher. Argued purpose of human existence was a search for a truthful understanding of human consciousness. Believed in the ‘progression’ of humanity. Societal development is guided by the ‘human spirit’ (Geist), or essential ‘human nature’. Does material existence shape consciousness? Research** shows that European and N.American populations tend have ‘individualistic’ psychologies rather than ‘collectivistic’: (1) Individuals in individualistic societies think in terms of personal attributes and abilities and are more analytical, e.g. break reality into abstract categories (2) Individuals in collectivistic societies favour holistic thinking about relationships between objects (people) and concrete contexts ** See Geert Hofstede’s research: http://ww w.geerthofstede.nl/ Why are some cultures more collectivistic? ‘Modernisation’ theory holds that as countries become more wealthy and educated they also become more individualistic and analytical (week 5) But what about Japan, Korea and Hong Kong? Very wealthy and educated, but also ‘collectivistic’. Some had suggested a ‘pathogen prevalence’ theory (Fincher & Thornhill 2008) But could it actually be the reliance of these cultures on rice cultivation and production that produces collectivism? The Rice Theory Rice cultivation and production requires more functional interdependence than other forms of production e.g. Herding and diary production can be carried out with few people Paddy field rice production requires large numbers of people to construct and manage the irrigation required. Farmers and communities need to cooperate and coordinate their activities because of interdependence in water and labour use. Over time, cultural norms and values come to reflect the requirements of the means of production. A Natural experiment Thomas Talhelm and colleagues test the rice theory using a natural experiment from China. By utilising variation in the kind of crops cultivated in China, they can measure the effect of rice production within the same culture. Rice cultivation is more common in south and east China but some areas have both rice and wheat production. Does variation shape the cultures in these areas? The Triad Task The Sociogram Task Participants draw a diagram of their social network Circles represent self and friends Researchers measure how large participants draw self relative to friends Difference is an implicit measure of individualism US population +6mm, European +3.5mm, Japanese -1mm The Loyalty and Nepotism Task Results 1 Modernisation wasn’t the answer: people in richer areas (higher GDP) thought more collectivistically. Pathogen prevalence wasn’t the answer: people in provinces with higher rates of disease thought less holistically. People in provinces with a higher % farmland used for rice cultivation thought more holistically (0.56, P=0.007). Adjustment was made for GDP and pathogen prevalence. Results 2 People from rice cultivating provinces were more likely to draw their ‘me’ circle smaller in the sociogram test (-.2, P=0.016). Adjustment for GDP and Pathogens used. People from rice provinces were more likely to show loyalty/nepotism (2.45, P=0.04). Adjustment for GDP and Pathogens used. The enduring contribution of Marx Karl Marx famously maintained that the dominant technology of the epoch and the relations of production shape culture. His ‘materialism’ defined how the production process and class interests shaped the consciousness of classes. Shorn of its teleology though, this 19th Century theory still has value. Talhelm et al show that the nature of production does influence how individuals and cultures think. Discussion Production of rice requires more cooperation and coordination than wheat production. Rise production causes ‘tighter’, denser networks that lead to more collective identities. In these societies property is likely to be owned corporately. People invest heavily in relationships and groups, often at the expense of outsiders. Modes of thought therefore tends to be holistic, focus on relationships and be anchored in concrete contexts Week 4 lecture 2 - culture, economic growth and history The person or the situation? Marx argued economic interests and social forces (means of production) shaped consciousness and behaviour. His research examined the role of culture, particularly religion in shaping economic processes. Weber’s other contribution was methodological. He argued that the impact of any ‘objective’ situation depends upon the subjective meaning that the actor attaches to the situation. To Weber, the social sciences should be the interpretive sciences of social behaviour. Max Weber 1864-1920 Born 1864 in Prussia, to wealthy, senior public servant. Prof. of economics in Freiburg. Working during a debate about the appropriate approach of the social sciences. Important work on the nature of the social sciences. Work often a response to Marx Subjective meaning as ‘cause’ - Social science specifically concerned with understanding why social actors choose to act in the ways that they do. Social scientists concerned with interpreting actions of social actors, and trying to grasp what those actions mean to them. Weber called this method of interpretation ‘verstehen’ (‘to understand’). Studying social protest MARXIST APPROACH vs WEBERIAN APPROACH Weber and Individual analysis Social theory should remain sensitive to variations at micro level. Investigate things from the point of view of the individual person. Include account of what social actors themselves believe their actions to mean The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism (MAX WEBER BOOK)→ Marx’s approach placed too much emphasis on the economic realm, ignoring developments in the political, legal and religious spheres. Not enough emphasis on ideas, values and beliefs. Capitalism did not emerge from technical change or ‘material forces’. An ‘affinity’ between the Protestant faith, particularly Calvinism and the ‘spirit of capitalism’ explained the rise of capitalism. The ‘Spirit of Capitalism’ A desire for material gain has always existed. Capitalism was the application of enlightenment ‘rationalism’ to economic life. Enlightenment science Modern accounting to bring ‘calculability’ Planning and routinisation Rationalised use of productive factors and technology The central thesis Weber 1904 “business leaders and owners of capital, as well as the higher grades of skilled labour, and even more the higher technically and commercially trained personnel of modern enterprises, are overwhelmingly protestant” The Affinity between protestantism and capitalism Not arguing that Protestantism ‘caused’ capitalism but that there was an ‘elective affinity’ between the two Actually, two hypotheses: H1: The ethical and doctrinal principles of Protestantism were conducive to capitalism H2: A ‘spirit of capitalism’ – ‘rationalisation’ was also necessary Protestantism and ‘predestination’ Predestination God has predetermined which souls will be saved and which won’t and this decision can’t be altered through the intercession of priests Divine Transcendence God is so far above and greater than anyone that no one knows his will The Protestant Work ethic All work could be done in the name of God. Prosperity could not be attained by miracles; only through the disciplined application of effort. Taught that engagement with the world was pious: Attitude of self-restraint, even self-denial Enjoyment of wealth ‘sinful’ ‘The calling’ or ‘duty’ a spiritual destiny tied into an energetic ethic of hard work Commercial success evidence of redemption Protestantism, Education and Economic growth ‘’WAS WEBER WRONG?’’ Becker & Woessman (2009) carry out a modern analysis of Weber’s thesis using statistical data and methods. How did Protestantism produce industrialisation and economic growth? Becker and Woessman examine whether the mechanism was in fact education. Martin Luther pinned his 95 theses against indulgencies to the door of Wittenberg church at Halloween 1517. The personal relationship with God identified by Weber also led to a focus on the importance of literacy and education. Luther created a German translation of the bible and promoted the principle of Sola Scriptura: personal relationship with the bible. Literacy spread with Protestantism through Germany and Europe. The association between Protestantism and education emerged long before industrialisation. But is the relationship between Protestantism and education just an accident did it lead to economic growth? A pseudo-experimental approach --> Becker and Woessman wanted to isolate the effect of Protestantism on number of schools and literacy. Simply measuring the association of Protestantism to education can’t identify the direction of causality. Instead, Becker and Woessman use an area’s proximity to Wittenberg in 1871 to isolate the effect of the spread of Protestantism on number of schools and literacy levels. Does the ‘dose’ of Protestantism increase literacy? Discussion → Human beings need to create their means of existence from their environment, e.g food and shelter. But people also strive to find meaning in the world and shape the physical environment to these beliefs. By forcing people to cooperate and coordinate, rice production produced enduring networks of kin and community which shape thinking to the present day. Separately, Luther’s ideas on the relationship of the individual to God and its implications increased levels of literacy which improved human capital and drove economic development. In week 8 we will see how social institutions can shape the development of societies through ‘social capital Week 5 lecture 1 Affluence, Individualism and Modernisation Modernization Theory: The idea that economic development brings predictable social and political change has a long history Karl Marx’s theory