AP World History Guide PDF

2.1-2.2 (Mongols/Silk Road): expansion of Mongols and their impact 2.1 Silk Road - a vast network of roads and trails that facilitated trade and the spread of culture and ideas across Eurasia in and before the period 1200-1450 (mainly luxury items were exchanged). Innovations in commercial practices...

2.1-2.2 (Mongols/Silk Road): expansion of Mongols and their impact 2.1 Silk Road - a vast network of roads and trails that facilitated trade and the spread of culture and ideas across Eurasia in and before the period 1200-1450 (mainly luxury items were exchanged). Innovations in commercial practices, like Money economics (paper money), the use of credits (Flying money/deposit checks), and Banks (Bills of exchange) enhanced trade efficiency and fueled its expansion. (first effect of growth)Caravanserai - series of inns/guest houses spaced about a day apart on trade routes, providing safety from bandits and becoming centers of cultural exchange and diffusion (ex. Saddles (allowed people to transport more goods) and places to rest (ex. Kashgar became a destination in itself, hosting a highly profitable market due to its location near a river (food+water) and on the convergence of 2 major trade routes. Samarkand was also a place of cultural divergence and convergence of 2 trade routes). (second effect of growth)Increased demand for luxury goods- Chinese, Indian, and Persian artisans increased their production of luxury goods (silk, porcelain) as their demand grew, causing proto-industrialization (producing more goods than their own population could consume, which were then sold in distant markets) in places like China. (third effect of growth)Cultural diffusion- the spreading of ideas and cultures along trade routes (e.g., Islamic/Buddhist merchants spreading Islam/Buddhism). Europeans wanting these goods marked the movement away from feudalism. 2.2. Mongols—originally pastoral nomads in the Gobi Desert (traveling farmers). Temujin was a powerful Mongol leader, and through skillful diplomacy, he was able to be allied with powerful people. After leading several successful military raids, Temujin unified several Mongol clans, giving himself the title Chinggis Khan (Ghengis Khan). After unifying the clans, Chinggis Khan and his offspring (Khanates (military regions for the grandsons)) rapidly expanded their empire through their military organization (more efficient), superior weaponry (bow+horse ridding), their timing (song dynasty and Abbasid empire declining), and their reputation for brutality (caused cities to surrender out of fear). The Mongol leaders often adopted the cultural norms of the conquered people (ex. Confucian officials believed Kublai Khan had the mandate of heaven because he united China during a period of chaos (warring factions), and Kublai Khan styled himself as a Confucian ruler. Economic- The Silk Road was at its peak because the Mongols had control of all the trade routes (Only one state was in charge of ensuring goods flowed + Mongols protected silk roads from bandits). They also improved infrastructure (built bridges and repaired roads), which facilitated more trade and increased Communication (Yam system - a series of communication and relay stations placed inside the empire), allowing the outskirt regions to be more friendly, increasing trade (UNDER PAX MONGOLICA, TRADE FLOURISHED). Technological/cultural transfers - The Mongols had a high opinion of intellectuals and skilled artisans, so they did not kill those people during conquests. It was Mongol policy to send skilled people to all different parts of the empire, which encouraged the transfer of technology, ideas, and culture. This caused the Mongols to learn about medical knowledge (Greek/Islamic scholars to Western Europe) and to adopt the Uyghur script (Mongol written language that became a widely adopted imperial language of the empire). Despite their brutal rise, the Mongol Empire facilitated many cultural transfers across many parts of Eurasia. Pax Mongolica - Mongols conquered so much land that they were able to create an era of peace. 2.3 (Expansion of Empires): how various empires establish authority Ottomans—The largest and most enduring empire of the gunpowder empires. Mehmed II conquered Constantinople using gunpowder (cannons), naming it Istanbul and making it the empire's capital due to its nexus for trade. Venice had to pay tribute to the Ottoman Empire. Suleman I’s siege of Venice signified the turning point in Ottoman domination in Eastern Europe. Used government structure and military power/religion to establish authority. Long decline as other empires stopped caring about land (rise of maritime empires) Safavids—Ismail, a Muslim hero who conquered most of Iran, established a Sunni Muslim empire. Although they had no real navy and lacked natural defenses, this didn’t prevent the empire from gaining power. Europe advised Safavid troops on newly acquired military technology. Shahs controlled religion and politics and built a centralized power base that led to religious conflicts within the empire. The Ottomans tried to assert dominance over the Safavid Empire by using trade embargos. Women had very restricted rights (clothes, inheritance, divorce) but participated in society. Used government structure and military power/religion to establish authority. The quick decline is due to many factors. The battle of Chaldiran - marked the end of Safavid expansion as they lost to the Ottomans. Rapid decline due to weak leadership (Shah kills all heirs, causing civil wars (need a blood relative) that leave them vulnerable to invaders). Mughals—It was one of the richest and best-governed states in the