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UCSP Reviewer NATURAL SELECTION (ang mo leak sa reviewer bahog boto) - process that drives evolution. It works by increasing the number of traits Bicultural and Social Evolution...

UCSP Reviewer NATURAL SELECTION (ang mo leak sa reviewer bahog boto) - process that drives evolution. It works by increasing the number of traits Bicultural and Social Evolution that help organisms survive and - focuses on how social structures and reproduce in their environment. norms evolve, including shifts in family 3 PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL SELECTION roles, political systems, and economic practices. 1. Variations: Each species has different individuals, and some are better suited - ability to adapt and grow as a to their environment than others. species through both cultural exchanges and internal social 2. Heritability: Offspring inherit different changes. traits from their parents. BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION 3. Differential reproductive success: Organisms with traits best suited to - It refers to the changes in genes and their environment are more likely to inherited traits in living organisms survive and pass those traits to their over generations. offspring. - Scientists study how these changes THE EVOLUTION FROM HOMO HABILIS affect the physical body of humans, TO HOMO SAPIENS REVEALS A including variations in bone shape and GRADUAL TRANSITION IN HUMAN size. DEVELOPMENT OVER MILLIONS OF CULTURAL EVOLUTION YEARS, MARKED BY SIGNIFICANT CHANGES IN PHYSICAL AND - how cultures change and become BEHAVIORAL TRAITS. more complex over time. Homo Habilis - Scientists study this by looking at how people's ways of life have evolved. ✔ who lived about 2.4 to 1.4 million years Tools ago, was one of the earliest humans with a small brain and ape-like - In the early stages of tool features. They were notable for using development, humans progressed basic stone tools, showing the start of from using simple wooden sticks to more advanced behavior. creating more effective tools by attaching heavy rocks, leading to the Homo Erectus invention of early hammers, and eventually advancing to metal knives ✔ who lived from about 1.9 million to for greater efficiency. 110,000 years ago. They had a larger Language brain and made better tools, like improved hand axes. They also had a - Early humans began by using simple more modern body shape, with a gestures and sounds for basic smaller face and longer limbs, which communication, but over time, they helped them walk more efficiently and evolved to spoken words and adapt to different environments. eventually written symbols, allowing for clearer and more detailed Neanderthals communication. ✔ appeared about 400,000 years ago Charles Darwin, a scientist, developed the and lasted until around 40,000 years theory of evolution by natural selection, ago. They had larger brains and were explaining how species adapt and change built for cold weather. They made over time. advanced tools, buried their dead, and Species evolve through natural selection. probably had complex social lives. Homo Sapiens - it impacts how power and resources are distributed and how societies - or modern humans, evolved around are organized. 300,000 years ago. We have larger brains, advanced tools, and complex ❖ Gerhard Lenski, an American language and art. Fossils show that we spread from Africa, mixed with other sociologist, argued that societies human species, and became the evolve and develop technology over diverse humans we are today. time. He said that the more technology a society has, the faster - This evolutionary journey shows a it changes. steady growth in brain size, technology, and social skills, leading Hunting and Gathering Societies from early human ancestors to modern are the oldest way of living, where Homo sapiens. people use simple tools to hunt HOMINIDS animals and gather plants for food. Families work together, and even are early human-like creatures that though men and women have different walked on two legs. This group roles, they are usually seen as equally includes early humans and their close important. People in these societies relatives from prehistoric times. are generally more equal socially. HOMO Horticultural and Pastoral Societies They are classified as humans, not just use tools like plows pulled by animals human-like creatures, because they for large-scale farming. They use had larger brains and walked on two legs. Cultural and Sociopolitical Evolution Cultural Evolution - refers to the changes and developments in human cultures over time. It includes shifts in beliefs, practices, art, language, and social norms. These changes are influenced by factors such as technological money instead of bartering. These advancements, interactions with other societies often have high social cultures, and responses to inequality, with men in dominant roles environmental challenges. and religion supporting the power of the elite. - it shapes human societies and identities. A. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES AND THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION Sociopolitical Evolution Humans started farming and - involves the development and domesticating animals, which led to transformation of social and more social inequality. political structures within societies. ❖ Industrial Societies Goods It includes changes in governance, laws, social hierarchies, and - are produced using institutions. This evolution is often advanced energy driven by factors such as economic sources and large shifts, social movements, and conflicts. machinery. This rapid change led to the creation of sociology and  weakened traditional ▪ Collect taxes family ties and values. ❖ Post-Industrial Societies ▪ Sometimes serve as religious leaders - Focus is on producing information with C. DEMOCRATIZATION computers. There are is the process where societies move fewer manufacturing toward systems of governance where jobs, more professional more people have a say in and technical roles, and decision-making. This change is education is key for influenced by both our biological social mobility. evolution and cultural development. Technology has connected the world but From Hierarchies to Democracies: can’t solve all problems Over time, societies have shifted from being like peace and justice. led by a single ruler or a small group B. POLITICAL EVOLUTION AND (hierarchies) to systems where more people THE DEVELOPMENT OF have a voice (democracies). This shift EARLY CIVILIZATION happens because people’s ideas about power and fairness change, leading to more Early civilizations developed advanced equal and participatory governance. societies with complex systems of government and social structures. Cultural Shifts: Four Major Civilizations As cultures change, they begin to value individual rights and equal participation more. Sumerian For example, during the Enlightenment in the Indus Valley 18th century, new ideas about democracy and human rights emerged, which helped Shang shape the democratic systems we have Egyptian today. Key Features: Institutional Changes: Advanced and well-planned cities As societies become more democratic, they create and adopt practices like free elections Clear city centers and laws that protect individual rights. These practices are developed as societies evolve Complex institutions and adapt their political systems to better Centralized governments reflect democratic values. Formal religions Education, Religion and Belief System Specialized jobs Education Social classes ⮚ is the passing of knowledge, skills, Advanced technology and character traits and manifests in various forms. It is the act of Writing systems teaching knowledge to others and the Role of Political Leaders act of receiving knowledge from someone else. ▪ Create and enforce laws 2 TYPES OF EDUCATION ▪ Administer justice and punishment a. formal  Educational systems empower citizens to ▪ Formal education is an organized and be productive members of society by regulated system of education, equipping them with the knowledge and which follows a curriculum and awards skills necessary for contributing to the recognized academic certificates or development of societal systems and degrees. institutions. Being a productive citizen involves more than just fulfilling patriotic ▪ It is a progression of academic duties; it includes being a financial contributor schooling from elementary (grade to the tax system, assisting others in need, school) to secondary (high school) and and possessing a solid understanding of how tertiary levels (TVET and higher society functions. This knowledge enables education). individuals to be informed and responsible voters, as well as engaged and thoughtful b. Informal participants in their communities. ▪ Non-formal learning includes various ⮚ Self-actualization structured learning situations which do not either have the level of curriculum, Is about becoming the best version of syllabus, accreditation and yourself. It involves reaching your full certification. potential by engaging in activities that bring you happiness, fulfillment, and a sense of ▪ Non-formal education refers to success. This can be achieved through personal growth, accomplishing goals, or fully education that occurs outside the utilizing your talents and abilities. Individuals formal school system. who attain self-actualization have a clear FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION IN understanding of who they are, what they SOCIETY want, and actively strive to make their lives meaningful. SOCIALIZATION - It helps individuals understand societal norms, values, and PRIMARY EDUCATION AS A HUMAN culture, thereby promoting their integration RIGHTS into the community. is a basic human right, meaning that Skill Development - Education provides every child should have the chance to the skills and knowledge necessary for go to school, no matter where they live individuals to participate effectively in the or who they are. It's important because workforce. it helps children learn the essential skills they need to grow, succeed, and EQUAL OPPORTUNITY - it provides contribute to their communities. individuals with the chance to improve Primary education is also key to their social status and reduce reducing poverty and inequality, and discrimination. making sure that everyone has equal SOCIAL MOBILITY - Education can opportunities in life. provide pathways for individuals to Animism improve their social and economic status. - from the Latin word anima meaning 'breath, CULTURAL RESERVATION - It facilitates the spirit, life ' transmission of cultural heritage and knowledge from one generation to the next. - A form of religion in which the spirits and souls of humans and other beings are SOCIAL INTEGRATION - Education considered necessary for life. It is a promotes a shared set of beliefs and values, religious and logical perspective common to fostering unity among diverse groups. many