Contemporary African Politics LEC 1-7 PDF

Contemporary African Poli2cs From LEC 1 TO LEC 6 Lecture (1): - African Pre-Colonial Poli6cs Ø Defini6on: - Politics encompasses decision-making activities in groups, power relations, resource distribution, status distribution, cooperation, negotiation, an...

Contemporary African Poli2cs From LEC 1 TO LEC 6 Lecture (1): - African Pre-Colonial Poli6cs Ø Defini6on: - Politics encompasses decision-making activities in groups, power relations, resource distribution, status distribution, cooperation, negotiation, and conflict within and between societies, as defined by Adrian Leftwich. Ø Political Science: - Political Science is a field of academic study that focuses on the administration of government and governance, including methods and activities used to form and restore authority over communities, social entities, and all levels of community management. Ø Political System: - The political system is a framework defining acceptable political methods within a society. Pre- colonial refers to the era when African societies were governed by tribal entities and nation-states, with major dynasties being Nubian, Ethiopian, Kush, and Abyssinia. Ø Ethiopian & Kush: - Ethiopian and Kush were ancient Greek terms used by Herodotus and other historians to describe the black people in Africa. In the Nubian language, Kush means the "Land of the Black," while Sudan in Arabic refers to the entire African continent. Kushians were descendants of Ham, one of Noah's sons, who were the original inhabitants of the African continent. Ø Ancient Kingdoms of Africa: - The Kerma civilization, the oldest civilization in Africa, was established around 2500-1500 BC in Northern Sudan. Human settlements were recorded since 8,350 BC. The Nubians became one of Africa's strongest dynasties, including the Pharaonic dynasties in Egypt. In the 23rd Pharaonic Dynasty, the Nubians invaded Upper Egypt and occupied Aswan with 30,000 soldiers. In 23 BC, Nubian queen Kandaka invaded Egypt and occupied Aswan, aiming to drive out Ptolemy invaders.  Ø Major Nubian Kingdoms: - The major Nubian kingdoms in Africa and Sudan were Kush (1070BC – 350AD), Merowe (800 BC – 350 AD), Almuqarra (500 – 1315 AD), Nobatiya (350 - 650 AD), and Alwa (350 -1502 AD). These kingdoms had capitals in Kareema, Dongola, Faras, and Soba. The Nubians established foreign relations with Pharaonic dynasties in Egypt and the Romans during their colonization. Notably, they signed a 100-year Non-aggression Agreement with Roman Commander Maximinios in 451AD and Emperor Justinian in 527 AD. Ø Abyssinia & Christianity: - Abyssinia, in the Fourth century AD, embraced Christianity and established relations with Christian dynasties like Egypt and the Roman Empire. By the 7th century, Ethiopian Emperor Najashi adopted Islam, leading to centuries of peaceful relations and no Muslim invasion. Ø The Advent Islam: - The advent of Islam in Africa began in the early seventh century with Muslim warriors arriving in Egypt and Nubia. In 652AD, the PACT Agreement was signed between Egypt's Governor, Abdullahi ibni Saad ibni Assarh, and the Nubian King, Glederon, allowing free movement of persons and trade, personnel security, border security, and respect for Muslim creed and religious sites. These two changes have the effect to shape the African social, ethnic, and political systems in Africa for centuries to come. African social, ethnic, and political systems have evolved over centuries due to diverse religions, social entities, and government forms. Pre-colonial political systems focused on affiliations like language, rather than territory. The slave trade and late-19th-century colonial rule significantly impacted African politics, with the slave trade beginning in the 15th century and various types of rule affecting the continent's political landscape. Ø The Pre-colonial African States: - The 13th to 19th century African states, including the Blue Sultanate in Sennar, Darfur Sultanate, Takrur, Wadai Abasi Sultanate, Kanem Borno, Hausa kingdoms, and Sokoto States, significantly influenced modern African post-colonial states, shaping demography, culture, economy, and political thinking in Eastern, Central, and West Africa. Ø The Blue Sultanate (1502 – 1821): - The Blue Sultanate had become one of the major kingdoms in the region west of the Red Sea and ruled un:l invaded by the Khedive administra:on of Egypt in 1821.  Ø The Sultanate of Darfur (1445 -1874): - The Sultanate of Darfur is one of the strongest Islamic Sultanates in the western region of Sudan and the African con:nent as a whole. It con:nued for more than four centuries in rule un:l collapsed in the year 1874 at the hand of Az-Zubayr Pasha, who was at the :me collabora:ng on behalf of the Khedive of Egypt. Ø The Wadai Abassayid Sultanate (1635 – 1917): - Established by Abdelkarim in Jawdah, a Sheriffian who came to Sudan in the year 1615 through the Red Sea port of Eyzab (Halayib) dwelled in Shendi for around 10 years, and established a family there. In the year 1635 he established the Wadai Abassayid Sultanate, which was invaded by the French in 1917. Ø Kanem Bornu Empire (1380s–1893): - The Kanem Bornu Empire (1380s–1893) was a kingdom in northeastern Nigeria, later expanding to include parts of Chad, Niger, and Cameroon. It was one of three great empires in the Sudan region, with Mānān as the capital in the 13th century. In 1893, Rabih wad az-Zubayr conquered Bornu, leading to the Bri:sh recognizing him as the 'Sultan of Borno'. The Bri:sh took English Sudan, while the French took French Sudan, later becoming Chad. The Bri:sh and French signed the Agreement in Fashoda, allowing for the swap of Sudan territories. Ø The Takrur Kingdom (500-1776): - The Takrur Kingdom was a state was a state based in the Senegal River valley in West Africa which was at its height in the 10th and 11th centuries. Koli Tengella, a Fula warlord na:ve to Takrur but coming from Futa Jallon, conquered the area in 1521 and set up the Denanke dynasty. This would last un:l 1776 when the Fouta Revolu:on, led by Muslim clerics, took over the kingdom and the house of Denanke was brought down.  Ø The Sultanate of Sokoto (Caliphate) (1804 – 1903): - The Sultanate of Sokoto, founded in 1804 by Othman dan Fodio, was a Muslim caliphate in West Africa. It was part of present-day Cameroon, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Nigeria. By 1837, it had a popula:on of 10-20 million people, making it the most populous empire in West Africa. In 1903, it was annexed into the Northern Nigeria Protectorate, Senegambia, Niger, and Cameroon. Ø Hausa Kingdoms (1349 – 1808): - The Hausa Kingdom, also known as Hausaland, was a collec:on of states ruled by the Hausa people before the Fulani Jihad. According to the legend 'Bayajidda', the states were founded by the sons and grandsons of Bayajidda, a prince who married Daurama, the last Kabara of Daura, and marked the end of matriarchal monarchs. The most famous version of the story begins with a prince from Baghdad, Abu Yazid. Ø Empire of Ghana (300- 1054): - The Ghana Empire, also known as Wagadou, was a West African empire from the classical to post- classical era, located in the modern-day southeast of Mauritania and western Mali. The empire's forma:on was triggered by the introduc:on of the camel to the Western Sahara in the 3rd century AD and pressure from the nomadic Saharan Sanhaja. The camel transformed trade routes between North Africa and the Niger River, and the drying of the Sahel led to the shig of trade epicenters to the southern region, strengthening Ghana's vassals while weakening the core.  