world. Arab traders, due to their major role in conducting commerce, were responsible for the flourishing of overseas trade. They imported textiles, tropical foods, spices, and precious stones, as well as gold and silver. The Hindu castes were strict social groupings designated at birth that were the basis of educational and vocational opportunities for Indian society. The architecture of the Mughal empire was a testament to the Wealth/sophistication of the Mughal empire. Akbar strived for unity in the Mughal Empire and achieved grand religions and political goals to achieve this, causing the Mughal Empire to flourish. Used government structure and military power to establish authority (couldn’t use religion to establish authority effectively because most of the population was non-Muslim). To solve the tax system situation, Akbar encourages people to spend their money at government markets. Lose war to the Safavids due to Hindus lacking patriotism. After Akbar died, weak/bad leadership led to civil wars based on religious groups. Russia was influenced by Vikings and the Mongols by invasions and trade. Ivan IV (whose father led the rebellion against the Mongols/established the Russian empire) extended the border of Russia Eastward by taking control of the remnants of the Golden Horde. This expansion depended on the use of gunpowder. They hired the cossacks (fierce peasant warriors) used by Russia to fight local tribes (which allowed them to maintain control of Serbia). Extended as far east as the Pacific Ocean by 1639. They were involved with trade and used their relationship with the Byzantine emperor and the support of the Eastern Orthodox Church to establish authority. Ivan IV killed his heirs, leading to “times of turmoil.” After Mongol rule, they lost access to the Silk Road and lacked a distinct cultural identity. Ivan III creates a clear distinction between Church and State. Homestead-providing a good/service in exchange for land. 2.4 (Administration of Empires): political systems of various empires Western Europe (France, Britain)- Britain- King James used the divine right of kings to justify his rule by claiming himself as a religious and political leader who, therefore, couldn’t be disobeyed and was above earthly law. Britain also used justices of the peace and English gentry officials to maintain peace in England by carrying out the monarch's rule and the Parliament, which checked the monarch's rule through actions like the English Bill of Rights, which assured individual civil liberties and limited the Absolute rule in Britain. Used parliamentary monarchy( used congress + king/queen). Glorious revolution - instead of a congress/king civil war, King James II stepped down. France- The French government grew even more absolute, with Louis XVIII centralizing France further through developing a system of intendants (tax farmers) who carried the government orders to provinces. Louis XIV was considered a dictator because he combined the lawmaking and justice system into himself to gain more power to expand France's border. The palace of Versailles was where Lious XIV and the nobles lived, which restricted the noble's access to the outside world, causing them to lose power and Lious IV to gain more power. The French Absolutism eventually weakened the French government. European governments used (religion and art) to solidify the idea of the divine right of the monarch ( the king was a godly figure who was above the law), allowing them to further consolidate their power through shows of their power/glory (massive structures). Gunpowder Empires - Russia - boyar class (nobles) and rulers had tensions due to tensions/ conflicts (ex. Opposing expansionist policies of Ivan IV), so when Ivan Iv established dominance over the Boyar, he took their land and sent them to Moscow, where Ivan could keep an eye on them/ deflate their power (like France). Also established secret police (oprichnima) that were loyal to Ivan IV due to being from the lower classes. The Romanov Dynasty came into power after times of turmoil (civil wars caused by no successor after Ivan’s death), with three main groups having conflicting desires and agendas: the Church wanting to preserve traditional values and beliefs, the Boyar desiring to gain/hold power, and member of the tsars royal family. Peter the Great rose to power after defeating members of the tsar (half-sister Sophia), gaining the support of the Russian clergy (lost control later). After gaining power, Peter created provinces and created a senate, which both helped maintain order throughout the empire. Built St. Petersberg, the new capital where the boyars would live (France) and a testament to Peter's determination to have his own capital, with great works of art and massive structures to further show Peter's power/glory (consolidating power). Peter established new industries owned by the state (shipyards and iron mines) in an effort to industrialize Russia, but when this failed to bring in the revenue Peter needed, he resorted to a sort of urban extension of serfdom (raising taxes and compelling workers to work in shipyards/mines). Peter tries to make Russia more western/modern (proto-industrialization/westernization). Ottoman- To ensure control over large areas, sultans used a selection system called devshirme to staff their military and their government. Devshrime was when Christian boys who were subjects of the mepire were recruited by force to serve in the Ottoman government. It was only Christian boys since they weren't people of the book, and conquered regions were expected to give enslaved people to the Ottoman Empire as tribute. The most famous result of the devshirme