indigenous cultures across the globe. ⮚ PRODUCTIVE CITIZENRY Belief - It is the belief that objects, places, and or abstract ideas (e.g., love, war, creatures all possess a distinct spiritual wisdom). essence. o Rituals and sacrifices are made to - Animism perceives all things such as different gods depending on the animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather occasion or need. systems, human handiwork, and in some cases words, as being animated, having Institutionalized religion agency and free will. ▪ refers to religious organizations that "Animism teaches us that we are all are highly structured and formalized. It connected, not just to each other but to the involves established rituals, beliefs, entire web of life" -Emma Restall Orr clergy, and hierarchies. Religions CHARACTERISTICS OF -Religions that practice Animism can be seen INSTITUTIONALIZED RELIGIONS in forms of Shinto, Hinduism, Buddhism, 1. WIDE-SCALE RELIGIOUS CLOUT Pantheism, Paganism, and Neopaganism. - The number of individuals affiliated Animism is a worldview which states that all with this religious institution is beings, humans, animals, plants, lands, and immense that it crosses political waters, live within an interconnected web of and international borders and cuts spirituality. across social status. Polytheism 2. HIERARCHICAL LEADERSHIP AND MEMBERSHIP ▪ is the belief in the existence of multiple gods, each with different roles, - The decisions for the welfare of the responsibilities, or powers. religious group are also made by those who hold power while ▪ This belief system was prevalent in members are expected to follow them. ancient civilizations, including the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, and 3. CODIFIED RITUALS Norse cultures. - Processes of interacting with the - Greek and Roman divine and with fellow members are Mythology: Belief in gods guided by written rules and like Zeus (Jupiter), regulations. Athena (Minerva), and a. Christianity is a monotheistic religion Poseidon (Neptune). based on the teachings of Jesus Christ - Hinduism: Worship of and the Bible. gods like Vishnu, Shiva, b. Islam is a monotheistic faith founded and Lakshmi, although on the teachings of the Prophet Hinduism also has Muhammad as revealed in the Quran. monotheistic elements. c. Hinduism is an ancient, diverse - Ancient Egyptian religion from India that encompasses Religion: Worship of various beliefs, practices, and deities. gods like Ra (sun god), Osiris (god of the Monotheism afterlife), and Isis (goddess of fertility). - is the belief that God is the only deity, and that the world is a o Polytheistic religions often have a separate reality in which God pantheon of gods and goddesses who intervenes, often through represent natural elements, emotions, supernatural means.  1. Judaism- Belief in one God (Yahweh), Culture-specific syndromes and illness who entered into a covenant with the people of Israel. o In medicine and medical anthropology, a 2. Christianity- Belief in one God, with the culture-bound syndrome, concept of the Trinity (Father, Son, and culture-specific syndrome, or Holy Spirit). folk illness is a combination of psychiatric and somatic 3. Islam- Belief in one God (Allah) and symptoms that are the teachings of Prophet Muhammad considered to be a as His final messenger. recognizable disease only SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE within a specific society or culture. - It is the separation of religion from political power. It is a philosophical EXAMPLES and jurisprudential concept for 1. BUGHAT defining political distance in the relationship between religious 2. BUYAG organizations and the state SYSTEM DIAGNOSIS PREVENTION AND COUNTRIES HEALING - There are other countries that DIAGNOSIS choose to practice separation of church and state, meaning the ✔ Identifying diseases or conditions government cannot sponsor a through symptoms, medical tests, and religion, promote religious ideas, or examinations. require individuals to practice a particular faith. PREVENTION ▪ United States ✔ Implementing measures, such as vaccines, lifestyle changes, or public ▪ Australia health policies, to avoid the onset of illness. ▪ Brazil HEALING ▪ South Korea ✔ Administering treatments, whether through medication, surgery, therapy, Separation of Church and State or natural remedies, to restore health It was formalized in a 1905 law providing for and well-being. the separation of church and state. WESTERN MEDICINE This model of a secularist state protects the - Focuses on scientific diagnosis and religious institutions from state interference, treatment using modern technology but with public religious expression to some and pharmaceuticals. Prevention extent frowned upon. involves vaccinations, screenings, - Separation helps to prevent the and lifestyle advice based on government from promoting one evidence. religion or one sect over the others. TRADITIONAL MEDICINE That really helps protect religious pluralism so that the government - Uses long-established practices can't impose one religion on like herbal remedies and everyone. acupuncture. Diagnosis might involve examining symptoms based HEALTH on historical practices, and  prevention includes lifestyle and CONFORMITY AND DEVIANCE dietary advice rooted in tradition. Conformity is the act of matching ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE one's behavior and beliefs to societal norms or the expectations - Includes practices not typically part of a group. It is motivated