Ø CharacterisJcs of Pre-colonial African State: - The pre-colonial African state was characterized by an introspec:ve racial community where rulers focused on administra:on and affairs among tribal en::es. In many states, a noble foreigner ini:ated changes in the poli:cal system and modernity, as seen in Darfur, Wadai, Kanem-Borno, Ghana, and Hausa sultanate. These changes ogen occurred accidentally and amicably, rather than through an invasion from an outside power. The African dynas:es that cons:tuted governance and poli:cs in pre-colonial African states were deeply influenced by the Islamic creed, leading to major changes in social behavior, economic advancement, and poli:cal thought. Factors such as inter-marriage and the social immersion of Muslim immigrants, traders, scholars, and preachers facilitated the roo:ng of Islamic culture in pre-colonial African communi:es. Lecture (2): - The Slave Trade and European Rule in Africa: - Slavery is a legal system where one person is owned by another, with a slave considered property or cha7el. The prac:ce of physical suppression has been known for thousands of years, but ins:tu:onalized slavery emerged in Sumer, Mesopotamia, around 3500 BC. The pre-historic poli:cal state facilitated the ins:tu:on of slavery due to the lack of advanced laws of cap:vity and imprisonment. Each tribe had its laws and boundaries, and few inter-state common laws were established to address cap:ves of war or imprisoned persons. In some socie:es, prisoners were treated as slaves, while others enslaved the indebted un:l the debt was paid. In Southern Sudan, the Nam'nam tribal system allowed the sale of persons convicted of theJ and adultery. Ø Ancient Slavery: - Involved turning captives of tribal wars into slaves by conquerors. The 7th- century Pact Agreement between Nubia and Egypt allowed the transfer of Nubian slaves to Egypt. These slaves were captives of wars between Nubian states and other antagonists. The global slave trade transported between 10 million and 12 million enslaved Africans to the Americas from the 16th to the 19th century. Ø European Slave Trade: - By the 1480s Portuguese ships were already transporting African slaves to be employed in the sugar plantations in the Cape Verde and Madeira islands in the eastern Atlantic. By 1502, Spanish conquistadors took enslaved Africans to the Caribbean5. Ø American Slavery: - Slavery in America started in 1526, during the early colonial period, it was prac:ced in what became Britain's colonies, including the Thirteen Colonies that formed the United States. Under US law, an enslaved person was treated as property that could be bought, sold, or given away. Slavery lasted in about half of U.S. states un:l aboli:on in 1865.  Ø Triangular Trade: - Arms, tex:les, and wine were shipped from Europe to Africa, enslaved people from Africa to the Americas, and sugar and coffee from the Americas to Europe. Ø TransatlanJc Slave Trade: - During the 1600s, Dutch merchants became the top traders of enslaved people, while English and French merchants controlled about half of the transatlantic slave trade, primarily originating from West Africa between the Senegal and Niger rivers. Ø British – Spanish Monopoly of Slave Trade: - In 1713, Spain and Britain signed the 'Asiento de negros' (Agreement of Blacks), giving Britain a monopoly on enslaved trade with Spanish colonies. This policy was a key part of the Spanish government's control and profiting from the slave trade. Asientos were used to finance state expenditures and were given to merchants to bring slaves to the Americas. From 1595 to 1622, half of all imported slaves were destined for Mexico. Britain was entitled to supply 4,800 enslaved Africans per year for 30 years, with the South Sea Company, which held 22.5% of the contract. Ø American Slave Trade: - The 18th century saw the largest enslavement of people, with the Americas taking nearly three-fifths of the total transatlantic slave trade volume, according to historians. Ø Impact of Slave Trade in Africa: - Violation of Human Dignity: Capt. Luke Collingwood ordered over 130 Africans to be thrown overboard in 1781, leading to an atmosphere of lawlessness and violence.  Depopulation and fear of captivity hindered economic and agricultural development in western Africa. Left behind elderly, disabled, or dependent individuals, affecting their economic health. Estimated 10 to 15 percent of captives died on their way to the coast. Economic impact: An estimated 15 to 25 percent of enslaved Africans bound for the Americas died aboard slave ships. Impoverishment: Impoverished African countries in economic, political, social, legislative, and legal systems. Deterioration in governance and social instability: Direct product of centuries of colonization and slavery regimes. Ø Islamic Applied Practice for Elimination of Slavery: - The Islamic era, which began in the 7th century, saw the rampant practice of slavery through ancient Romans, Persians, Judaism, and Christianity. However, the emancipation of slaves began earlier before the establishment of the Islamic state in Al-Madeena through the freedom provided to Bilal ibn Rabah, the Muaazin of the Prophet. Many Quranic verses related repentance from sins by freeing slaves, and the Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) warned Muslims against practicing and trading in slavery. The second Khalifa of the Islamic State, Omar ibn AlKhattab, denounced the malpractices of the Governor of Egypt of the 7th century, Amr ibn Alaass, and declared that humans are born free and shall never be enslaved. This statement has been celebrated in the International Declaration of Human Rights, which states that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. Ø Measures to Abolish Slavery US & UK: - The US Congress incriminated the importation of enslaved people in 1808, while Britain outlawed slavery in 1833. Brazil banned enslaved trade in 1850, but the smuggling of newly enslaved individuals continued until Brazil enacted emancipation in 188810. Ø Efforts of Khedive Egypt on Suppression of Slavery: - The Khedive Turkish regime in Egypt's invasion of Sudan has been attributed to the spread of firearms used by slave traders. In 1839, Khedive