of historical materialism was an audacious attempt to discern a pattern to history. The lack of widespread communist revolutions suggests that history was not as deterministic as he thought. Social change is not deterministic, but some changes are more likely than others: Urbanisation, Rising levels of education, Rising life expectancy, Better healthcare, Improved nutrition Is the historic increase in national income and wealth accompanied by social and cultural change? Is social and cultural ‘modernisation’ a prerequisite for economic development or does it follow development? What role does quality of formal institutions play in development? What’s the relationship between economic development and social and cultural change? Does economic development lead to social and cultural change? RONALD INGLEHART “A transformation may be taking place in the political culture of advanced industrial societies. This transformation seems to be altering the basic values of given generations as a result of changing conditions influencing their basic socialization” (Inglehart 1971, The Silent Revolution) World Values Survey → Ronald Inglehart founded and directed the World Values Survey since its foundation in 1981. Aims to assess the role of value change on social, political and economic development. Waves conducted every five years since – 39 years of data. Data cover 120 countries or 95% of global population. Data are publicly available for download. Over 30,000 publications to data. Two dimensions of Social values Traditional values VS secular rational values TRADITIONAL VALUES EMPHASIZE THE FOLLOWING: God is very important in respondent's life. It is more important for a child to learn obedience and religious faith than independence and determinations. Abortion is never justifiable. Respondent has strong sense of national pride. Respondent favours more respect for authority SECULAR-RATIONAL VALUES EMPHASIZE THE OPPOSITE Survival VS self-expression values SURVIVAL VALUES EMPHASIZE THE FOLLOWING: Respondent gives priority to economic and physical security over self-expression and quality-of-life. Respondent describes self as not very happy. Respondent has not signed and would not sign a petition. Homosexuality is never justifiable. You have to be very careful about trusting people. SELF-EXPRESSION VALUES EMPHASIZE THE OPPOSITE WVS Trens 1981-2020 (wave7) Growing predominance of individual choice over conformity to group norms. Increasing acceptance equality between men and women. Increasing acceptance of minorities within our groups (same sex relationships), foreigners and outgroups. Decreasing religious observance but complex patterns around faith. Complex trends in social trust. Two hypotheses A Scarcity Hypothesis: Existential Security: Everyone values freedom and autonomy, but people give top priority to their most pressing needs. When people are insecure materially, they give top priority to material (survival) goals; under secure conditions, people place greater emphasis on post-materialist goals such as belonging, esteem and free choice A Socialization Hypothesis: A person’s basic values reflect the conditions that prevailed during childhood and these values change mainly through intergenerational replacement, not radical change within generations WEIRD PEOPLE (western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic) Use universal rules and abstract categories to organize cognition. Frequently apply impartial rules and principles. Often miss relationships between parts or similarities across categories. Trusting of people they are not related to and strangers. Consider nepotism and group bias wrong and not a sign of loyalty. Characterized by guilt when they fail to live up to social standards, not shame. Explaining WEIRD psychology → WEIRD’ psychology encompasses many of the dimensions of cultural change identified by Inglehart. Is WEIRD psychology the product of economic development? Jon Schultz and colleagues argue that WEIRD psychology is a result of the effect of the Western church on social ties and kinship since the 4th Century AD The Church outlawed particular marital relationships: “The Marriage and Family Programme” or MFP. This weakened clan and tribal structures leading to less ‘groupish’ psychology:More individualistic, analytical, more trusting, less conforming, more principled, less nepotistic, less easily shamed individuals. Kinship institutions → kin-based institutions represent the most fundamental of human institutions and have long been the primary framework for organizing social life in most societies. These institutions are composed of culturally transmitted norms that influence a broad range of social relationships by endowing individuals with sets of obligations and privileges with respect to their communities. By shaping patterns of marriage, residence, relatedness, and alliance formation, these norms organize interpersonal interactions and configure social networks in ways that profoundly influence social incentives and behaviour. Western church policies: Banning of marriage and sexual relationships with relatives, out to sixth cousins, including step-relatives, in-laws and ‘God’ child relations. Promotion of ‘marriage by choice’ and banning ‘arranged’ marriage even to sustain alliances. Very costly divorce, no legal adoption or remarriage. Banning of polygamous marriage and concubinage. Promotion of bilateral descent and neolocal residence. WEIRD kinship traits → Bilateral descent – relatedness is traced equally through both parents. Little or no cousin marriage (or other relatives). Monogamous marriage – one spouse at a time. Nuclear families: life organized around couples and children. Neolocal residence: new couples set up a separate household. Discussion → industrial societies are much, much richer than pre-industrial societies. Weber showed (week 4) that modernisation is about more than income and wealth. Economic development is accompanied by structured but complex changes in values. ‘Existential security’ doesn’t explain these changes. Change in ‘Intensive Kinship’ as a function of the ‘Marriage and Family Programme’ offers a better explanation. Week 5 lecture 2 Max Weber and Social institutions Cultural Learning Theory: We assume that the success of human’s in filling all ecological niches is due to our large brains. Human ingenuity produced clothes, tools and sources of food. Even the simplest foraging societies have developed complex ‘tool kits’ of adaptive solutions to their environment. Standard theory is that means-ends folk-science deployed, tested and fine tuned technologies. In fact, there is a great deal of evidence that humans are ‘cultural learners’.We search out ‘high-status’ individuals who seem to be ‘successful’ and copy them. We learn constellations or clusters of behaviours which often involve unnecessary or superfluous steps we don’t understand The Lost European Explorer experiment → Sir John Franklin was an experienced polar explorer and sailor. Set out in 1845 to find the North-West Passage with Terror & Erebus. Best equipped expedition in the history of arctic exploration. Became trapped in ice in 1846 and abandoned their ships. All finally succumbed to scurvy and starvation on King William Island. King William is the heart of Netsilik territory (Inuit) territory and is rich in animal resources. Why did Franklin and his crew die? Because they lacked necessary local knowledge despite being endowed with the same improvisational intelligence as the Inuit and having 2 years to use this intelligence. Human institutions and cultural evolution → Cultural evolution allows humans to develop complex cultural solutions to environmental problems over time and transmit these intergenerationally. These solutions include social institutions which improve cohesion and success in competition with other human groups. Work on the role of institutions in providing legitimacy and authority in societies was pioneered by Max Weber. Max Weber 1864-1920 Prof. of economics in Freiburg. Working during a debate about the appropriate approach of the social sciences. Sought to rebalance the materialism of Karl Marx. Interested in the ‘rationality’ of capitalist society and its implications for social development. The sources of ‘legitimacy’ and ‘authority’ in society. How bureaucracy shapes behaviour. Institutions → Marx focused on the role of economic interests BUT Weber thought them important, but not deterministic. Social action could contradict interests. He prioritized the role of group beliefs and social institutions. Institution: an organization founded for a religious, educational, professional or social purpose. An established law or practice. Authority: the probability that a command with a given specific content will be obeyed by a given group or persons WEBER 1921 But authority depends upon legitimacy ! Legitimacy → gerontology: rule or elders, personally. Patriarchialism: head of household has authority transmitted generation to generation by inheritance (hearth and home). Patrimonialism: patriarchialism with an administrative staff bound by bonds of personal allegiance. Charismatic authority →Not necessary that they have powers, attribution is enough. Legitimacy based on belief in leader’s mission. Potentially revolutionary force. “a certain quality of an individual personality by virtue of which he is considered extraordinary and treated as endowed with supernatural powers or qualities” Weber 1968, pp241-2 Rational-Legal authority → The development of the nation-state and industrialization is synonymous with this form of authority. Requires a legal code & a consistent system of abstract rules. Roles (offices) are defined with rights and duties. Administrative staff (bureaucracy) charged with looking after the corporate body. Rationalisation