Communication Theories Notes PDF

Chapter 1: Introduction of Communication Theories Introduction Communication is essential for human interaction, akin to food and water for survival. It involves the transmission of messages from a sender to a receiver. What is Communication? Derived from the Latin word...

Chapter 1: Introduction of Communication Theories Introduction Communication is essential for human interaction, akin to food and water for survival. It involves the transmission of messages from a sender to a receiver. What is Communication? Derived from the Latin word "COMMUNIS," meaning common or shared understanding. Communication is a purposeful effort to establish commonness between a source and receiver. Definitions of Communication 1. General Definition: The process by which any person or groups share and impacts information to another person, so that both people clearly understand one another. 2. Alternative Definition: Any means by which a thought is transferred from one person to another. What is Theory? The term "theory" comes from the ancient Greek word "theoria," which originally meant contemplation, observation or speculation. In modern science, a theory is a scientific explanation developed through the scientific method. Characteristics of Theory Theories are formulated to be tested through experiments. They can be supported or disproven based on empirical evidence. Theories differ from hypotheses, which are specific ideas that can be tested. Theory vs. Model Theory: A big idea that explains why things happen in the world. Model: A simplified version or representation of something real. Purpose Theory: Helps understand and predict phenomena (e.g., why the sky is blue). Model: Helps us visualize, study, or test things that are too complex or big to work with directly (e.g., a toy model of a car). Examples Theory Example: The theory of gravity explains why objects fall. Model Example: A toy car model illustrates how a real car functions. Communication Theory vs. Communication Model Communication Theories: Big ideas explaining why we communicate (e.g., Social Exchange Theory-we communicate to get something we want,like friendship or help). Communication Models: Simple pictures or diagrams showing the step-by-step process of communication (e.g., The Shannon-Weaver Model - communication involves a sender, a message, a channel and a receiver). Purpose of Communication Theories Explain the use of language, relationship building, and reactions to messages. Purpose of Communication Models Visualize the communication process, identifying the sender, message, channel, and receiver. Chapter 2: Objective and Interpretive Communication Theories Aspect Objective Communication Interpretive Communication Theories Theories Overview Focuses on the mechanics and Focuses on the subjective elements patterns of communication. of communication. Definition Objective = based on real facts and Interpret: to decide what the not influenced by personal beliefs intended meaning of something (to or feelings understand and explain the meaning of a message) Characteristics Emphasizes observable and Concentrates on how people measurable aspects. create and interpret Analyzes how messages are meaning. sent, received, and Considers cultural, social, and understood. individual factors influencing communication. Nature Concerned with describing, Aims to understand the explaining, and predicting meanings people communication ascribe(give) to phenomena as observed in communication processes. the real world. Explores how individuals Aims for an objective and create and interpret empirical understanding of messages. communication processes. Explore how people assign significance to messages Explore how communication is influenced by factors like languange, culture and individual experiences. Focus Relies on empirical Understanding research, data collection, communication as a process and scientific analysis. of creating and interpreting To uncover patterns and meaning. regularities in Emphasizes the subjective communication behavior. and context-dependent Seeks to answer questions nature of communication. like: Investigates how individuals construct and interpret 1. How does messages in social communication work? interactions.  2. What are the observable effects of communication? Assumptions Assumes that objective Assumes that communication truths and universal is about creating meaning, principles in not just transmitting communication can be information. discovered through Emphasizes that meaning is systematic research. subjective and varies based Aims to uncover general on personal interpretations, laws or regularities in cultural backgrounds, and communication social contexts. phenomena. Example Diffusion of Innovations Theory: Symbolic Interactionism Theory: Developed by Everett Developed by George Rogers in 1962. Herbert Mead and extended Explains how new ideas, by Herbert Blumer. products, or technologies Posits that individuals create spread through a social meaning through symbols system over time. (e.g., words, gestures) during To understand the process social interactions. by which innovations are Explores how individuals' adopted and diffused by interpretations of symbols individuals/groups. shape their behaviors, identities, and relationships. Conclusion Objective Theories: Aim for an empirical understanding of communication processes through research and analysis. Interpretive Theories: Highlight the importance of understanding communication within specific social and cultural contexts, providing insights into how individuals assign meaning to their interactions. Chapter 3: Classification Attempts of Communication Theories Introduction Communication theory encompasses a wide range of ideas. There is no universal agreement among theorists on a common framework. Scholars have expressed a need for better organization of communication theories. Attempt 1: Human Communication Theory Richmond and McCroskey Two Groups: 1. Rhetorical Communication: Focuses on influence and persuasion. 