Mohammad Ali Pasha declared the slave trade illegal in Sudan. In 1869, his grandson, Khedive Ismail Pasha, recruited British national Samuel Baker to invade Bahr Alghazal and eliminate the slave trade. In 1874, British General Charles Gordon was appointed as commissioner for the Equatorial state, but his efforts contradicted the declared policy. He announced the evacuation of Turkish and Egyptian public servants and the abolition of all laws criminalizing slavery, including the trade. Gordon's efforts were seen as a compromise in values for political interests. Ø International Conventions on Suppression of Slavery: - The 1926 Slavery Convention, created by the League of Nations, was signed on September 25, 1926, and registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series on March 9, 1927. The Geneva Conventions on Prisoners of War, adopted on August 12, 1949, are the most advanced international humanitarian jurisdiction, ending the practice of treating prisoners of war as slaves. The objective of these conventions was to confirm and advance the suppression of slavery and the slave trade, which was extended in 1956 with the Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery under the United Nations auspices. Lecturer (3): - Nationalism and Independence- : Ø Definition: - Nationalism is the tendency to support and uphold one's nation, particularly in the face of threats or the detriment of other nations' interests. It is a movement that advocates for harmony between a nation and its state, promoting its sovereignty, territorial integrity, and political independence. Nationalism is a belief in the existence of a nation and its pursuit of these goals, particularly during times of war. Ø History of African Nationalism: - African nationalism refers to various political ideologies in North, West, Central, East, and Southern Africa, focusing on self-determination and nation-state creation. It was a key part of the struggle for independence and decolonization, playing a significant role in Africa's decolonization. Nationalism encompasses various ideological and political movements, not to be confused with Pan-Africanism, which seeks the federation of all nation-states in Africa. Ø Nationalist Movement in Nigeria: - Othman Dan Fodio (1754 – 20 April 1817), founded the Sokoto Caliphate in 1803 which had borders that extended from Nigeria to Northern Cameroon. It stayed as a sovereign state until the European colonization of the region of West Africa by German, British, and French in 1903. Ø Nationalism in Sudan: - The early manifestation of African nationalism in Sudan was the Mahdist Revolution (1882-1899), which successfully mobilized the Sudanese nation and defeated Khedive Egypt, which invaded Sudan during the 1820-1885 period. The Mahdist established an independent government. The period following the Condominium colonization (1899-1956) saw a peaceful struggle for nationalism, with elite groups like the White Brigade Society, led by Ali Abdel Latif, revolting against colonial rule. The revolt lasted until Latif died in 1924.  Ø African Nationalist Leaders: - African Renaissance was a philosophy centered around the promotion and advancement of the African person, influenced by figures like William Edward Burghardt Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, Kwame Nkrumah, Ahmed Sékou Touré, and Frantz Fanon. Du Bois, born in the USA, was dubbed the 'Father of Pan-Africanism' at the Fifth Pan-African Congress in San Francisco in 1945. His work focused on the liberation and eradication of slavery, independence from colonization, and the solidarity of the African people. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was established in 1909, embodying some of these views. The most significant Pan-Africanist movement, similar to the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), was that of Booker T. Washington, who argued that Black people should temporarily abandon political power, civil rights, and higher education for industrial education, a concept synonymous with Progressive Realism. Washington's National Negro Business League emphasized the importance of industrial education over political power and civil rights. Ø South African Nationalism: - Founded in 1912, is a political nationalist organization advocating for the rights of black South Africans. The organization opposed the Institutionalized Apartheid policy of the National Party government in 1948. The armed struggle began in the 1960s, and South Africa gained freedom in 1991 through an agreement between Nelson Mandela and Frederik De Klerk. The 1994 elections saw the ANC emerge as the winner, ending the apartheid regime. Ø Nationalism in North Africa: - The Nationalist movement in North Africa began with the Free Officers Movement, which inspired independence and decolonization in African countries like Sudan, Libya, and Algeria. The movement, later known as "Nasserism," was named after Gamal Abdel Nasser, who ruled post-khedive Egypt from 1954-1970. Nasser was successful in advancing modern Egypt after the Khedive Dynasty's deposition in 1952. Anwar Sadat followed Nasser in governance, winning the war against Israel in 1973 and being the first Arab leader to form an agreement with Israel through the Camp David Peace Accords in 1978.  Ø Free Officers’ Movement: - The Free Officers' Movement, initiated by Ahmed Orabi in the early 1880s, aimed to end discrimination between Egyptian officers and non-Egyptian nationals in the army. The movement was influenced by the humiliating interference of England and France in Egypt's internal affairs, which demanded payment of nearly 20 million pounds for debts. Britain and France favored running the Egyptian treasury, benefiting from their ranking as the two largest creditors. The appointment of two financial inspectors in the Ministry of Treasury caused widespread disapproval among Egyptian society. The parliament voted against the motion, leading to the resignation of Prime Minister Mohamed Sharif Pasha in 1882. Mahmoud Sami al- Baroudi was elected prime minister, and Orabi was appointed defense minister. Khedive Tawfiq, a collaborator with England and France, secretly called for British military interference. In 1982, the British invaded Egypt and dissolved the Egyptian Army. Abdul Hamid II, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, secretly contacted Orabi and encouraged him to stand up against European intervention. Ø Patrice Lumumba: - Patrice Lumumba, a Congolese politician and African nationalist, played a significant role in the independence of the Congo. He served as the first prime minister of the independent Democratic Republic of the Congo from June to September 1960 and led the Congolese National Movement from 1958 until his execution by Katanga separatists in collaboration with Belgium. Ø Ahmed Sékou Touré: - A Guinean national and African nationalist was a key figure in the struggle for Guinea's independence from France. He founded the Post and Telecommunications Workers' Union (SPTT) in 1945 and later co-founded the General Union of Black African Workers (UGTAN) with Kwame Nkrumah, who later became the first president of independent Ghana. Touré also formed the All-African People's Revolutionary Party in 1968.  