by the of conventional medicine, such as desire for social acceptance, approval, homeopathy, naturopathy, and and the avoidance of conflict. energy healing. Diagnosis and Conformity helps maintain social order prevention are based on holistic by encouraging individuals to follow approaches and may integrate established rules and standards, such lifestyle changes and as adhering to dress codes, laws, and non-traditional remedies. cultural practices. HEALTH AS A HUMAN RIGHTS Deviance refers to behaviors or - Every person has the right to the actions that go against societal highest attainable standard of norms or rules. It can range from physical and mental health. minor rule-breaking, like unconventional fashion choices, to GLOBAL CHALLENGES AND THE PATH serious offenses, such as criminal FORWARD activity. Deviance is relative, as what is considered deviant can vary across ❖ Challenges: Poverty, inequality, different cultures and times. Deviance discrimination, and lack of is crucial for social change, as it resources challenges existing norms and can lead to new standards and ideas. ❖ Opportunities: Collaboration Relationships between Conformity between governments, and Deviance are both vital for organizations, and civil society society's functioning. Conformity ensures stability and cohesion by ❖ Role of healthcare workers: promoting adherence to norms, Advocating for health equity and while deviance encourages access for all innovation and adaptation by challenging the status. A balance BECOMING A MEMBER OF SOCIETY between the two helps societies 1. Enculturation and Socialization maintain order while also evolving and Enculturation refers to the process of adapting to new challenges. learning one’s own culture, while Social Control: Methods used by society socialization involves acquiring societal to regulate behavior and ensure conformity norms and behaviors. through gossip, ostracism, laws, and a. Identity Formation is shaped through punishments. roles, disciplines, and aspirations, all Gossip: Spreading informal judgments to influenced by social interactions and cultural influence behavior. norms. Social Ostracism: Excluding individuals who b. Norms and Values are the societal rules break norms to encourage conformity. that guide behavior, whereas values are the fundamental principles that individuals Laws and Punishments: Formal rules and internalize to influence their actions. penalties to enforce societal norms and deter deviance. c. Statuses and Roles denotes a social position (e.g., age, gender), while roles Forms of deviance: are ways people encompass the behaviors expected from that respond to societal pressures position, which are learned through Ritualism: Strict adherence to norms without socialization believing in their purpose. Retreatism: Withdrawal from societal goals a system of property rights are and means. examples of economic institutions. Rebellion: Rejection of existing norms to RECIPROCITY create new ones. - the practice of exchanging Innovation: Using new methods to achieve things with others for mutual societal goals. benefit, especially privileges granted by one country or HUMAN DIGNITY, RIGHTS, AND THE organization to another. COMMON GOOD - the mutual exchange between - Human dignity refers to the two or more participants. It is a inherent worth of every person, social norm in which one person deserving of respect regardless gives something to one person and of their circumstances. Human that person gives something back rights are the basic freedoms and in return, either immediately or in protections everyone is entitled to, the future. based on this dignity, such as the right to life, liberty, and security. Sahlins’ Typology (Marshall Sahlins) The common good is the well-being of the entire community, which 1. Generalized reciprocity requires balancing individual rights o is the exchange of goods with the needs of society. These and services without a concepts are interconnected: definite time frame of when respecting human dignity and rights the favor should be returned. is essential for achieving the In this form of reciprocity, common good, creating a just individuals giving out favors society where everyone can thrive. do not expect to receive ECONOMIC & NON-STATE INSTITUTION anything back. Institutions are durable systems of 2. Balanced reciprocity established and embedded social rules o exchange occurs between that create a social structure for social groups or individuals with the interactions with formal and informal rules donor expecting to receive that organize the economic flow and activity something of equal or similar of a society. value. (trade agreements) ECONOMY an institution that provides for 3. Negative reciprocity the production and distribution of goods and services, which people in every society o groups try to maximize their need. gains while giving as little as possible. This form is usually ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS motivated by the desire to - Specific agencies or foundations, acquire a large number of both government and private, goods using minimal devoted to collecting or studying resources. economic data, or commissioned TYPES OF RECIPROCITY: with the job of supplying a good or service that is important to the 1. CONTRACTUAL RECIPROCITY: economy of a country. - a voluntary agreement between - Well-established arrangements and two or more people to behave structures that are part of the toward one another in a specified culture or society, e.g., competitive