Rationalization (a modernist process): Made famous by the work of Max Weber A far reaching process where traditional modes of thinking are replaced by an ends/means analysis concerned with efficiency and formalized social control. Society dominated by purely instrumental social relationships : continuum from emotional - traditional - rational action Bureaucracy: A large formal organization characterized by a hierarchical authority structure, well established division of labour, written rules and regulations, impersonality and a concern for technical competence. Structure imposed on human interaction and thinking furthers process of rationalization. Produces de-humanising consequences as individuals are trapped in an ‘iron cage’. Bureaucracy 3 related causes (1) Competition among capitalist firms in the market place (2) competition among states increasing governments/rulers need to control staff and citizenry (3) the demands of the emerging middle class for equal protection before law Weber’s bureaucracy → The division of labour (specialisation). Hierarchy of offices and roles. Set rules and regulations. Technical competence through training and credentials. Purposely impersonal. Formal, written communications. Do institutions matter? Society is full of social dilemmas. Formal structures and institutions provide discipline. Good institutions can limit cheating and punish violations against: Corruption, Tax evasion, Political fraud. Do such institutions improve conformity even in private decisions? Gachter & Schultz (2016) investigate. The Die in a Cup Task The practices of rule violations index RPV Political Fraud - quality of country’s democratic practices (freedom house). Tax evasion - size of a country’s shadow economy (world bank). Corruption - control of corruption index (world bank). The Rational can become irrational → Once structured into a ‘field’ (rules apply), organizations become ‘isomorphic’. Rational organization ‘actors’ develop practices that constrain their ability to change. Adoption of rules begins to confer legitimacy rather than improving performance. PAUL DIMAGGIO 1983 George Ritzer McDonaldization 1993, 1998, 2004→ Economic competition and globalization produce ‘McDonaldization’. “is the process by which the principles of the fast food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as the rest of the world” (Ritzer, 1993). Organizing force representing and extending rationalization into everyday life and interaction, facilitated by, and driving technology. Evidences the proliferation of non-human technologies into the realms of production and consumption on a global scale. Continuing debate as to the social impact of McDonaldization processes. Ritzer identifies four dimensions of macdonalidization (1) efficiency (2) calculability (3) predictability (4) control Efficiency → Technological ‘efficiency’: a ‘near universal desire’ (Weber) Technologies often the most attractive means to reach a specific end rapidly, with least amount of effort, reflecting the general ‘speeding up’ of the pace of life and desire for convenience. Both production and consumption experiences benefit from streamlining processes (e.g. division of labour), replacing workers with non-human technologies. Drew heavily on industrial predecessors (e.g. Taylor’s Scientific Management) but revolutionizes our ‘means of consumption’.Requires ‘putting customers to work’ (e.g. supermarket scanners). Calculability → Technology facilitates ‘calculability’. Involves an emphasis on things that can be calculated, counted and quantified (i.e. quantity over quality). Emphasises ‘speed’ as an emblem of contemporary western societies. Computing is central as it enables the calculation of vast amounts of data quickly and accurately; facilitates the computerization of society. Technologies have helped quantify performance (e.g. sporting feats) and capture ever more ‘experiences’ in as short a time as possible (e.g. digital camera technology). Predictability→ People want to know what to expect: take away the mystery/excitement?. Selling sameness, certainty and security: robotic routinisation. Technologies promise predictable outcomes and a standardised quality again and again (e.g. checklists, scripting). Self-fulfilling, as consumer (and commercial) expectations reinforce the need for predictability. Service employees monitored to ensure predictable outcomes. Control → Replacement of human judgement and labour with machine where possible. Pre-packaged, pre-measured, automatically controlled: eradicating uncertainty: Removes ‘thinking human’/follow instructions (surrender authority) AND Dependence upon/subordination to machine (de-skilling).Controlling customers: routes, queues, directing behaviour. Important implications for employment.  “replacement of human by non-human technology is often oriented towards greater control. The great source of uncertainty and unpredictability in a rationalizing system, are people - either the people who work within those systems or the people who are served by them” (Ritzer, 1994) Conclusions → Humans have developed ‘social infrastructure to extend cooperation. Weber focuses on the role of beliefs and norms in the form of institutions. The quality of institutions matters for shaping behaviours and economic performance. But rationalization also produces homogenization, sameness and control. Bureaucracy is a powerful source of control, but in whose interests? Week 6 lecture 1 Social norms and social change Social norms: ‘Customary’ rules which are generally accepted in groups. Appropriate and inappropriate values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviours. Provides expectations of the behaviour of others. ‘Unwritten’ but still expected. May provide ‘moral’ imperative. The Grammar of Society CHRISTINE BICCHIERI 2018 “Social norms, like many other social phenomena, are the unplanned result of individuals’ interaction. It has been argued that social norms ought to be understood as a kind of grammar of social interactions. Like a grammar, a system of norms specifies what is acceptable and what is not in a society or group. And, analogously to a grammar, it is not the product of human design. ” Social norms (1) CONVENTIONS (descriptive) (2) MORAL NORMS (injuctive) Convention norms (descriptive norms) → “A preference for behaviour which is conditional upon observing (or believing) how others act” (Christine Bicchieri 2006) eg convention norms: kissing twide on greeting, shaking hands w the right hand. Moral norms (injunctive norms) → A preference for behaviour which is unconditional on the observed or expected behaviour of others (Christine Bicchieri 2006) AND “Socially defined right to control held by others” (James Coleman 1990) Moral norms: have a moral force and breaking them can provoke an emotional reaction: Crossing roads on green man, Queueing, Not throwing litter on the floor, Housework is for women, Muslim women should wear a veil Types of moral norms (1) proscriptive (discourage or proscribe actions) (2) prescriptive (encourage and provide positive feedback). Symmetry (1) conjoint norms - apply to all (2)disjoint - apply to one group Where do Norms come from? The consequentialist theory → Social norms emerge to reduce harm and increase well-being in social groups (Ostrom 2000): (1) Positive or negative externalities from others behaviour (2) Maintaining common and public goods, e.g Clearing snow/leaves from outside your house OR Talking loudly on a mobile phone on a train Where do Norms come from? The Durkheimian theory → Social norms help manage internal group tension and external group competition & threat (Schweder 1987): Group membership norms eg Norms of dress and diet (e.g. Amish dress) AND Status Groups and Exclusionary norms eg Etiquette norms Two models of moral norms (1) internal - internalization of values (2) external - rational choice given the external costs and benefits The internal model of norms → Socialisation and internalization. Personally accepted ‘value’. Social Roles. Contravention eg Shame, embarrassment, guilt. Enforcement eg Anger, contempt, perception of fairness The external model of social norms → ‘Rational choice’ model. Follow norm because of the costs and benefits of doing so. Leaving social equilibria may have costs. Recognize others may punish you for non-adherence. Relies on expectations of others eg ‘pluralistic ignorance’ How are they maintained? Why do they change? If internalized, how do they come to change? Bad socialisation? Development of new beliefs? Why are ‘bad’ or ‘sub-optimal’ norms maintained? Why would people act against their own interests? EG FOOT BINDING OF WOMEN IN CHINA → Began in the 10th Century at the court of the Chinese Sung Dynasty. Ideology of ensuring female chastity, seclusion and subordination. Beginning at 6 to 8, child’s four smaller toes bent under foot and bandaged. Why foot binding? Spread from Imperial circles to upper classes then middle and lower classes Higher the social status, the smaller the foot. Applied to 50 to 80% of women in 1835. Lower class excepted so could work. Footbinding as a signal. Foot-binding became associated with sexual purity, chastity and fidelity. Foot-binding becomes a signal to the families of future husbands. The imperfect equilibria. Men’s families come to believe that will not marry an unmutilated women. Men’s families believe that an unmutilated woman will not be faithful. Many families do not want to mutilate their daughters but believe that if they don’t, they will not marry. How did it end? Numerous attempted bans on binding from the 17th Century onward. Condemned by liberal commentators. ‘Anti-footbinding Society established in Shanghai in 1897. Educated about risks and problems. Highlighted Chinese exceptionalism. Made parents pledge neither to bind nor to