Ø Sheikh Omar Al Mukhtar: - Who fought for Libya's independence from Italian rule, was executed by the invading force after a seventy-plus-year martyrdom. His martyrdom attracted attention from Muslims and Arabs suffering from European occupation. Fifty years after his death, the Mahdist Revolution in Sudan invited the Sanussiyah sect in Libya to join the universal revolution against the infidels' colonization of Muslim nations. Ø Ben Bella: - Ahmed Ben Bella was the head of Algeria's government from 1962 to 1963 and the first president from 1963 to 1965. He played a crucial role in the Algerian War of independence against France, leading the FLN, organizing foreign weapons, and coordinating political strategy. Ben Bella pursued Pan-Arabism policies and became associated with Nasserism. He nationalized industries and established good relations with Arab states to support Palestinians against Zionist occupation. He was ousted in 1965 by Houari Boumédiéne. Ø Julius Nyerere: - Was a Tanzanian national, an Africanist, an anti-colonial activist, a politician, and a theorist. He governed Tanganyika from 1961 to 1962 and served as president from 1962 to 1964. He led Tanzania (Tanganyika and Zanzibar) from 1964 to 1985. Nyerere was a founding member and chair of the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) party and its successor party, Chama Cha Mapinduzi. He pursued the Pan-Africanist project for an East African Federation composed of Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya. Nyerere is considered the founder of African Socialism (Ujamaa), an economic system of social development based on cooperation, promotion, and organization of village production units. He issued the Arusha Declaration in 1967, which contained his views on African Socialism. He was criticized for waging a two-year war with Uganda between 1978 and 1979, leading to the overthrow of Ugandan President General Idi Amin and the National Resistance Movement led by Yoweri Museveni. Lecturer (4): - Legacies of Colonial Rule: - Ø The Case for Colonialism starts with citing services offered to the colonized communities such as: - Encouragement of literacy; - Enforced assimilation of Western values and standards on colonized communities; - Sowing the seeds for democratic institutions and systems of government in isolated cases; - Development of infrastructure like railways, postal service, etc; Ø Scramble for Africa: - Modern colonialism began with the "Age of Discovery" led by the Portuguese, who expanded after conquering Ceuta in 1415 to control navigation through the Strait of Gibraltar. Ø Origins of the European Slave Trade: - The European slave trade originated in 1452 when Pope Nicholas V issued the Doctrine of Discovery, authorizing King Alfonso V of Portugal to subjugate the Saracens, Muslims, and pagans, and reduce their persons to servitude. In 1455, Pope Nicholas V issued Romanus Pontifex, which extended Portugal's authority to conquer lands of infidels and pagans for "the salvation of all" and to "pardon... their souls." The Doctrine of Discovery was later introduced into United States Municipal Law by Supreme Court Justice John Marshall in Johnson v. McIntosh (1823). This doctrine granted the discovering nation the right to conquer territory against all other European nations, and colonization was necessary to save souls and seize lands for the growth of the Church. Christian missionaries were among the first to make inroads into new lands, importing religious and cultural customs and a paternalistic attitude toward the colony's Native inhabitants. Slave traders in every European country participated in the Atlantic slave trade, capturing and kidnapping communities from West, Central, and South African regions and forcing them to perform labor that enriched their empires overseas. Ø The Slave Trade: - The Slave Trade, a significant aspect of colonialism, involved the enforced recruitment and enslavement of Indigenous people for the benefit of colonial powers, such as in Brazil, where Bandeirantes enslaved natives for Portuguese-established plantations and mines.  Ø The Scramble for Africa: - The Scramble for Africa refers to the mass colonization of Africa by seven Western European powers during the New Imperialism era (1833-1914). This was driven by advanced nautical technology and the desire to find an alternative "Silk Road" after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. European exploration of Africa was followed by Spanish exploration of the Americas, further exploration along African coasts, and explorations of West Asia, South Asia, and East Asia. Ø Conference of Berlin: - The Berlin Conference, organized by Otto von Bismarck, was a General Act regulating European colonization and trade in Africa from 1884-1886. It was attended by 14 countries including Germany, France, the UK, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, the United States, and Portugal, at the request of Leopold II of Belgium. Ø Ethnic Partition: - The process through which the colonized nation was divided into ethnic entities and partitioning of social communities with the aim of creating artificial states that mimic the values and traditions of the colonizers. Ø Hegemony on Resources: - African continent's resources were monopolized by Europeans like De Beers Diamond magnate in Botswana and South Africa and British imperialist Cecil. Rhodes in Zimbabwe and Zambia has a grave history of colonialism, causing poverty, income inequality, and unbalanced development. Many residents are calling for the removal of monuments honoring Rhodes, claiming his influence led to apartheid. Ø Loss of Human Resources: - The African continent suffered from a loss of human resources and talent for centuries, with 12.5 million enslaved Africans transported to the Americas between 1500 and 1866. This forced young and mature populations into slavery, causing a lack of human resources and disintegrating biological evolution, regeneration, and natural reproduction processes. Central Africa lost up to one-third of its population during colonial rule.  