system was the Jannessaies, which formed elite forces in the Ottoman Empire, but other Christians became administrators, scribes, tax collectors, diplomats, or bodyguards for the sultan. The arts, culture, and economy continued in a time of tremendous changes in government and religion, which legitimized the Ottoman rule (ex. Istanbul). The tax collector system to finance the economy became corrupt, burdening agricultural villages and the eventual economic decline of the empire. Grand arbiter =prime minister for Sultan). Hagia Sophia is one of the best examples of Ottoman culture. Mughal-Akbar was the most capable of the Mughal leaders, defeating Hindu armies, extending his empire southward and westward, establishing an efficient government and a system of fairly administered laws (ex., The human right to appeal judgment), and creating a strong, centralized government with an effective civil service system. Paid government officials called zamindars were tax collectors for the empire, but they were corrupt and collected more money to keep for themselves, allowing them to build up power through personal armies. The tax collector system to finance the economy became corrupt, burdening agricultural villages and the eventual economic decline of the empire. Shah Jahan created the Taj Mahal, which showed the ruler's power/glory + the cultural diffusion of Islam and Hinduism in the Mughal Empire. Growth of cotton textiles. China - Following the collapse of the Yuan empire (Mongols). The Ming dynasty came into power. They wanted to erase all Mongol influence in China, so they brought back the traditional civil service exam, improved education by establishing a national school system, and reestablished the bureaucracy. During the Qing Dynasty, the traditionally efficient Chinese bureaucracy became corrupt, levying high taxes on the people. The Qing government used harsh military control to put down a rebellion against these developments and maintain its authority. In Ming China, tax collection was the responsibility of private citizens (nobles) who all collected the land taxes in their area. Land taxes were the bulk of taxes and were usually grains, followed by silver. They also collected taxes on salt, wine, and other goods along the Grand Canal, allowing the vault to collect a surplus of goods. However, these were depleted due to wars, extravagant imperial spending, and the repression of rebellions, leaving the dynasty bankrupt. China also collected tributes from other states as a way to demand recognition of their power/authority. Tributes were given as a sign of respect, submission, or allegiance (ex., Korea was a tributary state to China). Tokugawa Shogunate - Shoguns (military leaders) fought daimyos (nobles) who paid samurai (knights) with goods/land (economic power) in exchange for loyalty, causing Japan to be decentralized/feudal. Gunpowder weapons enabled the rise of three powerful daimyos to gradually unify Japan. First was Oda Nobunaga, who, with Portugese-traded guns, extended his power and unified ⅓ of Japan before being killed. His successor, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, continued to expand his territory until it was most of Japan, which led to the Period of Great Peace (run by successors). The Tokugawa shogunate wanted to reorganize the Japanese government in order to centralize control over the feudal system. He divided Japan into 250 territories that were controlled by Diamyos but made the daimyo visit Japan (limits connection to outside forces) and made his family live in Tokyo (hostages), keeping the daimyos under the control of the shogunate, making them landlords instead of independent leaders. Nobunaga and Hideyoshi - George Washington of Japan. 2.5 (Belief Systems of Empires): ideological changes within empires Renaissance - The expansions of trade, the growth of an agricultural surplus, and the rise of a middle class able to patronize artists sparked great creativity in Europe. A revival of interest in classical Greco-Roman literature, art, culture, and civic virtue characterized the Renaissance. The Gutenberg printing press initiated a revolution in printing technology that allowed manuscripts to be mass-produced, fostering a growth in literacy and the rapid spread of ideas. One characteristic of the Renaissance was the interest in humanism, focusing on individuals rather than God. Humanists sought education and reform and began secular (non-religious) writing. Cultural changes in the Renaissance, such as the increased use of vernacular language, propelled the rise of powerful monarchies, the centralization of governments, and the birth of nationalism. Southern Renaissance - In Italy and Spain, church patronage supported the Renaissance. However, people, such as Dante Alighieri, still criticized the Roman Catholic Church due to corrupt religious officials. Wealthy families used their money to support painters, sculptors, and architects. Northern Renaissance - While many North European Renaissance artists emphasized piety in their work, others emphasized human concerns, like middle-class/church occupations/positions. These artists also used a vernacular language instead of Latin. Protestant Reformation - The Roman Catholic Church faced many challenges in the European shift from feudalism to centralized governments, like corruption from a large bureaucracy, the Babylonian captivity (the papacy moved to France, causing them to lose more influence/France to gain more religious power) and theological disagreements. John Wycliffe and the Lollards (Wycliffe’s followers) argued that priests were unnecessary for salvation. Wycliffe translated the bible into English vernacular (a