way for a specified time in the markets, the banking system, kids’ future. allowances, customary tipping, and  2. QUASI-CONTRACTUAL RECIPROCITY: ELEMEMTS OF MARKET TRANSACTIONS: - regulates balanced exchanges where the terms of repayment are Money - consists of objects that serve as not explicitly stated before the means of exchange for goods and services. contract is made. Prices - the amount of money used in 3. UTANG NA LOOB (DEBT OF exchange for a certain product. GRATITUDE) RECIPROCITY: Supply - the quantity of goods or services that - Utang na Loob is first translated by are available to sell at a given price or period Kaut (1961) as “debt of gratitude”. of time. Andres (1994) defines it, supported Demand - the quantity of goods or services by Kaut's logic, as “the reciprocity that consumers are willing to purchase at a incurred when an individual given price and time period. helps another”. MARKETS AND STATE 4. TRANSFERS STATE - the one that directs the nation as a - a redistribution of income that is not whole, has a greater role in the attainment of matched by the actual exchange of economic progress. goods and services MARKET- a bigger setting where buyers or - Payments that are made without sellers simultaneously trade or exchange any good or service being goods or services. received in return (Bishop, 2012). State and market are two different Example: institutions, but they are interrelated and 1. 4Ps – Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino both perform critical functions. Program TYPES OF STATE ACCORDING TO 2. PhilHealth MARKET ROLES: 3. Free College Tuition Fee Laissez-Faire State REDISTRIBUTIONS The economy functions best when the government does not intervene occurs when individuals’ goods or through regulations, subsidies, services are pooled together by a privileges, and other types of central authority to be used at a later intervention. time. The central authority may refer to a regional collection point, storehouse, Interventionist or Developmental State or the national capital. a state that intervenes in the market Economic redistribution occurs when and sets the direction and pace of the resources of one, several economic development. individuals, or groups are collected Welfare State and distributed proportionally or equally to participating members. The welfare state’s involvement is E.g. progressive income tax systems aimed at achieving a good quality and charity donations. of life for the citizens, rather than merely driving economic MARKET TRANSACTIONS development. - is referred to as the exchange of goods Non-State Institutions and services that involves buying and selling processes. operate independently of government control - is about making money, capital, income, and growth (Women and Economy, 2011). State Institutions  are government-established entities - serving the public rather than accountable to the public and pursuing profit responsible for administering laws and services. Philippine Red Cross is a non-profit humanitarian organization and a member of bank the International Red Cross. It focuses on disaster preparedness programs and - is a licensed financial institution provides emergency relief assistance. that receives deposits, makes loans, and offers services like cooperative wealth management and currency exchange. - is an autonomous association of individuals who voluntarily come - Examples include BPI, Banco de together to meet their common Oro, and Metrobank. economic, social, and cultural needs through a jointly owned and commercial bank democratically controlled - offers services like loans, deposits, enterprise, as defined by the and savings accounts, earning International Labor Organization money primarily through interest (ILO). on loans. Types of Cooperatives investment bank 1. Producer cooperatives - are owned - provides high-stakes financial by individuals who produce similar advice and organizes large goods or services. Members use the transactions for individuals, cooperative to negotiate better prices corporations, and companies. and access larger markets. The cooperative can also process member Government-operated banks may face products to add value and increase political influence, which could affect electoral returns for producers. outcomes or favor certain sectors. Additionally, regulatory changes by the 2. Consumer cooperatives - operate government could alter how these banks primarily to obtain and distribute operate, impacting lending practices, interest products and commodities to their rates, and financial products. customers, serving both members and non-members. corporation 3. Service cooperatives - focus on - is a legally distinct business assisting workers in organization that offers limited service-oriented occupations, such liability protection to its as healthcare, transportation, and shareholders, who own it by labor, by creating employment holding shares of stock. It opportunities and providing various functions as a separate legal benefits to their members. entity from its owners. 