Ø Enforcement of Foreign Values, Traditional Governance, and Inherited: - Colonial powers justified their conquests by claiming a legal and religious obligation to control Indigenous peoples' land and culture. They portrayed themselves as civilizing "barbaric" or "savage" nations, acting in the best interests of those they exploited. This fallacy was exposed by African slave descendants like Alex Haley, who wrote "ROOTS" about the origins of his slave grandfathers from Gambia. Ø Transfer of Technology and Know-How: - Following coercion and forced assimilation, colonial governments invested in infrastructure, trade, and medical and technological knowledge. However, the rule of law, democracy, accountability, and competence were sacrificed for centuries. Infrastructure was designed for transporting raw materials and personnel to the colonizers and bringing manufactured goods into the colonies. Ø Lawlessness and Misgovernance: - The legacy of colonial misrule and bad governance in Africa continues to manifest in many post-colonial countries, particularly in West African and Sahelian countries like Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Guinea, and Cote d'Ivoire. The Democratic Republic of Congo, despite its rich resources, has struggled to achieve sustainable stability since its independence in the 1960s. The legacy of colonial misadministration has led to hundreds of militias fighting against the current government, with rebellious groups collaborating with neighboring countries like Rwanda, Uganda, and Burundi. These militias often seek assistance from foreign powers in the region and beyond. Ø Policy of Divide and Rule: - The colonial regime in Africa deliberately divided traditional communities, leading to the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. This division has impacted the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) as neighboring countries threaten peace and stability. In Sudan, the colonial regime has also influenced the political landscape in the region.  Ø Future Time-Bombs: - Post-colonial conflicts often stem from colonial arbitrary demarcation of territories, as seen in Somali-Kenya, Somali-Ethiopian, Western Sahara-Morocco-Algeria, Angola-DRC, and others. These conflicts have become like time bombs, exploding at any time to further weaken states. For example, the Rwandan coalition's war against the DRC in 1997, involving Rwanda, Uganda, and Angola, resulted in thousands of deaths, millions of displacements, and widespread instability in the North and South Kivu provinces of eastern DRC. Ø Interruption of the Process of Natural Development & African Governance: - The colonization of Africa has disrupted the natural process of economic development and governance, leading to population decimation and resource pillage. This has disrupted the cycle of evolutionary development, denying African colonized communities the adherence to their traditional values, culture, religions, languages, governance, and identity. Post-colonial African societies are now artificial replicas of the colonizer. Ø Segregation in America: - American slavery began in the early 17th century when the British Empire colonized America. Kidnapped Africans were sold to European colonists and later American citizens. Slavery spread rapidly in the late 18th century, with leaders like George Washington and Thomas Jefferson declaring themselves slaveholders from Virginia. This marked the beginning of transatlantic slavery in the American colonies. Ø Zionism in Palestine: - Zionism, an ethno-cultural nationalist movement, emerged in Europe in the late 19th century, with Theodor Herzl as its founder. Herzl envisioned a future independent Jewish state in Palestine in his 1896 pamphlet Der Judenstaat. The Jewish community in Britain collaborated with British foreign minister Arthur Balfour to produce the Declaration for a Jewish State in Palestine in 1917. After WWI, Turkey and Germany lost territories, including Palestine, which was turned into a Mandate by Britain. The Jewish Lobby in America convinced Congress to endorse the Balfour Declaration in 1922. In 1947, the British ended their Mandate on Palestine, and the land was turned to Jewish armed militias who destroyed Palestinian villages and towns. Egypt suffered from Zionist expansionist policy, occupying the Sinai Desert and parts of the Suez Channel until the October 1973 war. In 1978, the Camp David Agreement was signed between Israel and Egypt. Lecturer (5): - The State in Contemporary Africa: - Ø Establishment of State: - The establishment of the modern and contemporary African state has been realized by the emergence of the post-colonial state that emerged after the era of slavery, colonialism, and post-independence. The contemporary African state has passed through two stages of development to reach its current status of political stature. Ø The First State of the African Post-Colonial State: - The first stage of the African post-colonial state began after colonial powers evicted African territories in the early 1960s. Countries like Egypt, Sudan, Tunisia, and Ghana began the process of independence earlier than others in central and West Africa. The leaders of these countries, such as Nasser in Egypt, Ismail al-Azhari in Sudan, Bourgaiba in Tunisia, Kwame Nkrumah in Ghana, Sékou Touré in Guinea, and Patrice Lumumba in Congo, were praised for their struggle and dedication to the cause of independence. The African parents of independence focused on speeding up the evacuation of the colonial regime, rather than focusing on principles of good governance, democracy, and human rights. This post-colonial system of governance, state administration, and political thinking was a direct result of colonial misrule and bad governance, which delegated the governance of African peoples to military generals who led invasions as a reward for their sinister work. Ø Second Stage of the African Post-Independence State: - The second stage of the African Post Independence State, which began after colonial armies were evacuated, has seen the establishment of sovereign governance, state institutions like parliament, political parties, judiciary, rules for peaceful power transfer, and border security.  Ø Characteristics of Continental Governance: - In the 2nd stage of the contemporary African political system, the major characteristic at the level of continental governance was the formation of the African collective continental institutions. The major and most important continental institutions of the post-colonial period are: v The Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963. v The African Union (AU) in 2002. v Regional Economic Communities (RECs). The AU has endorsed eight RECs to be representative of the different continental regions in the areas of economic, social, environmental, and security. AMU: Arab Maghreb Union CEN–SAD: Community of Sahel–Saharan States COMESA: Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa EAC: East African Community ECCAS: Economic Community of Central African States ECOWAS: Economic Community of West African States IGAD: Intergovernmental Authority on Development SADC: Southern African Development Community Ø African Vision 2063: - The African Union (AU) adopted the African Vision 2063 on 31 January 2015, aiming to guide the development of modern African states 50 years after the first continental body established independent leaders to address economic