widely understood language by Christians), which made it possible for him to gain a massive following, which caused similar actions to happen elsewhere (Hussites, Huldrych Zwingli). Martin Luther concluded several traditional Church practices violated biblical teachings, like the sale of indulgences (granted people absolution from the punishments of sin) and simony (selling of church offices), which he advocated for in the 95 Theses, which also discusses how “sola fide,” or faith alone was the basis of salvation for the Christian believer. Luther wasn’t a political or social revolutionary. Still, his theological ideas had a social impact on the clergy and women, saying that women could have a connection to God and their significant roles in the family. The Church didn’t like Luther's teachings, so he was excommunicated. Still, several German political leaders saw this as a way to separate from the Church, causing them to side with Luther (The split of the Holy Roman Empire and the roman catholic Church). French theologian John Calvin broke with the Catholic Church and helped reform the Religious community in Switzerland. He believed the elect, those predestined to go to heaven, ran the community, which was based on plain living, simple church buildings, and governance by the elders of the Church. Calvin's followers were called Huguenots. The important socioeconomic impact Calvinism had was the “Protestant work ethic” because Calvinists were encouraged to work hard and reinvest their profits because God favored their obedience and hard work. They viewed their work ethic as righteous living that elevated them to positions of secular leadership. King Henry VII, England's King, wanted a male heir, but his current wife had only given birth to daughters, so he asked the pope to annul his marriage so he could marry another woman. The pope refused out of worry for the Holy Roman empires reaction, which caused Henry, with the approval of the English Parliament, to set himself up as head of the new Church of England, or Anglican Church, which was free of control by the pope (Henry could divorce). These various reform efforts are known as the protestant reformation. Aftermath of protestant reformation - political instability in Europe; church official gets thrown out of a window; and end of Thirty Years War (allows kings to choose what religion their empire could be, causing a mass diaspora) The Enlightenment—The Enlightenment and social/political changes were necessary for the Industrial Revolution. The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in the 18th century that advocated reason to reconsider the accepted ideas and social institutions of the time (the combination of the Scientific Revolution and humanism, or the belief in individual human potential). Your own understanding of natural laws will lead people to the truth (no longer accepting what outside sources say is true, like ancestors or the Church) and improve society. Began with Bacon's idea of Empiricism, or the idea that reality is determined through the senses. Hence, the only way to know the nature of reality was through the senses (which goes against the Church). Locke argued that the divine right of kings was a deeply flawed organization of the political hierarchy. Rather, humans are endowed with natural laws, like life, liberty, and property, that a king doesn't grant, but by virtue of being a human being, so human beings should have power in the government (Human beings and government were in a social contract (humans give up power to the government for organization, protection, etc., but if the government abuses this power then the people have the right to rebel (civil disobedience). This led to nationalism (a strong identification of a group of people with an ethnic identity and language), threatening the multiethnic European empires (POLITICAL EFFECT). Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations, which argues for the government to stop controlling the economy because people's individual economic choices, which are guided by the market, would benefit everybody (anti-mercantilism / Laissez-=Faire) (ECONOMIC EFFECT). This new way of thinking led to people reexamining their relationship with God, leading to the development of Deism, which believes that God created all things but God doesn’t interfere with humanity (different from the Church), so the way to have a connection with God was through discovering and contemplating natural law (RELIGIOUS EFFECT). People who were against the Enlightenment's teachings were conservatives who strongly believed in tradition and the shunning of ideology in favor of practical ideas (Conservatism). The Enlightenment, which believed human beings had natural rights by being human beings, caused women to gain power, more rights, equality, and independence (women could succeed in any male-dominated profession, like political officials). The Enlightenment, which believed human beings had natural rights by being human beings, caused the abolitionist movement (anti-slavery/serfdom) to gain movement worldwide. The Scientific Revolution - In the early 1600s, scientific thinking gained popularity in northern Europe as trends in Renaissance ideas, curiosity, investigation, and discovery spread. It represented a different kind of thinking - one based on reason rather than faith. This allowed for the development of an early scientific method called Empiricism. Scientific thinking continued to advance through cultural diffusion (ex., Newton taking Galileo’s laws to develop his own), leading to many intellectuals thinking that science showed that the world was ordered and rational and that natural laws