2. Relational Communication: Addresses interaction, interpersonal relationships, and shared messages and the creation of shared meanings in contexts. Limitations: This classification is not exhaustive and fails to cover all communication theories. Attempt 2: Historical Origin Three Approaches (Löblich and Scheu, 2011): Focus: theories themselves, the theorist who developed them and the research institution. o Intellectual Approach: It looks at how communication theories have evolved in terms of their origins, ideas, paradigms, and research methods. o Biographical Approach: it focuses on the life stories of famous communication scholars, showing how their personal experiences influenced the field. o Institutional Approach: it explores how specific academic or research institutions have contributed to communication theory. Limitations: Many ideas emerged simultaneously, making it hard to attribute them to a single source. Attempt 3: Thematic Domains Thematic Domains (Littlejohn, 1996): o Structural and functional theories o Cognitive and behavioral theories o Interactionist theories o Interpretive theories o Critical theories  Alternative Themes (Wood, 2004): o Symbolic activity o Performance o Meaning o Relationships o Communities o Postmodern thinking Limitations: Lack of standardized vocabulary leads to incoherence in the field. Attempt 4: Contexts of Communication contexts of communication as criteria for grouping theories. "context" refers to the situation or environment in which communication takes place. Scholars have also categorized theories based on the context in which communication occurs. Contexts of Communication Intrapersonal Communication o Focuses on communication within oneself. o Theories address the individual or "the self." Interpersonal Communication o Involves communication between individuals. o Theories focus on interactions and relationships. Group Communication o Pertains to communication within a group. o Examines dynamics and interactions in small groups. Public Communication o Involves communication to a larger audience. o Often includes speeches, presentations, and public speaking. Mass Communication o Refers to communication to a vast audience through media. o Includes television, radio, newspapers, and online platforms. Limitation: the theories divided into different contexts remain unintegrated and separated, while the rich multidisciplinary origins and influences of theories are not acknowledged. Craig Classification Developed by Robert T. Craig in 1999. Introduces a metamodel called the Seven Traditions of Communication Theory. o "Traditions" refers to distinct schools of thought or approaches in communication studies. o Aims to unify various theories and acknowledge their multidisciplinary origins. Chapter 4: 7 Traditions of Communication Theory Introduction In 1999, Robert T. Craig introduced a framework for understanding communication theory. He identified seven traditions that group theories and perspectives with similar points of origin and share representation of communication. Traditions: distinct schools of thought or approaches to studying communication. These traditions serve as a constitutive metamodel, helping to unify diverse communication theories. Metamodel: A framework that organizes and makes sense of various theories. Goals (constitutive metamodel): to present a way to unify the intellectual diversity of communication theory due to “certain complementaries and tensions” between existing communication theories. Craig’s Seven Traditions 1. The Rhetorical Tradition o Rhetoric: the art of speaking or writing to persuade or influence people. o A way of thinking about communication that uses specific words and concepts. o Focuses on persuasive communication, especially in public speaking. o Meta-discursive vocabulary key concepts include: ▪ Art ▪ Audience ▪ Persuasion ▪ Argument ▪ Logic ▪ Emotion ▪ Symbol ▪ Public address ▪ Discourse o Example: Political speeches using techniques like ethos, pathos, and logos to persuade audiences (to appeal to their audience's values, emotions, and logic). o Meta-discursive: Discuss the language and terminology used when discussing communication or discourse. 2. The Phenomenological Tradition (interpretive worldview) o Phenomenology: the study of phenomena and how we experience them. o Studies individual experiences and how they shape communication and understanding of the world. o Emphasizes subjective experience of individuals and how they understand and interpret the world around them. o Focuses on the meanings that individuals assign to their experiences, emphasizing personal perception and consciousness. o Example: Cancer survivors sharing their unique narratives about fear and hope.