development, security, and integration. The vision is a collective roadmap for the coming 50 years, endorsed by the entire African population, aiming to lead Africa with a shared vision. Ø AUDA/NEPAD: - The African Union Development Agency (AUDA/NEPAD) is responsible for administering the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) and representing the African continent's development and integration programs. In July 2018, the NEPAD Agency was transformed into the first development agency of the African Union, AUDA-NEPAD, with a strengthened mandate to accelerate the realization of Agenda 2063. Ø Good Governance APRM: - The African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) is a self-monitoring mechanism established by the African Union (AU) member states in 2003. Its mandate is to promote political, economic, and corporate governance values, codes, and standards among African countries, ensuring monitoring and evaluation of AU Agenda 2063 and SDGs 2030. Sudan has been part of APRM since 2006, following the AU Summit in Khartoum, where a National Secretariat for APRM/NEPAD was established under the president's direct supervision. Ø African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AFCFTA): - The African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AFCFTA), established in 2018, has 43 accredited state parties and 11 signatories. It is the largest free-trade area in Africa, after the World Trade Organization (WTO). The AFCFTA aims to increase socioeconomic development, reduce poverty, and enhance Africa's global economic competitiveness. On January 13, 2022, the AFCFTA established the Pan-African Payment and Settlement System (PAPSS), allowing payments between African companies in any local currency. Ø The Challenges of Contemporary African States: - Contemporary African states face numerous challenges, including economic and development issues, cultural and ethnic diversity, administration challenges, peaceful power transfer, and recurring military coups. Since September 2021, many Sahel region countries have experienced a military change of government due to civilian elected governments' failures, such as Guinea, Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, and Cote d'Ivoire. These challenges highlight the complexity of managing state affairs in modern African societies. Ø The African Debt: - The African state faces a persistent challenge in debt, with a total debt of over $655.6 billion in 2022. The incurred costs of interest and service for this amount, expected to be paid for creditor institutions and countries by 2024, amount to approximately $89.4 billion, representing over 13% of the principal, which is a high rate and could be unaffordable.  Ø Debt Restructuring: - In 1988, the G-7, the richest industrial states, agreed to reduce debt restructuring in poor countries, primarily in Africa, by a third. However, this initiative proved inadequate as principal interest rates are typically higher than market rates and continue to increase due to exponential equations and penalties for repetitive defaults, resulting in increased borrowing costs. Ø The Administration of African State: - The African state has been plagued by a governance system inherited from the colonial regime, which has failed the African people for 65 years since the 1960s. The system was not designed to benefit the African state but to perpetuate colonial rule. Africans have to adopt a system that finds the respect and satisfaction of the majority, rather than mimicking foreign and inherited political systems. Ø Diversity and Governance: - The challenge of managing diversity in governance has led to conflicts, armed resentment, and military coups in countries like Sudan, Nigeria, and Congo since their independence. To address this issue, it is suggested to develop traditional African governance systems, including the adoption of federal and autonomous systems. These systems have been successful in large and small states, such as the USA, Canada, Switzerland, India, and Nigeria. Central governance failures have caused unbalanced development and instability in Sudan's long war, Nigeria's Biafra war, and Congo's Katanga war. The political instability and flawed security in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) are attributed to the adoption of colonial governance and the lack of satisfaction and trust among citizens in their rulers. The Nigerian experience in federalism, which has been ongoing since independence, could be a reasonable solution for better governance and administration in countries with multi-ethnic richness and cultural diversity. Lecturer (6): - Race, Ethnicity, and Politics in the African Post-colonial State: - Ø Definition of Ethnicity: - Ethnicity is a crucial aspect of understanding the political process in African states, with three basic elements: shared cultural attributes, consciousness, and boundaries. Africa is rich in ethnic diversity, with countries like Nigeria, Sudan, South Africa, and Congo DRC having hundreds of ethnic groups. However, colonial systems have used this diversity as a divisive tool to perpetuate colonization, highlighting the importance of understanding and addressing ethnic diversity in African states. Ø Definition of Race: - Race is a term used to describe a group of people with similar physical traits, cultural background, language, religion, or geographical origin, often referred to as a group of people with a shared ancestry. Ø Racial Discrimination: - Racial discrimination, as defined by the United Nations in Article I of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), refers to any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin that nullifies or impairs the recognition, enjoyment, or exercise of human rights and fundamental freedoms in various fields of public life. Ø The Tribe in Colonial Time: - In colonial times, tribes were considered part of the natural order and used as the basis for administrative organization. In Sudan, the colonial regime introduced the 'Native Administration' in 1922, granting tribal leaders limited authority to autonomously administer their tribes and connect them to colonial administrators. This system impaired the democratic process and led to the colonial principle of "divide & rule." This led to the disintegration of South Sudan, the Nubian tribes of South Kurdufan, and some tribes in Southern Blue Nile provinces. The "Closed District Ordinances" in 1922 made it illegal for Sudanese from Northern Sudan to enter these areas without a special license. This practice resulted in a de-facto disintegration of the country, separating it administratively into separate parts and making daily contact with same-country nationals difficult. The Naivasha agreements signed in 2005 between the South Sudan rebel movement and the Sudan Liberation Movement (SPLM) in Nairobi, Kenya, provided for rights of referendum, self-determination, and