4. Credit cooperatives - provide Business Corporation financial services to their members, - created to operate and generate including securing savings and profit. creating funds for issuing loans. Petron Corporation is the largest oil refining 5. Multi-purpose cooperative - and marketing company in the Philippines, combines two or more business supplying over a third of the country's oil activities from different types of resources. Its principal shareholders are the cooperatives, offering a range of Philippine National Oil Company and Saudi services to its members. Aramco, each holding 40% of the company. Trade union is an organization made up Nonprofit Corporation of workers or employees from related  fields that aims to represent the POLITICAL AND LEADERSHIP interests and rights of its members, STRUCTURES both in the workplace and in society. political organization - is any organization Types of trade unions that involves itself in the political process. 1. General union - Represents workers TYPES OF POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS with a range of jobs and skills, from different industries and companies ⮚ Acephalous Societies - are 2. Industrial union - Are composed of stateless, non-stratified groups workers from one particular without central authority, making industry, across different levels of decisions through consensus or the hierarchy voting. They are small, culturally homogenous, primarily agriculturally 3. Craft union - Seeks to represent dependent, practice polygamous skilled workers doing the same marriage, and have animistic religious work who may be employed in beliefs. An example is the Nuer group different industries from South Sudan. 4. White collar union - Relating to people who work in offices, doing ⮚ Cephalous Societies - also known as work that needs mental rather than state societies, have a central physical effort. government with authority and judicial power. Wealth, status, and Non-State Institutions privilege are linked to this authority, TRANSNATIONAL ADVOCACY and they maintain strict borders. These GROUPS societies are culturally heterogeneous and require leaders to foster - referred to as an advocacy relationships with leaders of other organization. It influences the state societies. An example is the government to address commonly Philippines. neglected issues and can be national or international in scope, Classification of Societies promoting progress and Bands - are small, autonomous development on specific societal kinship groups that rely on hunting matters. and gathering, maintaining social DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES order informally through public opinion and avoidance. - are institutions that promote progress by engaging in Tribes - lack a formal political projects, policy-making, and structure, are larger than bands, dialogue. They provide support for focus on food production through a state's economic growth and agriculture and husbandry, and social advancement. maintain social order through kinship and family systems, often led by a INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION community head. - is a group formed by countries to Chiefdoms - are more complex collaborate on common goals social structures with a community and address global issues. leader, relying on the chief's judgment These organizations facilitate and exhibiting more advanced cooperation in areas such as economic activities compared to tribes peace, trade, health, and human and bands. rights, often creating agreements, providing assistance, and States and Nations promoting collaboration among 1. STATE - highly organized and member states. structured societies that are  self-governing, practice traditions and historical continuity, leading bureaucracy, and maintain military people to accept it based on cultural protection for their people and expectations and the institution's territories. long-standing presence. 2. NATIONS - are socio-cultural Characteristics of Traditional Authority groups united by common and Legitimacy: origins, history, culture, ethnicity, or language, characterized by 1. Continuity: Authority exists for shared bonds and histories, and generations, with legitimacy stemming can exist without a fixed territory or from its long-standing presence. sovereignty. 2. Custom and Ritual: Maintained through rituals, ceremonies, and ties to Rationality - involves using reason and cultural or religious practices. logic to make decisions, focusing on clear 3. Personal Loyalty: Allegiance is often thinking and evidence while avoiding to a specific person or family due to emotional biases, in order to achieve goals and maximize outcomes. historical loyalty, rather than to an abstract legal system. Instrumental Rationality - focuses on selecting the most efficient means to Kinship, marriage, and the household achieve a particular goal or outcome. - are essential elements of social Practical Rationality - involves everyday organization. Kinship involves decision-making where individuals solve family connections by birth, problems or make choices that appear marriage creates new family bonds, reasonable in specific situations, relying on and households represent various pragmatic reasoning based on experience or intuition. living arrangements, such as nuclear families or extended Theoretical rationality - involves families. reasoning based on abstract ideas, theories, or academic knowledge. It is Unilineal descent is a kinship system that applied to intellectual or scientific inquiry, traces lineage through one parent only, either focusing on understanding and explaining through patrilineal descent (father's line) or reality. matrilineal descent (mother's line). Communicative rationality - emphasizes Bilateral descent is a kinship system where reasoning through dialogue and lineage is traced equally through both discussion to reach mutual understanding parents. and consensus, often linked to democratic processes and