all marriage to a bound women. The result In Tinghsien, binding went from 99% of girls in 1889 to 94% in 1899 to 0% in 1919. Initially, binding was a signal of valued traits but maintained because to not bind had consequences for the girl. By creating the pledge, parents changed the incentive to bind. Week 6 lecture 2 group beliefs and social structure Cultural evolution → Week 5 explained how cultural learning can produce complex adaptive solutions to environmental challenges. These solutions are not the product of one individual and exactly how they work can often be opaque to users. These solutions include social institutions which improve cohesion and success in competition with other human groups. But how do certain solutions propagate through particular societies and cross into others? Cultural Dispersion → Differential Group Survival without Conflict, War and Raiding, Differential Migration, Differential Reproduction, Prestige-Biased Group Transmission. Group survival without conflict → Competition between groups does not have to entail conflict or even contact! In harsh environments, only groups with institutions that promote sharing of technologies and cooperative behaviours can survive and spread. The right institutions allow groups to enter new ecological niches or survive ecological ‘shocks’ like drought. Groups with better institutions outlast and eventually replace groups with weaker norms for cooperation. War and raiding --> Inter-group conflict and war is a stern test of group institutions and cohesion. Institutions that promote sharing and cohesion generate better technologies which offer economic and military advantage. Group conflict can drive out, eliminate or assimilate other groups with different norms. Differential migration → Social norms can create groups with greater internal harmony, cooperation and economic production. If so, others will be inclined to migrate into these groups. Similarly, few will want to migrant to less successful groups. Over time, ceteris paribus successful groups will expand and others contract (see week 8 and the Ilahita Arapesh). Differential reproduction → Under some conditions, social norms can influence the rate at which individuals within a group reproduce. Children share the norms of their group, so groups who produce more children will tend to spread their social norms. Prestige based group transmission → Because of cultural learning, individuals will be inclined to preferentially learn and copy from individuals in more successful groups. This causes norms, beliefs and practices (rituals) to flow via cultural transmission. Through cultural learning individuals cannot easily distinguish between what makes groups successful and extraneous other factors. Group beliefs and environmental imperatives Are religious beliefs shaped by the natural environment? JOHN SNAREY → Groups will have strong incentives to develop norms which help them deal with environmental problems. The adequate supply of water in an arid environment will push populations to consider the social dilemmas involved. Excess water usage by one group has implications for others. Normative control of water use through supernatural beliefs and taboos can develop.Groups which develop institutions which promote sharing of water and cooperative behaviours are more likely to survive and spread. Group beliefs, cooperation and group size→ Trust between individuals and groups contributes to cooperation and pro-social behaviours. Trust also facilitates greater population density, division of labour and economic growth. If beliefs promote trust and cohesion this may induce increases in the size of groups. Group size is important for intergroup competition, particularly conflict. Big Gods for big societies? → Small society gods:Not morally concerned. Morally ambiguous at best. Not all knowing (easily tricked). No afterlife based incentive system. Big society gods: Morally concerned and All knowing. Hypotheses: Societal size increases with gods who: care about cooperation and harmony, could and would reward and punish, have the power to monitor 24/7. Empirical studies: 18(9), pp803-809. AND Roes, F.L & Raymond, M. (2003) Belief in Moralizing Gods, Evolution and Human Behaviour, 24, pp126-135 THe data → the standard cross-cultural sample SCCS, 186 societies chosen to represent known cultural types. Selected from 1267 in ethnographic atlas by george murdock et al. 1800 variables. Variables→ Moralising gods: Absent or not reported. Present but no active in human affairs. Present, active but not moral. Present, active and moral. Society size: No political authority beyond community. Petty chiefdoms. Larger chiefdoms. States. Large States. Can we test how beliefs shape action? Power of priming: Unscramble sentences method: “devine dessert their was” = the desert was devine “Felt she spirit the” = she felt the spirit Control: unscramble sentences, no god words Conjuction Fallacy Test → People have a tendency to assume that two specific conditions are more likely than one general one: Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. Which is more probable? Linda is a bank teller. Linda is a bank teller and is active in the feminist movement. Religion → EMILE DURKHEIM ‘’the elementary forms of religious life 1915’’ “A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden – beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them” Voltaire 1777 ‘’if god didnt exist it would be necessary to invent him. Week 7 lecture 1 social networks and diffusion Two fundamental types of social structure (1) social beliefs, norms and institutions (group identity, norms, rules create structure and cohesion) (2) social networks (patterns of ties and connections create structure and cohesion). Social structure and individual agency → Who we meet is not just down to accident and chance. Who we meet isn’t random! Chance and individual preference play a role. But much depends on social clustering: Our groups defined by ethnicity, status, economic class etc. Geographic spread of friends and family. Even random networks have surprising properties A Random Network → The network is ‘random’ because each one person has the same chance of meeting and associating with every other. The more that the network departs from randomness: the more ‘clustering’ (groups).the more the average number of ties (degree) departs from the standard poisson distribution. Random networks have high levels of duplication in connections (edges) and high density. Random networks are robust to ‘shocks’ leading to broken links (think internet). Social dynamics and clustering → Degree of clustering and connections determines: Spread beliefs and ideas. Flow of resources. ‘Social closure’ and creation of collective action and group identity. Social networks, relationships and community Ferdinand Tönnies 1855-1935 ‘’GEMEINSCHAFT und GESELLSCHAFT’’ 1887 Ferdinand Tönnies: Gemeinschaft = ‘community’ Gesellschaft = ‘association’ Gemeinschaft characterised pre-industrial society: small scale communities, social ascription of roles and status, local attachment and values. Gesellschaft characterised industrial, market societies: urban, impersonal, market relationships and judgements not personal, loss of community. Density of social networks? Strong ties, weak ties and diffusion The strength of weak ties → Usually assumed that job mobility is process of matching. Both employees and employers have to get information on price and quality. Actually, perfect labour markets exist only in textbooks. Granovetter shows that the job market is highly clustered. Recruitment often occurs through social networks. But the role of networks is counter-intuitive. ‘Weak’ links are more important than ‘strong’. Are weak links more likely to get you a job? GRANOVETTER 1973 “Since weak ties are more likely than strong ones to serve as bridges to new parts of a social universe, they are better providers of the kind of non-redundant labor market information that increases a job seekers chances of getting a job” Are weak links more likely to get you a job? Valery Yakubovich. Study of job search in Russian town of Samara 1998. Interviews with 1143 hires in 93 organisations. Information on all job applications and leads. Can adjust for individual level differences. Networks structure and diffusion→ A random process? Are adolescent relationships random? Do people choose partners on personality and attractiveness? Is romance independent of our groups and other social structures? Do romantic relationships produce a random network structure? Spanning Tree Model Homophily: The tendency of individuals to associate and bond with similar others, as in the proverb "birds of a feather flock together” Chains of affection PETER BEARMAN Tha data → National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health 1994 90,000 students in 140 schools 1995 two schools chosen for indepth study. Students asked to identify all their sexual and romantic partners past 18 months Bearman focuses on ‘Jefferson High’ 90% response from 1000 student body. 477 partnerships found Short heterosexual cycle → Homophily only partially explains the spanning tree form of the network. The small number of redundant ties suggests a process extending chains. Smallest heterosexual chain has 4 links: “Don’t date your old partner’s, current partner’s old partner” Week 7 lecture 2 Social networks, trust and government Outside authority and social order THomas Hobbes Leviathan 1651 ‘’life in the state of nature is solitary ,poor, nasty , brutish and short. Is a social contract the solution? Self-preservation is threatened: it is rational to agree to political organisation. ‘Laws of Nature’: rationality in the service of self-interest: “That every man, ought to endeavour peace, as farre