separation. South Sudan became a separate state in 2011. In other African regions under European colonization, German colonial administrators relied heavily on native chiefs for order and tax collection. Ø The African Pre-colonial State: - The pre-colonial African state was a national multi-ethnic state that respected self- rule and traditional African governance. This was evident in pre-colonial states like Sudan, such as the Blue Sultanate, Darfur Sultanate, and Tagali Sultanate. Before European colonial powers, the kingdoms of Borno, Wadai, Fitri, and Sokoto were sovereign states with many nations and tribes. European colonial regimes enforced immoral laws, causing devastation of the African governance system, social disintegration, and resource pillaging, leading to ethnic conflicts in most post- independent African states. Ø Ethnicity and Discrimination: - The pygmy Batwa, a pygmy population in the Democratic Republic of Congo, has been subjected to race-based discrimination from their Bantu neighbors. The Batwa, also known as Bambuti or Bambote, are allegedly exploited and enslaved by other groups and political armed rebellion. Rebel leader Laurent-Désiré Kabila organized the Twa into paramilitary groups during his rebellious war against the state. The Bantu expansion brought them back into close contact. Ø Missionary Indoctrination and Colonial Misgovernance: - In 1885, the German government granted an imperial charter to Peters' Company, allowing them to establish a protectorate in the African Great Lakes region. Catholic missionaries arrived in the region in the 1880s, but conflicts arose during World War I. The Tutsi resisted conversion, and the Hutu tribes were successful. The colonial government confiscated Tutsi land and reassigned it to Hutu tribes, leading to a conflict that lasted into the 21st century. The Hutus-Tutsis conflict culminated in the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, highlighting the deadliest acts of colonial misgovernance and degrading of humanity.  Ø Racist Governance in South Africa: - The origins of South African racism can be traced back to the Dutch East India Company's settlement at Cape of Good Hope in 1652, which was a hub for slave traders, with many imported from the company's established settlements in India and the East Indies. Ø The Apartheid Regime: - ‘Apartheid’ in Afrikaans (the language of the Dutch settlers who occupied South Africa) word meaning "separateness", or "the state of being apart", literally "apart- hood") was a system of racial segregation in South Africa enforced through legislation by the National Party, the governing party of the Apartheid government from 1948 to 1994. Ø Racial Discrimination in Namibia: - In 1904, the Herero tribe in Namibia rebelled against German colonial rule, leading to the Herero and Namaqua Genocide. The Germans defeated the Herero in the Battle of Waterberg and drove them into the desert of Omaheke, where they died from thirst, hunger, and abandonment. The United Nations' Whitaker Report classified the German colonization and massacres as an attempt to exterminate the Herero and Nama peoples of South-West Africa and designated them as one of the earliest attempts at Genocide in the 20th century. The Apartheid government of South Africa administered the country by mandate from 1915-1990. The Resolution of Mandate was granted to the racist government by the League of Nations but was revoked in 1966 by the United Nations Resolution No. 2145. The Namibian liberation movement, the Southwest African People's Organization SWAPO, was launched in 1966, and negotiations between the South African Apartheid government and SWAPO began in 1988 for Namibia's independence.  Ø Rhodesia Racial Government: - Southern Rhodesia, a landlocked nation from 1965 to 1979, was one of two African states governed by a white minority of European descent and culture, the other being Apartheid South Africa. In 1923, the British South Africa Company, led by Cecil Rhodes, chartered territory north of the Transvaal. In 1923, the company's charter was revoked, and Rhodesia attained self-government. The new nation, Rhodesia, initially sought recognition as an autonomous realm within the Commonwealth of Nations but reconstituted itself as a republic in 1970. In 1978, the racial Prime Minister, Ian Smith, conceded to majority rule. Zimbabwe achieved internationally- recognized independence in 1980. Ø International Law: - The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) was adopted in 1965 by the UN General Assembly. It aims to promote universal respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, without distinction based on race, sex, language, or religion. The UN condemns colonialism and all practices of segregation and discrimination associated with it. Discrimination based on race, color, or ethnic origin is an obstacle to friendly and peaceful relations among nations and can disturb peace and security. CERD has become a global instrument used by the international community to combat colonization, racial discrimination, and genocide. The maintenance and sustainability of international peace and security are now viewed through the vision of respecting the human rights and dignity of all people. Lecture (7): - Religion and Politics in the African Contemporary State: - Ø The Role of Religion and Politics in Europe: - The medieval monarchical states of Europe were dominated by the church, which played a significant role in politics. The church deliberately splintered political power in Europe through temporal alliances, funding proxy wars, launching crusades, and advancing ideology. The church used its wealth, spiritual weapons, and military alliances to fragment territorial authority and ensure its autonomy. Ø Role of Religion in Ancient Africa: - The Kingdom of Kush, with its capital at Kerma, marked a significant period where Nubians maintained their distinct religious practices despite Egyptian dominance, as seen in the elaborate burials of the Classic Kerma Period (ca. 1750-1450 BC). Ø Church and Colonization: - The 15th-century colonization of Europe, North and South America, and other countries was fueled by the Papal Ordinance issued by Pope Nicholas V to King Alfonso V in 1452. This allowed Christian monarchs to invade non-Christian nations and enforce Christian indoctrination, leading to a significant slave trade. The Papal Ordinance also designated non- Christian nations and communities, such as Muslims and pagans, as enemies of Christ. Muslims, however, do not view Jesus Christ as enemies of Jesus Christ. They believe in the Quranic verses, which recognize Jesus as the prophet of Allah and the story of the Virgin. Christians believe Jesus was killed through crucifixion, while Muslims believe Jesus was raised alive in sleepiness. The crucified person was considered a sincere disciple of Jesus Christ who consented to become a martyr and sacrifice himself. In Quran, the verses on the birth of Jesus Christ are narrated in descriptive details as follows: “And mention [O Muhammad], in the Book [the story of] Mary, when she withdrew from her family to a place toward the east. And she took, in seclusion from them, a screen. Then We sent to her Our Angel, and he represented himself to her as a well-proportioned man. She said, “Indeed, I seek refuge in the Most Merciful from you, [so leave me], if you should be fearing of Allah”. He said, “I am only the messenger of your Lord to give you [news of] a pure boy”. She said, “How can I have a boy while no man has touched me and I have not been unchaste?” He said, “Thus [it will be]; your Lord says, ‘It is easy for Me, and We will make him a sign to the people and a mercy from Us. And it is a matter [already] decreed.” The Holy Quran - Surat Maryam - (The Chapter of Merry) – Verses 16- 21.  