Bio Final Review Sheet - Noah Solinga PDF

Test 1 ​ What is biology? The study of life ​ 7 characteristics of life ​ Characteristic 1: Cells: Smallest unit that can perform all of life’s processes ​ 2 categories of cells: Prokaryotes Eukaryotes ​ Cell that lacks mem...

Test 1 ​ What is biology? The study of life ​ 7 characteristics of life ​ Characteristic 1: Cells: Smallest unit that can perform all of life’s processes ​ 2 categories of cells: Prokaryotes Eukaryotes ​ Cell that lacks membrane-bound ​ Cell that have membrane-bound nucleus and nucleus and membrane-bound membrane-bound organelles organelles ​ Eukaryotes contain organelles- structures in cells ​ Single Celled Creatures that perform specific functions (ex. food vacuole) ​ These are the cells of multicellular organisms 1  ​ Unicellular vs multicellular: Unicellular organisms are made up of one cell. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Multicellular organisms are made up of many cells ​ Levels of organization in multicellular organisms: Cells - the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism Tissue - Tissue is a group of cells that have similar structure and that function together as a unit Organ - a collection of tissues that structurally form a functional unit specialized to perform a particular function Organ System - An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform a specific function in an organism Organism - the material structure of an individual life form, a collection of organs and organ systems ​ Characteristic 2: Response to stimulus: Stimulus (pl. stimuli) -a thing or event that evokes a specific functional reaction in an organ or tissue ​ Phototropism: the growth of an organism in response to a light stimulus ​ Characteristic 3: Homeostasis: Homeostasis - Homeostasis is the process by which living things maintain a stable internal environment in response to external changes “All homeostasis involves response to stimuli; not all response to stimuli are for homeostasis” ​ Characteristic 4: Metabolism Metabolism - all chemical reactions that take in and transform energy/materials from environment (to perform life functions) ​ Major aspects of Metabolism Major Aspects of Metabolism 1.​ Nutrition - organism takes material from its environment and breaks it down 2.​ Transport - Substances enter and leave the cell to go where needed (in multicellular organisms a circulatory system moves material throughout the organism) 3.​ Uses of Nutrients ○​ Energy for Functions ○​ Synthesis of Material ○​ Maintain Homeostasis 4.​ Excretion - removal of harmful substances and waste products ​ Types of Nutrition 2  Autotroph Heterotroph Has to consume its food ​ Produces its own food Gets energy from organic matter ​ Uses light, CO2, or chemicals ​ Cell Respiration​ Cell Respiration - the process by which cells convert chemical energy from nutrients (like glucose) into usable energy ​ Aerobic versus Anaerobic Respiration ​ Characteristic 5: Growth and development Growth - organisms and cells increase in size Development - The process of becoming a mature adult ​ Difference between Growth and Development While growth is organisms and cells increasing in size, development is the process of becoming a mature adult. (Growth refers to physical and biological changes. Development refers to function and behavioral changes.) ​ Cell Differentiation Cell Differentiation - When a cell transforms from a less specialized state into a more specialized cell type ​ Cell Specialization Cell Specialization - the process by which cells develop into specialized cell types with distinct functions and characteristics. 3  -​ Cell differentiation causes cell specialization Stem cells versus cancer cells ​ Stem Cells: These are "good" cells that can become different types of cells (like skin, muscle, or brain cells). They help repair and grow tissues in the body. ​ Cancer Cells: These are "bad" cells that grow uncontrollably and don't follow the body's rules. They can form tumors and spread, harming the body. If anyone has anything, feel free to insert here ​ Characteristic 6: Reproduction Reproduction - The process of producing offspring ​ DNA: (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) - DNA. It’s a molecule that stores genetic information ​ Genes: Gene - A short segment of DNA that has information for making a specific trait ​ Asexual versus Sexual reproduction ​ Characteristic 