as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek, and use, all helps, and advantages of warre” Hobbes 1651. Agree with others to give up natural right and submit to law? Global order from social networks? Can social network structures create macro level social order? OR how is social order created in heterogeneous societies? Georg Simmer 1858-1918 ‘’conflict and the web of group affiliations → 1908. Simmel rejected Durkheim’s organismic analogies and proposed a ‘formal sociology’ focused on patterns of interaction.. Looked at the role of homophily in formation of conflictual and supportive relationships. Could the ‘web of affiliations’ in urban settings contribute to social order and stability? George simmel ‘’conflict and the web of group affiliations 1908’’In traditional, feudal societies, affiliations are concentric ‘social circles’, compulsory and set. In modern, urban society, affiliations are voluntary, multiple and overlapping. People are simultaneously members of different groups and grow used to heterogeneity and difference. Societal complexity and cooperation → Small scale societies segmented and will lack market integration. They are largely self-sufficient and their norms reflect this. Exposure to a engagement in markets requires ‘market norms’.Standards for judging self and others in impersonal transactions. The weakening of ‘groupish’ norms of kinship and small groups. Oromo market integration and conditional cooperation Can social networks replace central authority? Networks structures and social cohesion → MAX GLUCKMAN ‘’custom and conflict in africa 1973’’ “Men can only belong to a large society through intermediate smaller groups. Schools which are organised in houses cutting across forms, and universities which have colleges cutting across departments and faculties, exhibit more cohesion than amorphous schools and universities. Tight loyalties to smaller groups can be effective in strengthening a larger community if there are off-setting loyalties” Ernest Gellner 1925-1995 ‘’Saints of the Atlas’’ social order without central authority → Gellner’s study of the Berber nomadic tribes of the Atlas mountains. How was tribal society stable? Social networks! Saints of the atlas tribes 1969 → Berber nomadic tribes are mobile in the harsh terrain of the Atlas mountains. Government is weak or absent. Nomadic, pastoralist lifestyle move quickly and avoid oppression (& tax) Livestock easily stolen (unlike crops). Raiding incentivised. Little division of labour and high social cohesion → High military participation: all fight. High political participation: All household heads take part. High trust within clans. Cultural life similarly diffused. “Every member of the tribe is simultaneously senator, judge, juryman, minstrel and poet” The code of honour and the blood feud → Be part of a strong group. Advertise that aggression to one is aggression on all (like NATO). Retaliation will be on all members of aggressors group. Have a code of honour which pre-commits tribe members to feud. Decentralised authority → Threat of retaliation to all means strong policing of opportunistic aggression within groups on others. Tribes sub-divide and use same mechanism. ‘Nesting’ of coalitions in coalitions. Social order maintained through trust and social cohesion. Global social order created by local social order. Eg GANGS → Martin Jankowski (1991) shows how local ‘disorder’ creates ‘global social order’. Gangs provide some benefits for communities: income & security. In exchange, communities provide approval, new recruits and a safe haven from authority. Gangs lose community support if random or ‘unsanctioned violence’ used on community. Gangs who lose control of members soon lose community support and unravel. TRust, treachery and balance → The coalitions between families, bands and tribes is fluid. Where groups become large enough to inflict unacceptable losses, new coalitions emerge. ‘Treasonous’ clan moves across tribes are accepted as necessary and moral. Ibn Khaldun 1332-1406 → Arabic historiographer and proto-sociologist. Tribes ‘despise’ tradesmen of the towns. ‘Specialism’ of towns robs population of cohesion. Aren’t groups who will fight or feud. They accept authority of politicians and holy men but cannot provide for their own security. The Web of affiliations →Max Gluckman - Custom and Conflict in Africa (1973) Conflicting loyalties inhibit quarrelling and promote social order: “There is no society that does not contain feuding and hostility between its component sections; but provided they are redressed by other loyalties they may contribute to the peace of the whole…..the greater the division in one area of society, the greater is likely to be the cohesion in a wider range of relationships” Week 8 lecture 1 social capital and economic life Why are some countries richer than others? DIfference in capital? Physical and Financial Capital Productive resources (land, oil, fish, metals etc) Human capital Knowledge such as science and technology Skills, Education Social capital Social structures of networks, norms and institutions Maybe colonialism has its effects through institutions? Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson and James A. Robinson (2001) The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation, The American Economic Review, Vol. 91, No. 5, pp. 1369-1401 Published Social capital: Increasing interest across the social sciences in the role of ‘social capital’ in outcomes. Little consensus on what is meant by the term. In economics, focus is largely on the size and ‘quality’ of social networks (access to resources). At least three uses of the term in Sociology: Access to resources via networks. Structural holes and ‘brokerage’. Network density. Social cohesion via social norms, values and civic ties. Social capital as access to resources → Resources (money, information, influence) are not randomly distributed. Network ties to individuals who have access to more resources (economic & cultural capital) have more social capital. Social capital and resources PIERRE BOURDIEU → Like economic and cultural capital, social capital is a resource that can be drawn upon. Access to money, labour, other commodities. Capitals are used by individuals in competition in ‘fields’. Allows influence through high status or politically connected individuals: “Social Capital is the sum of the resources, actual or virtual, that accrue to an individual or a group by virtue of possessing a durable network of more or less institutionalised relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition” Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992, p119) Social capital as a brokerage RONALD BURT Structural holes and bridging Robert Putnam Social capital as cohesion -->‘Bonding’ social capital promote values of trust, support, solidarity and belonging (identity). Promote ‘generalised reciprocity’ and cooperation.Bridging connects groups and gives access to resources. Bridging social capital connects groups and creates capacity. Four basic component (1) networks (2) norms, values and expectations (trustu (3) sanctions (4) institutions Networks → Embedded community or neighbourhood. Simple recognition to deep friendship. Network density (friends who know friends). Network clustering (ratio intra/inter links). Norms values and expectations → values, attitudes, moral norms, expectations, trust. Sanctions → Informal and formal (legal) rules. Informal policing through confrontation, ‘looks’, reputation and gossip. Formal legal redress. Institutions → Organisation founded for a specific purpose. Depersonalized roles and expectations. Regulated by impartial and stable rules and procedures. Associations and mutual organizations. Two types of social capital (1) BONDING SOCIAL CAPITAL (2) BRIDGING SOCIAL CAPITAL Putnam - bonding and bridging → Bonding social capital is inward looking and tends to reinforce exclusive identities: ethnic fraternal organizations &fashionable country clubs. Bridging social capital is outward looking and encompass people across diverse social cleavages: Civil rights movements & Youth service groups “Bonding is social superglue; bridging is sociological WD-40” (Putnum 2000, p22-3) Why do some democratic government succeed and others fail? WHy do some regional government perform far better than others? Dimensions of regional government performance → Cabinet stability, Budget promptness, Statistical information services, Reform legislation, Legislative innovation, Promptness of policy implementation, Industrial Policy Instruments, Spending Capacity, Bureaucratic Responsiveness. WEIRD psychology and the MFP → Jon Schultz and colleagues argue that WEIRD psychology is a result of the effect of the Western church on social ties and kinship since the 4th Century A. The Church outlawed particular marital relationships: “The Marriage and Family Programme” or MFP. This weakened clan and tribal structures leading to less ‘groupish’ psychology: More individualistic, analytical, more trusting, less conforming, more principled, less nepotistic, less easily shamed individuals Week 8 lecture 2 social capital and social cohesion Social cohesion and societal size → Adaptive solutions to environment Cultural learning. Adaptive social structures Beliefs, values and expectations, Networks, Social capital. Cultural evolution Selection, dispersal and unintended consequences. Cultural dispersion (1) differential group survival without conflict (2) war and raiiding (3) differential migration (4) differential reproduction (5) prestige-biased group transmission Evidence → the Ilahita’s Tambaran : social complexity in the making The problem → “300 Rule” villages over 300 people were extremely rare in the Sepik region of New Guinea - When they exceeded this number, they soon fractured, Typically splitting on clan