applied to the rational and orderly progress of governments and society, which is key to the Enlightenment. Social changes in the gunpowder empires - Ottoman - After the successful siege of Constantinople, the previously Christian area became dominated by Islam, which is seen in how the sultan replaced the emperor and the Justinian Law was replaced by shariah, a strict Islamic legal system that deals with all aspects of life. Safavids - Using Shai Islam as a unifying force, building a power base that supported the shahs ruled and denied legitimacy to any Sunni, but also caused frequent conflicts with the Ottoman Empire. Mughal-Akbar tolerated all religions, giving money/land/government positions to Hindus and Muslims to ease tensions between Hindus and Muslims. He also provided land grants for Sikhism, which developed from Hinduism and Sufism. Extra point (read)- The Church had counter-reformation during the Protestant Reformation, which included sending out missionaries that opposed Protestantism (Jesuits) to non-Christian areas, like Asia, to gain more followers and the Council of Trent, which reeducated Christian priests and got rid of simony and the sale of indulgences. They also increased the use of inquisitions (torture of non-Christians), which allowed the Church to root out and punish non-believers. Europe's religious division led to many wars (thirty years’ war), which ended with peace treaties like the Peace of Augsburg (German kings could choose what religion they wanted to follow) and Frances Edict of Nantes (allowed the Huguenots to practice their faith. When it was later revoked, like caused these craftsworkers to bring their talents to other empires) resulted in economic catastrophe for most of the European continent and gave countries more autonomy from the Church, allowing for the assertion of countries such as Prussia and Austria and new traditions. 2.6 (Exploration): the motivations and immediate consequences of European exploration Movement towards maritime trade (who, how) - Mongol decline made the Silk Road unprotected agin and the establishment of the Otoman empire caused the Mediterreanean sea to be unsafe (weren’t friendly to christians), so European empires needed to find new ways to get Asian luxury goods/wealth. Europeans biggest disadvantage was being technologically behind due to black death. Motivations to trade - European states were seeking ways to expand their authority and control resources in the era of empire-building. Conquests brought new wealth to states through the collection of taxes and through new trading opportunities. In time, it also brought great material wealth, especially silver, to European states. Rivalries among European states stoke efforts to expand before another power might claim a territory. Religion was also a motivating force. Many Europeans believed that it was their Christian duty to seek out people in another land to convert them. Since the Italians had a monopoly on European trade with Asia, It motivated European Empires to find new routes to Asia and more trade (spices, luxury goods from China, etc.). Technological breakthroughs in sailing and navigation made bold new voyages possible. The expenses caused by these motivations led to heavy government involvement in exploration (State-sponsored exploration) because of the state's efficient tax methods. All the land-based empires (gunpowder empires, china, etc.) caused Asian goods to be very expensive when they arrived in Europe. Demographic pressures(population growth caused fewer jobs to be available, primogeniture laws (eldest son got inheritance), and religious minorities searching for a place of tolerance). Mercantilism - Europeans generally measured the wealth of a country in how much gold and silver it had accumulated. For this reason, countries set policies designed to sell as many goods as they could to other countries- to maximize the amount of gold and silver coming into the country - and to buy as few as possible from other countries - to minimize the flow of precious metals out of the country. This theory, known as mercantilism (a state-driven economic system that emphasized the buildup of mineral wealth by maintaining a favorable balance of trade), required heavy government involvement. In simpler terms, European countries wanted the biggest “slice” of the world's wealth. They wanted more exports because exports were gold/silver. It was a powerful motivation for establishing and growing empires because, among many other reasons, once a colony was established, it created a closed market to purchase exports from the imperial parent country (more colonies meant more people to buy their imports for gold/silver). For mercantilism to be a tool for imperial expansion, the state and merchants needed to be intimately tied together (ex. Joint stock companies(a limited liability business, often chartered by the state, which a group of investors funded) relied on the state to keep their interests and activities safe while granting them monopolies, and the state relied on joint stock companies to expand the empires influence to far-away lands). Joint stock companies (ex. Dutch East India Company’s monopoly on indian trade) became the main tool for mercantilist empires expansion. However, as other mercantilist empires expanded using joint stock companies, rivalry over wealth increased, leading to conflict (ex. Anglo-Dutch war). Iberian trade hegemony - Portugal- their only way to expand was by sea, so Prince Henry the Navigator sponsored a voyage to find a route into the indian ocean trade network for their goods. Motivations: Portugal had developed the right kind of technology for maritime exploration (caravels, carracks, compasses, astrolabes, etc.), the economic enticement of trans-Saharan gold and spices(more desired), and a desire to spread Christianity around the world (caused after Spanish Christians took back Muslim-controlled Spain (Reconquista)) and connect eastern(fabled) and western Christianity (political/economic advantage). Embarking on sea-based exploration caused them to become a trading post empire around Africa/India (established self-sufficient trading posts that functioned to facilitate trade. De Gama traveled around the southern tip of Africa and to India and discovered that the profits to be made in the Indian Ocean trade network were much greater than their preexisting maritime trade network with western Africa. Portuguese were able to establish dominance over the indian ocean trade network because of their carracks and caravels being able to hold guns, while other ships couldn’t. They lacked the workers and the ships necessary for the enforcement of a large empire, allowing Portuguese merchants to trade independently of Portugal of corruption among government officials. Spain- monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella (the ones who banned all non-Christians from Spain through inquisitions (torturing people to admit they weren't Christian) sponsored Christopher Columbus's idea that it would be better to travel westward to get to India for spices. Columbus landed on the Caribbeans, but it wasn’t until several other voyages that other explorers realized Christopher had gone to new undiscovered lands (the Americas), not India. This caused the Spanish to send fleets to the Americas to conquer and colonize it (opening up the more profitable trans-Atlantic trade). They gained access to the lucrative fur trade. Spain and Portugal were fighting over territory for trade, which resulted in the Treaty of Tortillas. Impact on the Americas - It caused a new trade network to develop (the Atlantic system), the movement of goods, wealth, and laborers between the eastern and western hemispheres). The Atlantic system was established by Spain, which controlled Caribbean plantations that specialized in the growth of sugar cane, causing the price of sugar to skyrocket in Europe. The Spanish also exploited silver mines in the Americas to purchase Asian goods, which satisfied Chinese demand for silver(further Chinese economic commercialization)and increased profits as these goods were traded across the Atlantic system (circle graph Ms.Johnston showed). Spanish tried to use forced Indigenous Labor for their American plantations/mines to gain more wealth, but since they knew the land better than the Spanish, they were able to escape. This eventually caused a rise in the African Slave trade. Because enslaved Africans came from many places and spoke many different languages, people living in America adopted Creole languages (mixed languages that were synthesized from European and African languages)(Cultural diffusion). The spotty success of Europeans imposing Christianity on American Indigenous people led to a syncretic religion of American Indigenous people’s religion and Christianity (also due to the slow process of conversion in the Americas was because of many societies secretly practicing their own, causing the spotty success rate) + the African belief systems slaves brought with them. Population disasters occurred because of Spanish explorers bringing smallpox to America. However, Europeans bringing over horses allowed natives to hunt on horseback, which was so effective that it gave them a surplus of goods large enough to focus on other pursuits, like art and spirituality. European explorers brought back corn, potatoes, tomatoes, beans, peppers, and cacao to Europe, where people started to grow, causing the population of European empires to increase dramatically. Africans brought okras and rice with them to the Americas. The death of native Americans caused Europeans to import African slaves for Labor to make more money. African music, which was used to endure long workdays and communicate with other Africans, also blended with European Christian music. Another example of cultural diffusion was the Africans' knowledge of how to prepare food, which allowed for the creation of gumbo. Encomienda system (similar to feudalism) - the Spanish system used to coerce laborers to work for them in exchange for food and protection (focused on controlling the laborers). Hacienda system - landowners developed agriculture on their land and coerced laborers to work their fields (focused on economic food exports). Impact on Africa - due to the increased African slave trade, many social effects occurred in African society. Gender imbalance occurred due to the majority of slaves being taken to work agricultural jobs in America were men. This caused a change in a family structure known as the practice of polygyny, or a man having more than one wife. Thanks to American nutritious foods that were introduced to the continent, like Yams and manioc, the African populations grew during a time when millions of Africans were being kidnapped. African artwork depicted Europeans negatively. African city-states raided other villages to get enslaved people to sell to European merchants in exchange for gunpowder/other technologies traded on maritime routes. Promoted the growth of states that participated in trade, like the Asante empire in West Africa (traded with the Dutch) and the kingdom of the Kongo, which was more southern (traded with Portuguese). Columbian exchange transferred diseases to both natives and Europeans. Impact on Asia & the Middle East - expanding European colonization/ presence (ex., British East India Company took advantage of the religious tensions in India to gain more power/influence in India). Technologies created/improved in these regions, like cartography, lateen sail, compass, and the astrolabe, made European maritime exploration safer and faster than ever. African cultural aspects can be seen in these places due to the African slave trade. Although Europe now controlled the indian ocean trade network, the Middle Eastern, South Asian, and Southeast Asian merchants who had been using the trade network for centuries before the arrival of the Europeans continued to use it. Even though China closed off trade, they still traded with European countries in the southern city of Macao for silver only. Japan is also isolatist but only trades for guns. Heavy Portuguese influence in the Mughal cities of Goa and Mumbai. 