7: Evolution - process in which inherited characteristics of a population change over generations ​ Steps of Evolution 1. Genetic Variation -Variations of DNA within a population, due to mutations 2. Natural Selection - Organisms with traits that favor reproduction pass on their genes better than those without such traits 3. Adaptations - Traits that improve an individual’s chance of survival and reproduction 4. Reproduction of Survivors - offspring inherit the favorable trait ​ Difference between stimulus and adaptation Stimulus is a thing or event that evokes a specific functional reaction in an organ or tissue. Adaptation is the change of a species over time to better suit its environment. 4  ​ What is/is not alive An entity needs all 7 characteristics to be alive, if it is missing even 1, it is not alive (like fire and viruses) Test 2 ​ What is classification? -​ Classification is the arrangement of organisms into orderly groups based on their similarities -​ Classification goes from very general to very specific ​ Why do we do classification? -​ There are 13 billion known species of organisms which is only 5% of all organisms that ever lived -​ New organisms are still being found and identified -​ Organization is important! ​ How to scientifically organize? -​ Life: all living things. They have all 7 characteristics -​ Domain: The largest grouping. Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryota -​ Kingdoms go smaller: In Eukaryota, the kingdoms are animals, plants, fungi, and protists (sea sponges) -​ Phylum are smaller groupings based on common characteristics. We are Chordata, which are categorized by our spinal cord -​ Class is an even smaller group. Mammals, birds, and insects are examples -​ Orders are smaller groups within classes. We are primates. -​ Families are the closest related species. We are in hominidae with the other apes -​ Genus are the closest cousins. We are alone in the genus of Homo -​ Species. We are Homo Sapiens -​ (Large, Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Soup) ​ How does classification work? -​ Creatures that are related/similar to each other are put near each other on family trees -​ If they can’t interbreed and produce fertile offspring*, they are considered different species ​ Definition of species. -​ A Population of creatures that can breed together and produce fertile offspring ​ Group vs individual If anyone has please put it in 5  ​ Organization of life ○​ Know the order of from most to least complex. Know the specifics of what humans are ​ Organization of classification. ​ Binomial nomenclature 6  -​ The system of nomenclature in which two terms are used to denote a species of living organism, the first one indicating the genus and the second the specific epithet ​ Naming genus vs individual species -​ Two terms are used to denote a species of living organism, the first one indicating the genus and the second the specific epithet. A genus is a larger family, and the second part of the name is for a specific species In English, the genus is like a last name, and an epithet is like a first name ​ Lamarck and his theories Lamark said an organism can pass on to its offspring physical characteristics that the parent organism acquired through use or disuse during its lifetime. He was wrong, but he was right that change happened over generations ​ Darwin and Wallace In the early 1800s, there were lots of theories on evolution At the same time, Darwin and Wallace came up with Evolution: creatures have variety, and over time, their descendants get their variations Descent with modification​ How Does Evolution work? Evolution is traits that creatures are born with and are passed on over generations. ​ Unit 3, Scientific Method ​ Steps of the scientific method ​ Redi Experiment Long ago, many people believed that living things could come from nonliving things. They thought that worms came from wood and that maggots came from decaying meat. This idea was called spontaneous generation. In 1668, an Italian biologist, Francesco Redi, did 7 experiments to prove that maggots did not come from meat. One of his experiments is shown below. Redi placed pieces of meat in several jars. He divided the jars into two groups. He covered the first group of jars with fine cloth. He left the second group of jars uncovered. Redi observed the jars for several days. He saw flies on the cloth of the covered jars, and he saw flies