lines. Puzzling because warfare was endemic and military success and overall security was directly proportional to village size. Ilahita (Arapesh) was the exception at 1500 people, uniting seven clans. Anthropologist Donald Tuzin investigated how this happened. The Abelam’s Tambaran system → Late 19th Century - incursion of Abelam into Ilahita territory. The apparent success of the Abelam in battle led Ilahita to adopt the Abelam’s gods and rituals – The Tambaran System. Ilahita mis-interpreted the system and instead created a new ‘moiety’ and ritual structure. Errors of the Ilahita’s tambaran → Copied from Abelam, but ‘errors’ added: The dual moiety system no longer isomorphic with the clans. The Abelam’s clan gods became village gods in Ilahita - the gods community expanded. The highest initiation level was added for oldest male, creating powerful elders who were in touch with the Tambaran gods. The social network - THe ritual structure → Patrilineal clans structure (like other Arapesh). Overlain onto an 8-Tier dual moiety system. Each moiety and sub-moiety cross-cut the clans, creating bonds among men from different clans. Each moiety and sub-moiety had numerous economic and ritual obligations to the other moieties. Monumental architecture and art building commitment. The Social Institution - ritual initiation and cohesion → To achieve manhood, men had to go through 5 initiation rites - To marry, ascend in status, become an elder, etc. Rituals could only be accomplished with ‘opposite’ moiety. Mutual interdependence and joint projects. Development of trust and obligation. The Social norms, beliefs and sanctions - THe tambaran gods → Tambaran gods were ‘active’ and judgemental - “village gods”, not the usual clan based ancestor gods AND Imbued daily life (yams are grown for rituals etc.). The gods imposed the dual moiety structure. The rituals fed the gods (yams, pigs and humans). Who blessed the Ilahita in return with good fortune – military success and solidarity. Supernatural punishment → Tambaran gods mitigated the normal cycles of witchcraft accusations which commonly contributed to community fission. Normally, deaths and illnesses are not random. Someone caused them and they must be found. In Ilahita, deaths and illnesses that would otherwise be big witchcraft concerns were often attributed to the Tambaran god - Punishment for improper ritual action Result: fewer witchcraft accusations The result : SOCIAL CAPITAL - unintended consequences → The people believed they did the rituals for the gods and that the gods provided more food and victory in battle. But, actually, it’s the ritual performance itself and the interdependence it created, not the gods, that caused the solidarity and its benefits. Emotional bridges across clans. Sustained a community of 1500 people and their military success. Main points → Beliefs integrated with social organisation 1. Social structures cross-cut clans 2. Communal rituals, including male initiation rites create cohesion and trust 3. Bigger, village gods integrated into daily life  4. Provides explanation and supernatural blame via lack of observminimal group paradigmance 5. A bit of supernatural punishment Modern implications → The groups and institutions of civil society provide multiplex attachment. Individuals social outside of kin and tribe. Shared rituals, not necessarily religious, generate trust. Do market relationships generate trust and cohesion or undermine it? Modern ‘ethical’ standards replacing supernatural policing? Week 9 lecture 1 Hierarchy, social status and social class - inequality and hierarchy Social stratification and inequality in human societies → Social stratification is a ‘structural process’ concerned with structural positions, not individual characteristics. We are interested in the structures which produce hierarchy, the ‘scaffolding’ of inequality. Has a tendency to carry over from generation to generation. Is almost universal in human societies but variable in form and extent: Founded on the fundamental social structures studied in this module Are humans naturally hierarchical or egalitarian? Dimorphism in Hominids → Sexual dimoprhism Inequality and cooperation CHRISTOPHER BOEHM ‘’Hierarchy in the forest’’ → coalition of lower status males protective against large, aggressive males. Advent of projectile weapons crucial. Human groups practice ‘reverse dominance’’. Gossip, ridicule, violence and homicide. Social complexity, peace and inequality - justifying inequalities → All social inequality is mirrored by a system of meaning which seeks to explain and justify the unequal distribution of societal resources “It is clear that there are by nature free men and slaves and that servitude is just and agreeable for the latter…..Equally, the relation of the male to the female is by nature such that one is superior and the other inferior, one dominates and the other is dominated” - Aristotle Industrial society and social stratification → In feudal society, status and power were linked to ownership & use of land Modern, industrial societies are different! Capitalism, open labour markets & mass education produce social mobility What determines stratification? Two traditions KARL MARX and MAX WEBER MARX AND SOCIAL CLASS → Social classes emerge from the structure of economic exploitation. Class members share economic interests. Members have some perception of collective interests. Become a class when they realise these economic interests. “Class consciousness”. Engage in collective action. MARX and the FUTURE OF CAPITALISM → in the middle of the 19th century MARX predicted capitalism’ decline: Periodic “Crises of over-production”. The development of monopoly capitalism. The “immiseration” of the working class. Growing polarisation. Finally, the rise of the Proletariat. WEBER’s CENTRAL DIMENSIONS WEBER and SOCIAL CLASS → Class is defined by access to resources and capitals: (1) Property ownership: Land, Buildings, Machinery (2) Market situation: Education & credentials, Occupational skills, ‘Soft’ skills. Erikson-Goldthorpe Scheme ‘’THE CONSTANT FLUX’’ 1992 Class → Social relations of economic life. Relationships in labour markets and production units (organisations). Similar positions produce similar risks and living standards/lifestyles. Similar interests make collective action possible. Similar occupations experience same regulations and incentives. EGP erikson, goldthorpe, portacarero Status or prestige CHAN & GOLDTHORPE 2007 ‘’class and status’’ → “Structure of perceived and accepted social superiority, inferiority and equality” At least Accepted to some degree, but often contested. Accompanied by differences in lifestyle and consumption. Shared ‘identity’ and recognition. More likely source of collective action. Measuring status → Should we measure status via signs and signals? Relational measures of social status “Who we eat with and who we sleep with”. Occupation is one of the most salient characteristics to which status attaches. Recurrent association is a good indicator of a state of social equality between individuals (homophily). The ‘closer’ the relationship, the stronger the ‘equality’. Measuring status CHAN & GOLDTHORPE ‘’is there a status order in contemporary british society’’ 2004 → Data on 10,000 individuals from wave 10 (2002) of the BHPS used to measure social status “Who are your three closest friends?”. Occupations of three closest friends collected. Multi-dimensional scaling of the occupational codes used to create scale of ‘closeness’ of occupations. Social status and class Social status and income Social status and education Status and lifestyle PIERRE BOURDIEU 1984 ‘’DISTINCTION’’ he examined the relationship between occupation and lifestyle Main points → Although all human groups promote prestige, homo sapien physiology suggests levels of inequality depend on group culture and politics. Pronounced inequality emerged with agriculture and industrialisation but decreased in the 20th century. Marx was wrong: post-industrialisation produced more middle class positions and lower inequality not polarisation. Modern stratification research has roots in Weber’s analysis: Relationships in markets and organisations key AND Social status does not map directly onto class. The nature of social status has changed over time Week 9 lecture 2 social capitals, assets and resources approach Social class and its discontents → The ‘employment aggregate’ approach of Wright and Goldthorpe has problems: Both focus on the labour market Long-term unemployed Carers (particularly women) Disabled Class groupings have internal variation with important consequences Variation in economic position by occupation (Grusky & Weedon 2012) Inability to predict important lifestyle and political choices within classes Capitals, assets and resources → Pierre Bourdieu has offered an alternative approach in his book Distinction (1984). Distinction sets out three broad forms of social capital which allow individuals to accumulate or gain access to resources Economic Capital Income, wealth, property Social Capital Social network and contacts Cultural Capital Forms of knowledge and skill plus concrete forms of these Economic capital → Money or resources which are fungible and can be exchanged or directly converted into money Income, wages and salary Savings Property Equities NOTE: does not include skills or educational credentials Social capital → “……is the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition – or in other words, to membership in a group – which provides each of its members with the backing of the collectively own capital, a ‘credential’ which entitles them to credit..” (Bourdieu 1986, p21) Resources derived from networks of people and groups. Social capital is essentially social networking as an “investment strategy”? Cultural