resolving societal issues. Kinship by marriage, or affinal kinship, Traditional authority - refers to systems of refers to relationships formed through power and rule grounded in long-standing marriage rather than by blood, connecting customs, traditions, and cultural individuals to their spouse’s family members. practices. Its legitimacy is derived from Affinal ties include: historical continuity and the sanctity of age-old institutions. In-laws: Relatives of a person's spouse, such as mother-in-law, - is based on established customs father-in-law, brother-in-law, or and the inherited right to rule, sister-in-law. deriving legitimacy from cultural Step-relations: Relationships from norms and long-accepted remarriages, such as step-siblings or a traditions, often held by leaders like step-parent. kings or tribal chiefs. Traditional legitimacy - is the belief that a MONOGAMY VS POLYGAMY ruler's authority is justified by established MONOGAMY- Is a social or biological system and roles are passed through the male in which an individual has only one partner at line. a time. It is most commonly associated with 2. Matrilocal: The couple lives with or marriage or long-term romantic relationships, near the wife’s family, typical in where one person is committed to another matrilineal societies where property exclusively. In human society, monogamy and status are traced through the typically refers to a committed relationship female line. between two people who remain faithful to 3. Neolocal: The couple establishes a each other, either for life or for a set period. new, independent household, separate from both sets of parents, common in There are two main forms of monogamy: modern, industrialized societies that prioritize nuclear families. 1. SOCIAL MONOGAMY: This refers to a 4. Bilateral: The couple may live with or social arrangement where individuals’ pair up near either the husband’s or wife’s for a long-term relationship, but it doesn’t family, based on circumstances like necessarily mean sexual exclusivity. economic needs or personal preference. This provides flexibility and 2. SEXUAL MONOGAMY: In this form, is common in societies with fluid social partners are sexually exclusive and engage structures. only with each other. 5. Avunculocal: The couple resides with or near the husband’s maternal uncle. POLYGAMY- Is a marital or relationship This is often seen in matrilineal system in which an individual has multiple societies where property and authority spouses or partners simultaneously. It pass from a man to his sister’s sons. contrasts with monogamy, where individuals have only one spouse or partner at a time. 6. Nato-local: Both partners remain in Polygamy is practiced in various cultures and their respective natal homes after societies around the world and can take marriage. This rare arrangement different forms. maintains separate residences while considering the couple married. 1. POLYGYNY : One man is married to multiple wives. This is the most Preferred marriage partners are individuals common form of polygamy historically considered ideal for marriage based on and culturally. cultural norms. Common types include: 2. POLYANDRY : One woman is married to multiple husbands. This is less Endogamy: Marrying within one’s common but practiced in certain social, religious, ethnic, or caste group. cultures. Exogamy: Marrying outside one’s 3. GROUP MARRIAGE : Several men social, religious, or kin group. and women are all married to each Cross-cousin marriage: Preference other, though this is a rare and less for marrying a cousin from the traditional form of polygamy. opposite side of the family. Arranged marriage: A marital Post-marital residency rules are cultural arrangement where families or norms that dictate where a newly married matchmakers select partners based on couple will live after marriage, influenced by compatibility and cultural values, with kinship structures, economic systems, and the individuals’ consent. social hierarchies. The main types include: Same-class or status marriages: Preference for partners of similar 6 TYPES OF RESIDENCY RULE: socioeconomic backgrounds or educational achievements. 1. Patrilocal: The couple resides with or near the husband’s family, common in KINSHIP BY RITUAL OR patriarchal societies where inheritance COMPADRAZGO  - COMPADRAZGO is a spanish term referring to a special relationship in Latin American cultures where individuals become godparents to a child, creating a bond between the child's parents and the godparents, and fostering strong social ties and networks beyond just family. Family and Household Nuclear Family: A family unit consisting of two parents and their children living together. Extended Family: Includes relatives beyond the immediate family, such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins, who may live together or maintain close connections. Blended Families: Formed when one or both partners bring children from previous relationships into a new relationship or marriage. Political Kinship: Refers to kinship relations that extend to individuals or families with whom a person has political affiliations. Political Dynasty: Describes a system where political leadership is passed down within the same family or clan, allowing them to maintain power across multiple generations. Political Alliance: Refers to the collaboration between political parties, often formed through the joining of forces from various political families, to achieve common goals or strengthen political influence.