2.7 (Maritime Empires Established): long-term consequences of European trade Atlantic slave trade - Many colonial economies possessed by European empires were structured around agriculture, which required laborers. To continue to allow their colonial economies to grow, Europeans made use of the existing (mita system - the African system where people were required to do community service/Labor for the empire (now the Spanish using their Labor to mine silver); and new labor systems (Chattel slavery(race-based and hereditary) - laborers were treated as objects that could be purchased; used for millions of African slaves transported to the Americas; Indentured servitude - laborer would sign a contract that would bound them to a particular work for a period of time (usually 7 years) (used by poorer Europeans who wanted to go to the colonies); Ecomienda system (similar to feudalism) - Spanish system used to coerce laborers to work for them in exchange for food and protection (focused on controlling the laborers). Hacienda system - landowners developed agriculture on their land and coerced laborers to work their fields (focused on economic food exports). The African slave trade wasn’t new, which is seen in the cultural assimilation of Africans into the Islamic world (high demand for enslaved women for household domestic slaves; enslaved people could hold high political and military positions). Due to Europeans being focused on slave usage in agricultural work, they focused on buying male slaves (impacted demographics of African states). The Trans-Atlantic trade was larger than preexisting trade routes, and racial prejudice (to be black was viewed as less than human, justifying Europe's harsh treatment of African slaves (allowed them to still pose a clear consciousness). Europeans stopped using Indigenous people as slaves because most died of European diseases, escaped due to knowing the land (camouflage), and repeated efforts to enslave Indigenous people. Point of no return - holding pens/last time Africans saw their homeland; Middle passage - the journey from Africa to the Americas. Nobody liked the Aztecs due to human sacrifices, meaning other people supported Spain when they conquered them. Casus - advocated for indigenous human rights, but not African human rights. Impressment- forced naval/military service for another empire. Portuguese is in control of the Atlantic slave trade. Gun-slave system- Europeans sell guns to Africans for slaves; Africans use guns to get more slaves for guns. Ana Nzinga - female tribe leader in Africa who converted to catholicism to not get killed/conquered by the Portuguese. Portuguese killed/conquered them anyway, creating Angola, where most of the Atlantic slave trade occurred. Spain tries to convert natives to Christianity to make them more European (results in Casas's critiques of treatment towards natives, leading to the development of the repartimiento system + more African slaves). Less than ½ of silver mined stays in Spain (kept in the New World to fund facilities, the Church, and wars). Impact on Asia - Portuguese gun-loaded carracks and caravels allowed them to own/control the trading network by force, and established self-succulent trading posts whose main function was facilitating trade. The Spanish, however, established full-blown colonies along the indian ocean (+Americas). The Dutch dethroned the Portuguese and became the new king of the indian ocean trade network since the Portuguese didn’t have the government organization to run a large empire. The Dutch used many of the same tactics the Portuguese used to establish dominance over the Indian Ocean trade network. The British didn’t have the sufficient military power to take India from the Mughal empire, so they instead established trading posts along the indian coast (which were later turned into colonies) and used joint-stock companies, like the East India Company to gain power during a time of religious tension. Although Europe now controlled the trade network, the Middle Eastern, South Asian, and Southeast Asian merchants who had been using the trade network for centuries before the arrival of the Europeans continued to use it (European entrance increased profits). Merchants from the Mughal Empire (Gujaratis) continued to make use of the Indian Ocean trade even while Europeans sought to dominate it, and in doing so, they increased their power and wealth. Tokugawa Japan, after realizing the threat Europeans posed to their unity through Christianity, removed Europeans from Japan and took violent actions to remove Christianity from Japan. During Ming China, many voyages were sent out to create a situation in which most of the maritime trade in the Indian Ocean was processed through the Chinese state. It failed and resulted in Isolationist trade policies that shut down Chinese maritime trade (reconstructing the Great Wall, destroying dockyards, etc..). This caused the Portuguese to have to use bribery and unhanded tactics to trade with China, but when it was discovered by Chinese officials, the Portuguese were expelled, which only further isolated China from the European dominance in the indian ocean. France was also in India for a period of time but was driven out when Britain won the Seven Years’ War. The Indian Ocean network absorbed the European changes and continued its familiar ways of doing business. Population increase in Ming China due to an increase in agriculture. Japan does self-isolation. 