capital → Forms of knowledge; skill; education; any advantages a person has which give them a higher status in society, including high expectations; three states: Embodied Objectified Institutionalized What’s habitus? Habitus → “Historical relations ‘deposited’ within individual bodies in the form of mental and physical schemata of perception, appreciation, and action”. Habitus is our beliefs, values, cultural understandings, and ways of behaving. everything in our histories that we physically and mentally embody. This is basically the sociological concept of socialisation. EMbodied cultural capital → The internalization of certain “dispositions of the mind and body”- what an individual knows and utilizes from within Includes normative behaviors such as language use, manner of dress, and the “proper” guidelines for conducting oneself Being ‘cultivated’ through physical and mental embodiment Socialised over time into ‘habitus’ Cannot be delegated or gifted (not fungible) but can be used as a skill in the labour market Objectified cultural capital ---> The “objectified state” of cultural capital refers to cultural objects such as books, paintings. The objectified state of cultural capital may be consumed through money and/or embodied through the appreciation of a fine painting Can be consumed materially which presupposes economic capital Own consummation of these objects presupposes embodied cultural capital, i.e skills Institutionalised cultural capital → Institutionalized state of cultural capital: the objectification of cultural capital in a form which is institutionally backed: Academic qualifications (just doing the course may get you embodied capital This presupposes academic success and is therefore dependent on the embodiment of cultural capital Where an institution recognizes the group status rights and provides access to scarce or valued resources, cultural capital could also be said to be established Symbolic violence → Non-physical violence manifested in the power differential between social groups. Differential valuations of what constitutes value, good or quality. The norms of the more powerful group are imposed on those of the subordinate group. Often unconscious reinforcement of the status quo. Positives of the CARS approach → Can include all groups even where excluded from the labour market. Brings in categories of symbolic life that are ignored in the class approach. Provides a multi-dimensional space where groups can be defined. Suggests cumulative advantage and disadvantage. The Great British Class study SAVEGE and DEVINE Pedigree LAUREN RIVERA 2006-2008 ---> Pedigree – How Elite Students Get Elite Jobs. Hiring decisions among ‘elite professional service’ firms (EPS) Investment banks Law firms Consulting firms 2006 – 2008, 120 semi-structured interviews (40 per type) with recruiters (partners, managing directors, managers, mid-level). Participant observation whilst working in the recruitment department of an EPS. Attended on campus recruitment Events at US universities. How elite students get elite jobs → Much research on low paid recruitment. Rare example of a study of elites and elite recruitment. Research maintains that recruitment based on ‘matching process’ where firms decide based on ‘signals’ of productive capacity (which is unobservable). Firms identify ‘signals’ to evaluate: Individual skills (grades, test scores, credentials) ‘Average’ group ability/productivity But much unexplained variation in outcomes. Do cultural and social capital variables contribute?. Rivera’s qualitative research examines these processes. The Hiring process ---> On campus recruitment from Ivy league and elite schools in US (akin to Oxbridge). Assumption that students better quality. Selection processes focus on race and socio-economically homogenous institutions. Importance of individual sponsorship if from non-elite school. Personal interviews prioritise ‘fit’ with existing staff (recruiters): Leisure pursuits, interests More about being socially complementary than having ability The importance of ‘polish’: Convincing narrative, drive and ambition plus ‘poise’, confidence and social skills “I think the polish or presence is more about the natural ability to relate to other human beings…the person feels at ease when meeting someone new [and] makes someone at ease. Just the ability to engage in a conversation without creating an uncomfortable environment. An aura of self-confidence if you will; you come across as if you know what you are talking about and transmit that confidence” Rivera 2015, p173. Main points → The ‘employment aggregate’ approach to social class is often weakly related to differences in lifestyle and group identity. Cultural and social capital provide insight into the dimensions of social status. Evidence from Rivera and others show that social and cultural capital are important determinants of individual outcomes. Week 10 lecture 1 the liberal theory of industrialisation and job quality 19th century MARX predicted capitalism’ decline → Periodic “Crises of over-production” The development of monopoly capitalism. The “immiseration” of the working class. Growing polarisation. Finally, the rise of the Proletariat. Was Marx correct? The three glorious decades 1945-1975 → Better living standards not immiseration. Less inequality not monopoly. Consensus and welfare not revolution. Development of ‘post-industrial’ society. Growing white collar and skills not polarisation. The liberal theorists - the ideology of liberalism → equality, civil rights, democracy, secularism, freedom of expression. Modernisation and the liberal theory → The liberal theorists sought to replace Marx’s theory of the development. Industrial society has ‘functional needs’ leading convergence: Technical and economic rationality. High productivity & living standards. Less alienating jobs and more discretion. Social mobility & falling status differences. Pluralist democracy based on strong institutions. Industrialism and industrial man → Driven by technical development, High levels of skills and ‘meritocractic’, 3rd Level education, Scientific management and administration , Development of normative consensus. How do we recognize a post-industrial society →(1) The large service economy: Less manufacturing, more services, More discretion and less alienation. (2) Rise of professions and technical: Higher skills required. (3) Primacy of theoretical knowledge: Not rule of thumb! (4) Central Planning & Coordination: Economic planning and use of resources. (5) Rise of new intellectual technology: The management of complexity through new tools Were the liberal theorists right about their predictions? Harry Braverman ‘’Labour and monopoly capitalism’’ Frederic Taylor 1856-1915 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT → ‘’the degradation of work’’. ‘’Taylorist principles’’ and scientific management. Frederic Winslow Taylor (1856-1915). Scientific management. Economic efficiency. The ‘rationalisation’ of the workplace and labour. Time and motion studies of manual labour. The return of Marx → Labour process theory. Rise of computerization means more control for managers, not less. ‘Routinisation’ of white collar work. ‘Scientific management’ splits job into tasks. Disempowers, ‘deskills’ and makes work ‘alienating’. Upskilling or deskilling? Two mutually contradictory theories. Added concerns since the 19802 with evidence of intensification. Which is right? What of politics and policy? Period from mid-1970s: Lower economic growth, economic restructuring, higher unemployment, changing tax regimes, restrictions on trades unions, increasing income inequalities. Changing occupational structure - changing skills? Increasing skills - Modern technology requires more skilled workers to maximize value. Technical innovations also usually need analytical, communication and ‘soft skills’. More discretion and control? Changing task discretion? How hard to work, what tasks done, how to do task, influence on quality standards. More job satisfaction? Conclusions → Liberal theory correct in some predictions: Changing industrial and occupational structure, Rise in qualifications, Increases in skills required But, counter evidence of: Decreasing discretion, Falls in job satisfaction , Polarisation in the workforce, Increasing inequalities Week 10 lecture 2 the liberal theory of industrialisation and social mobility Liberal theory of industrialisation and social mobility → The last lecture outlined the liberal theory of industrialization and showed its implications for job quality. Liberal theorists also applied the theory of ‘functional prerequisites’ to expectations about social mobility. Industrial societies would inevitably become more ‘meritocratic’. THe liberal theory of industrialisation BELL 1972 1973 KERR 1960 PARSONS 1960 1964 TREIMAN 1970. Structural change → Technical and economic rationality drives social division of labour – more technical and managerial Processual factors →Change in criterion of selection (hiring, promotion..) from ascription to achievement – ‘meritocracy’ Composition effects → Interaction of above – growing sectors more meritocratic whereas family, small business and farming declining The liberal theory of industrialisation (1) convergence -‘industrialisation’ forces all societies to develop the same way. Competition between nation states drives technical and social change (2) normative and functional - Mobility confers legitimacy to existing inequality. Hinders formation of class based identity and outlook. People seek individual rather than collective advancement. What about state socialist societies? → ‘Industrialisation forces all societies to converge. Destabilise state socialist: immediate post revolution period adopt policy of promoting people from ‘correct’ class background –ideological