Ø The Papal State (756 to 1870): - The Papal State (756-1870) was an autonomous territory on the Italian Peninsula, administered by the Pope. It was a significant manifestation of the religious state and the Church's interference in European academic, social, and political life for over eleven centuries. The Church imposed restrictions on research, blocked free thinking, and opposed religious and societal reform until mass revolutions like the French Revolution and the Marxist-Leninist Revolution challenged both Catholic and Orthodox forms of Christianity. Ø Vatican City: - Vatican City, established in 1929, is a religious administration based on the Catholic Church's doctrine. The Pope, the head of the Catholic Church, holds absolute powers and exercises principal legislative, executive, and judicial powers over the state. The Vatican authority is a living embodiment of the medieval monarchy system, where kings held both religious and temporal powers. The title "Holy See" refers to the seat of the Catholic Church and serves as the official religious address of the Pope. In the modern political state, the Pope is equivalent to the head of state and government. Ø Role of Religion in the African State: - The African continent was home to ancient civilization and the oldest human communities, with the Nubian Kushite dynasties and Abyssinian Axum being the apex kingdoms. Kerma, located in northern Sudan, was the first settled human community around 8350 BC. The A Group Culture (ca. 3700 - 2800 BC) revealed domestication of animals, agricultural cultivation, elaborate pottery, and ivory amulets, figurines, and necklaces. Kerma later developed into a large urban center around a large adobe temple. The 25th Dynasty ruled the Nile Valley from Kerma to Pharaonic Egypt, known as the Kushite Empire. King Menes, considered the founder of the First Dynasty, united Upper and Lower Egypt. An anthropological study by S.O.Y. Keita found that the predominant pattern of the 1st dynasty Egyptian crania was "Southern" or "tropical African," with affinities to Kerma Kushites. The Twelfth Dynasty, accomplished by Amenemhat I, fulfilled full control of Kushite lands and peace with Egypt. The Kushite dynasty based all activities and legitimacy on religion, with the god Ra ruling in all parts of the created world. Ø Impact of Religion in the Pre-Colonial African State: - Religion played a significant role in the pre-colonial African state, serving as a source of legitimacy and stable governance. Many pre-colonial states were Muslim due to the majority's Islam during the time of Christian European invasion. The Islamic creed views religious life as intertwined with other activities, with Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) considered both messenger and head of state and government. In Islam, rulers and religious scholars are not infallible, but must adhere to the Quran and authenticated ordinances. Islamic rulers operate in a Shura environment, similar to democracy, but with a focus on consultation, majority opinion, and consensus in state affairs. This system of governance and religious practices emphasized the importance of religion in shaping the pre-colonial African state. In The Holy Quran, the Shura Chapter states: “And those who have responded to their Lord and established prayer and whose affair is [determined by] consultation among themselves, and from what We have provided them, they spend.” Verse No. 38 - Ash-Shura Chapter. Ø Pre-colonial African States under Islamic Rule: - Pre-colonial African states under Islamic rule had a significant impact on demography, culture, economy, and political thinking. These states included the Blue Sultanate in Sennar, Darfur Sultanate, Takrur, Wadai Abasi Sultanate, Kingdom of Kanem Borno, Hausa kingdoms, and The Sokoto States. The ancient African dynasty of Ghana (300-1054) had its seat in Awdaghost, which fell to the Almoravids Dynasty in 1054, an Islamic Berber dynasty centered in Morocco. These states had a significant influence on African history and governance. Ø Impact of Religion on the Contemporary African State: - The contemporary African state has been influenced by the colonial system, which was based on tribal rules and religious beliefs. The colonial regimes, including the English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish, maintained these jurisdictions without considering the views of the colonized through referendums, elections, or popular consultation. The Islamic states of pre- colonial Africa based their legitimacy on the religious scripture of Shar'ia as the basic source of laws. Post-independence African states, in their majority, followed secular political concepts and jurisdictions inherited from the colonial government. Sudan has been governed by Islamic Shar'ia for four centuries, governed by the regimes of The Blue Sultanate, the Khedive Egypt, and the Mahdist. After the British colonial governor General Reginald Wingate abolished the Shar'ia penal code in 1899, Indo-English secular laws replaced the Shar'ia. It took over 83 years until the People's Council of President General Jaafar Numeri endorsed the resumption of Shar'ia law as the source of jurisdiction in Sudan in 1983. Ø African Practices in Religious Jurisdictions: - The Nigerian constitution is a mixed legal system combining English common law, Islamic law, and traditional law, based on federal democratic rule. Twelve federal states apply Sharia laws, with the right to choose Sharia laws pending a referendum or parliamentary consensus. Other African countries include Comoros, Egypt, The Gambia, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Somalia. The Nigerian constitution is practical for administration and recognition of social and cultural diversity, while the Gambia constitution identifies Sharia as a source of law in personal status and inheritance matters. Other African countries also adopt Sharia laws, such as Morocco's Code of Personal Status and Somalia's constitution, which ensures compliance with Sharia principles.