2.8 (Changing Social Hierarchies): Mughal cultural tolerance - Under the leadership of Akbar, a profound tolerance was extended to ethnic and religious minorities. Didn’t implement jizya (tax for non-muslims). Funded the construction of Catholic Churches and Buddhist temples. Weak leadership following him removed a lot of his policies, creating religious tensions that resulted in their eventual downfall. After the death of Emperor Akbar, both Jahangir and Shah Jahan continued the Mughal tradition of cultural tolerance, especially toward Hindus. They maintained alliances and engaged in military campaigns against common enemies but avoided forced conversions or suppression of local customs. Despite little territorial expansion during their reigns, they were notable patrons of the arts and architecture. The construction of the Taj Mahal, a blend of Persian, Indian, and Islamic architectural styles, exemplifies this fusion and stands as a testament to the Mughal cultural peak. However, their later successor, Aurangzeb, shifted away from this tolerant approach, attempting to impose stricter Islamic practices and extend Mughal control over all of India, leading to religious tensions and a decline in the inclusivity of Mughal governance. Russian serfdom - Peter the Great wanted to centralize power away from the Boyars. When the Boyars protested this, Peter abolished the rank of Boayr in Russia and required people who wanted employment to serve the state directly. Ivan IV had previously forced Boyars and their families to move to Moscow (the capital) to keep a closer eye on them (like Lious IVX) when some Boyars opposed his expansionist policies/crimes. Serfdom were peasants who received a plot of land and protection from a noble and were bound to that land + had little personal freedom, making their lives very hard. Peter established new industries owned by the state (shipyards and iron mines) in an effort to industrialize Russia, but when this failed to bring in the revenue Peter needed, he resorted to a sort of urban extension of serfdom (raising taxes and compelling workers to work in shipyards/mines). By the 17th and 18th centuries, Russian serfdom had become a deeply entrenched institution. Under Tsarist rule, particularly after 1649, serfdom became hereditary, tying peasants to the land and their landlords. This transformation of serfs into hereditary property was driven by a struggling economy and the desire of the Russian nobility to maintain control over the agricultural workforce. The majority of Russia's population remained rural, illiterate, and impoverished, with most peasants bound in debt to landowners. Despite the availability of wealth from state-controlled agricultural production, the lack of technological innovation and a merchant class stifled Russia's economic growth. Recurrent serf rebellions demonstrated widespread discontent among the peasantry, but their position worsened as nobles gained more power. Racial societies in the Americas - Social structures changed drastically during this period because of the arrival of Europeans, which, combined with the imported Africans and conquered indigenous peoples, led to a new social hierarchy based on race and ancestry. Skin color became a signifier of power and status in many parts of the Americas and, in fact, all European colonies. Racial and ethnic backgrounds defined social status in a formal way in the Spanish and Portuguese empires. Casta system - racial, social hierarchy established by the Spanish (Spanish were on top, Then European descendants, then European/Indigenous descendants, European/African descendants, Indigenous people, then slaves). Prior to the imposing of the caste system, native peoples were part of a wide variety of linguistic and cultural groups, but Thai was erased by the Catsa system, which made the few Spanish people (Spanish conquistadors because the traditional Spanish nobility did not migrate to the new world) the elite. Colonial societies in the Americas were marked by complex racial hierarchies and the emergence of mixed-race populations due to the interactions between Europeans, indigenous peoples, and Africans. With few European women in the New World, sexual exploitation and mixed marriages led to the creation of new social categories, such as mestizos (European and indigenous), mulattos (European and African), and zambos (indigenous and African). The hierarchical structure placed Europeans at the top (peninsulares and creoles), while Indigenous peoples and Africans occupied lower positions. Slaves, often separated from their families, faced brutal conditions and were subject to harsh racial categorization, which defined their rights and opportunities. Despite efforts to suppress African traditions, cultural syncretism (e.g., religions Voodoo and santeria) emerged, blending African, indigenous, and Christian practices and creating unique cultural identities across the Americas. Creoles- Europeans born in the New World. The slave trade caused the opposite gender imbalance in the New World (more males than females).