purity and reliability. ‘Functional imperatives’ mean switch to selection to promote efficiency, technical know how – growth of technocrats. Eventually, ‘contaminated’ elites challenge the ideological basis of the state socialist system – convergence with capitalist. WHat’s a meritocracy? What’s relative social mobility? (1) absolute mobility: proportion of people who are mobile between generations (2) relative mobility: the proportion of one group who are mobile into a specific class relative to another. The changing occupational structure Changing class structure Changing relative mobility? → The class structure was changing ‘More room at the top’. Creates ‘absolute mobility’. Structural mobility. Social fluidity refers to changing relative chances of mobility between class groups. Social fluidity refers to the chance of lower class groups getting higher class positions relative to higher class groups. Main findings → The advantage enjoyed by higher social class groups has largely remained the same since the 1970s. Role of education in class attainment has actually reduced over time. Third level increasingly required for service jobs. Leaving certificates now get you less. However, some falls in barriers to long-range mobility. Conclusions → Occupational upgrading has been the dominant process since the early 1970s. This trend increased during the economic boom. There has been increased entry to professional and managerial positions from all class backgrounds. The bulk of change in social mobility has been from absolute mobility changes (94%). However, inequalities in access between those of different backgrounds have remained although there has been a small decrease in barriers to long range mobility. Change in relative mobility not due to education but to changes in the labour market. Concepts to be defined homo sociologicus - human nature given in some sociological models that attempt to limit the social forces that determine individual tastes and social values. (The alternative or additional source of these would be biology.) homo sociologicus is largely a tabula rasa upon which societies and cultures write values and goals; unlike economicus, sociologicus acts not to pursue selfish interests but to fulfill social roles (though the fulfillment of social roles may have a selfish rationale—e.g. politicians or socialites). homo economicus - actors are fundamentally driven by material self-interests. 'economic man', self-interested agents who seek optimal, utility-maximizing outcomes. Ultimatum Game is a game that has become a popular instrument of economic experiments. One player, the proposer, is endowed with a sum of money. The proposer is tasked with splitting it with another player, the responder. Once the proposer communicates their decision, the responder may accept it or reject it. If the responder accepts, the money is split per the proposal; if the responder rejects, both players receive nothing. Both players know in advance the consequences of the responder accepting or rejecting the offer. market integration - occurs when prices among different locations or related goods follow similar patterns over a long period of time. Groups of goods often move proportionally to each other and when this relation is very clear among different markets it is said that the markets are integrated. Thus, market integration is an indicator that explains how much different markets are related to each other. A marketer plays the role of an integrator in the sense that he collects feedback or vital inputs from other channel members and consumers and provides product solutions to customers by coordinating multiple functions of organization pluralistic ignorance - In social psychology, pluralistic ignorance is a situation in which a majority of group members privately reject a norm, but go along with it because they assume, incorrectly, that most others accept it.This is also described as "no one believes, but everyone thinks that everyone believes". Pluralistic ignorance is a bias about a social group, held by the members of that social group.Pluralistic ignorance may help to explain the bystander effect. If no-one acts, onlookers may believe others believe action is incorrect, and may therefore themselves refrain from acting. social facts - social facts are values, cultural norms, and social structures that transcend the individual and can exercise social control. The French sociologist Émile Durkheim defined the term, and argued that the discipline of sociology should be understood as the empirical study of social facts. social structure - in sociology, the distinctive, stable arrangement of institutions whereby human beings in a society interact and live together. Eg family, religion, law, class. social integration - is the process during which newcomers or minorities are incorporated into the social structure of the host society- social action - A behavior by an individual during an interaction to which the individual attaches meaning based on others’ interpretations or responses to the act. Eg covering mouth when coughing. collective aspects of subjectivity - ? Positivism - The doctrine that society is ordered and can be empirically understood and measured; that empirical knowledge gained through science is the best method to understand the world and all metaphysical explanations should be dismissed. egoism vs. individualism - self-centred person VS. Individualism holds that a person taking part in society attempts to learn and discover what his or her own interests are on a personal basis, without a presumed following of the interests of a societal structure (an individualist need not be an egoist). division of labor - The division of labour is the separation of tasks in any economic system or organisation so that participants may specialize (specialization). Individuals, organisations, and nations are endowed with or acquire specialized capabilities and either form combinations or trade to take advantage of the capabilities of others in addition to their own. The division of labour is the motive for trade and the source of economic interdependence. mechanical vs. organic solidarity - criminal laws and their respective punishments as promoting mechanical solidarity, a sense of unity resulting from individuals engaging in similar work who hold shared backgrounds, traditions, and values; and civil laws as promoting organic solidarity, a society in which individuals engage in different kinds of work that benefit society and other individuals. conscience collective - is the set of shared beliefs, ideas, and moral attitudes which operate as a unifying force within society. In general, it does not refer to the specifically moral conscience, but to a shared understanding of social norms. The term was introduced by the French sociologist Émile Durkheim in his The Division of Labour in Society in 1893. As for "collective", Durkheim makes clear that he is not reifying or hypostasizing this concept; for him, it is "collective" simply in the sense that it is common to many individuals; cf. social fact. repressive vs restitutive law - Repressive law reflects a solidarity that implies that individuals resemble each other. Restitutive law reflects a solidarity that implies differences amongst individuals. Each individual has a sphere of action (occupation) which is peculiar to him or her. anomie - in societies or individuals, a condition of instability resulting from a breakdown of standards and values or from a lack of purpose or ideals. forced division of labor - is where the division of labour is not allowed to develop spontaneously, and where some act to protect themselves and their positions. These could be traditional forms, which are external to the division of labour, or they could be castes, Weber's status groups, or Marx's classes. four types of suicide - (1) Egoistic suicide: According to Durkheim, when a man becomes socially isolated or feels that he has no place in the society he destroys himself. This is the suicide of self-centred person who lacks altruistic feelings and is usually cut off from main stream of the society. (2) Altruistic suicide: This type of suicide occurs when individuals and the group are too close and intimate. This kind of suicide results from the over integration of the individual into social proof, for example – Sati customs, Dannies warriors. (3) Anomic suicide: This type of suicide is due to certain breakdown of social equilibrium, such as, suicide after bankruptcy or after winning a lottery. In other words, anomic suicide takes place in a situation which has cropped up suddenly. (4) Fatalistic suicide: This type of suicide is due to overregulation in society. Under the overregulation of a society, when a servant or slave commits suicide, when a barren woman commits suicide, it is the example of fatalistic suicide Totemism - A kinship system based on people sharing a common totem which is a real or mythical ancestor, creature, or object that serves as a symbol for a group. hive Switch - Haidt argues that we have, in effect, a kind of switch that allows us to turn off individual competition in favor of group cooperation and intergroup competition. “The hive switch is a group-related adaptation that... cannot be explained by selection at the individual level... [It] is an adaptation for making groups more cohesive.” ascribed groups - is a position in a social group that one is born into or have no control over. This is different from achieved status, which a person earns based on their choices or their efforts. Eg eye color, race, ethnicity. common interest group - ? group bonding tie & group bridging tie Bonding social capital is within a group or community whereas bridging social capital is between social groups, social class, race, religion or other important soci