laying eggs on the meat in the uncovered jars. Maggots appeared only on the meat in the group of jars left uncovered. ​ Quantitative vs Qualitative Observations While quantitative observations deal with numbers, qualitative observations deal with descriptions ​ Control Vs Variable While a control is the group that does not change, the variable is the group that does change ​ Vocabulary: ​ Analyze: Examine data collected in an experiment to determine what it means ​ Conclude: Reach a decision based on the analysis of data ​ Data: Information collected during an experiment ​ Experiment: A test that is done to determine if a hypothesis is correct or not ​ Hypothesis: Your proposed answer to the question or solution to the problem ​ Inference/ Infer: Coming to a conclusion based on your existing knowledge. (Example – seeing a student wearing a sports team jersey and concluding the student likes that team.) ​ Observe: Watch something carefully. Test 3 ​ SI Units: Standardized units ​ Prefixes and conversions Quantity Unit Abbr. Length Meter m Mass Gram g Volume Liter or Cubic CentiMeter l or cm3 Time Second(s) s Temperature Kelvin K° Prefix abbr. Value 8 Mega- M 1,000,000˙ kilo- K 1,000 deci- d 0.1 or 1/10 centi- c 0.01 or 1/100 milli- m 0.001 or 1/1,000 micro- µ 0.000001 or 1/1,000,000 ​ Bar graph vs line graphs -​ Bar graphs are good for comparing a lot of different things. -​ Line graph tends to be examining one object over time. ​ Microscopes ○​ Magnification Magnification: ratio of size of the image seen under microscope to the size of the actual object. Ex. 40x magnification is 40x larger than the real object Magnifying system: ​ Ocular: Lense in microscope, magnifies 10x 9  ​ Objective: further magnifies - Scanning power: 4x - Low power: 10x - High power: 40x , 43x , or 100x (depending on microscope) - Total magnification: Multiply both together ○​ Resolution ability of a microscope to distinguish between two points that are close together, related to sharpness/details of the image ○​ Low power vs high power Low Power High Power Magnification Less More magnification Field of Vision Larger FOV Smaller FOV Resolution Less More Adjustment Knobs Both knobs Only fine adjustment knobs ○​ Inversion: view is upside down in compound microscope ​ Cell theory 1.​ All living things are made of one or more cells 10  2.​ Cells are the basic unit of life, and carry out all the functions of life 3.​ All cells come from preexisting cells ​ Endosymbiotic Theory mitochondria were originally their own simple prokaryotic cell and were “eaten” but not digested by another complex prokaryotic cells and became a permanent part of the complex cells; similar for chloroplasts -​ Evidence: 1.​ Circular DNA (prokaryotic) 2.​ 2 membranes 3.​ Same size as bacteria 4.​ Genetically close to bacteria ​ Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic cells PROKARYOTE EUKARYOTE No membrane bound nucleus Membrane bound nucleus Smaller, simpler cell Larger, more complex cell Has a cell membrane, cytoplasm, Has all of those and organelles, ribosomes which are specialized structures Bacteria and Archaean All plants, animals, fungi, protists ​ Cellular organization -​ Unicellular: Living things made of one cell Bacteria, protists, some algae and fungi -​ Colonial: Made of many cells loosely attached. On a spectrum: some colonies have each cell doing every funcion, some have slight specialization, and only some can reproduce -​ True Multicellular: BILLIONS of specialized cells making one organism, with complex interactions between cells, and all are highly specialized 11 Test 4 ​ Definition of the Organelle: specialized structure of a cell that performs a specific function in the cell ​ Plasma membrane: Thin, two layered structure that surrounds entire cell, consists of fats and proteins; allows only certain materials into and out of the cell (ALL CELLS) ○​ Phospholipid Bilayer: a thin flat membrane made of two layers of phospholipid molecules that forms a barrier around cells (molecules in cells = phospholipid) (ALL CELLS) ​ Cell Wall: surrounds plasma membrane of plant cells; gives cell strength; has openings for water and dissolved substances (PLANT CELLS, some fungi/bacteria/protists (never animal) -​ Secondary cell wall - secreted when cell is done growing; very strong and is leftover when cell dies. ​ Cytoplasm: Fluid-like material contained within cell membrane (ALL CELLS) ​ Cytosol: Portion of cytoplasm that does not contain large organelles; 20% of cell (ALL CELLS) ​ Cytoskeleton: network that extends throughout cytoplasm to support the cells and give it its shape; also act as pathways through the cell (ALL CELLS) ​ Parts of cytoskeleton: Microtubules Microfilaments Intermediate Filaments (All cells) (All cells) (All cells) Hollow tubes (like straws) Two thin intertwined Coiled rods that anchor that radiate from threads; change cells nucleus and other centrosome; hold shape and help in cell organelles to their places organelles in place and division help them move 12  ​ Centrioles: in the Centrosome - pair of cylinder-shaped structures located in centrosome near nucleus and help in cell division by organizing microtubules (Animal) ​ Cilia and Flagella: hair like structures that extend from surface of cell; allow cell to move; made of microtubules (Some animal, some bacteria (flagella only), some protists) -​ Cilia: Lots of “hairs” short hairs all around cell, eukaryotic exclusive -​ Flagellum: A few “hairs” (one or more long tails) ​ Chromosomes: thread of DNA (and protein) carrying genetic information(Any cell with a membrane bound nucleus) ​ Chromatin: unwound thread of DNA (All eukaryotic cells) ○​ DNA is not an organelle ​ Nucleus: controls most cell processes, contains genetic material (All eukaryotic) ○​ All parts -​ Nuclear Envelope - double layer membrane surrounding nucleus -​ Nuclear pores - allows materials in and out of nucleus -​ Nucleolus - smaller region in nucleus where ribosomes are produced -​ Nucleoplasm - fluid in nucleus ​ Ribosomes: makes proteins; can be free or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (All cells) ​ Endoplasmic Reticulum(smooth and rough) ​ Endoplasmic Reticulum(smooth and rough): -​ ER - internal membrane transport system (All Eukaryotic cells) -​ Rough ER: has ribosomes attached; helps produce and transport proteins -​ Smooth ER: Does not have ribosomes attached; transports lipids (fats): detoxifies ​ Golgi apparatus: takes proteins from ER and processes, packages and releases them to the rest of the cell (All eukaryotic cells) ​ Vesicle: small, spherically shaped sacs surrounded by a membrane; performs different functions (All eukaryotic) 13  ​ Lysosome: type of vesicle that contain enzymes that help digest food, used organelles & damaged cells (autolysis) (Animal cells) ​ Vacuole: stores water and other substances (Plant cells - large; animal cells- some small for food, but mostly use vesicles) ​ Mitochondria: (sing. mitochondrion) energy center “powerhouse” of the cells; turns food into usable energy (ATP); inner membrane has many folds (Eukaryotic) ​ Plastid: surrounded by double membrane; contains its’ own DNA; some provide color and/or storage (cells of plants, algae, and some other eukaryotic organisms) ​ Chloroplasts: type of plastid that uses energy from sunlight to make food molecules in photosynthesis (plant cells and some algae) New Material: ​ Chemistry: study of matter ​ Matter: All physical materials that has mass and take us volume (space) ​ Biochemistry: Study of chemicals that relate to living things ​ Elements: type of matter that can't be broken down into simpler substances ​ Most common elements in living things: S.P. COHN - sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen -​ Humans: Ca. P. COHN: Calcium, phosphorus, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen ​ Atom: Basic unit of an element; smallest piece of each element is an atom of that element ○​ Protons: Positively charged particles ○​ Neutrons: Neutral particles ○​ Electrons: negatively charged particles ​ Ion: Positive or negative particles due to having a different amount of protons and electrons ​ Chemical bonds: Attractive forces that hold atoms together (like a weak, basic magnet system) If you see this, hello ​ Molecules vs compounds: 14  Molecules: particles made of bonded atoms- can be the same atom or different. Compounds: When two or more different types of atoms are bonded together ​ Polar and nonpolar molecules: Polar - The charge isn't evenly distributed so there is a positive and negative side Nonpolar: The charge is evenly distributed across the molecule - has a perfectly even/symmetrical shape ​ Guaranteed Question: what's the difference between biology and biochemistry ○​ While biology is the study of life, biochemistry is the study of chemicals that relate to living things 15