(subjective experiences) o Example: Communicating personal experiences about different phenomena (war, peace, love, harmony) 3. The Semiotic Tradition o Semiotic: people communicate through signs and images. o Semiotics: the study of verbal and nonverbal signs that can stand for something else, and how their interpretation impacts society. o Examines communication through signs and symbols. o Focuses on how meaning is shared and interpreted. o Example: Advertising, body language, cultural symbols, and emojis. 4. The Sociopsychological Tradition o Sociopsychological: involving a combination of social and psychological factors. o Views communication as Interpersonal Interaction and Influence. It conceives communication as a social process of expression, interaction, and influence o Combines insights from psychology and sociology - to explore how individual behaviors, attitudes, and social contexts influence communication processes. o Example: Theories on interpersonal communication in the workplace, focusing on trust, conflict resolution and enhancing motivation and engagement. 5. The Sociocultural Tradition o Sociocultural: involving combination of social and cultural factors. o Focuses on how people collectively act through communication. o Key Concepts: o Our interactions and shared culture shape our worldview. o A hybrid of theoretical perspectives mixed together from the academic disciplines of social psychology, sociology, anthropology (study of mankind), and semiotics (study of signs). o Example: o In Japan, bowing signifies respect, while in many Western cultures, a handshake indicates agreement and professionalism. o These cultural norms influence communication behaviors. 6. The Cybernetic Tradition o Cybernetic: information is moved about and controlled in machines (mechanical or electronic systems such as computers, robots, and communication devices) and in the human brain. o Definition: The study of information processing, feedback, and control in communication systems. o Key Concepts: o Communication is viewed as a system with interrelated components (communicators, messages, mediums, feedback). o Emphasizes a systematic and holistic approach to communication. o Example: o Shannon and Weaver's Model of Communication: ▪ Sender: The person or device transmitting the message. ▪ Encoder: Converts the message into signals. ▪ Channel: The medium through which the message is sent. ▪ Decoder: Interprets the signals back into the original message. ▪ Receiver: The person or device that receives the message. ▪ Feedback: The response from the receiver to the sender. o This model illustrates the systematic nature of communication and the importance of feedback. 7. The Critical Tradition o Criticism: the act of giving your opinion or judgement about the good or bad qualities of something or someone. o Definition: Sees communication as a means to question and confront unfair or biased forms of communication. o Key Concepts: o Engages in critique and analysis of media and communication practices. o Aims to uncover hidden agendas and challenge societal power structures. o Example: o Framing Theory: How news stories are presented can influence public perception. ▪ For instance, labeling Hamas fighters as 'criminals' versus 'martyrs' can shape societal attitudes and impact policy decisions. Chapter 5: Interpersonal Communication (Social Penetration Theory) Introduction Theorists: Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor in 1973. Tradition: Sociopsychological Worldview: Objective theory Explains how relationships develop and evolve over time. Suggests that relationships become deeper and more intimate through interaction. What is Social Penetration Theory? Social Penetration: The process of developing deeper intimacy through mutual self- disclosure and vulnerability. Helps understand the progression from initial encounters to deeper connections. Applied in interpersonal communication, psychology, and relationship studies. Metaphor of "Peeling the Onion" The expression "people are like onions, you need to peel them" suggests that getting to know someone involves uncovering layers of their personality. Peeling the onion: Going beyond the outside appearances when judging something or someone. Personality Structure Refers to how a person's qualities and behaviors are interconnected to create their individual personality. An onion-like layers of beliefs and feelings about self, others, and the world. Deeper layers are more vulnerable, protected and central to self-image. Layers of Personality (Key Components of the Social Penetration Theory) 1. Outer Layers: o Represent superficial information shared with acquaintances. o Includes basic demographic info, hobbies, and non-sensitive topics. 2. Intermediate Layers: o Involve sharing more personal and intimate information. o represent the gradual disclosure of thoughts, feelings, and experiences o Typically reserved for close friends and family. 3. Core Layer: o Represents innermost thoughts, emotions, and values. o Accessed by very close friends only. Factors Influencing the Rate and Depth of Social Penetration Rate: refers to the speed or pace at which individuals reveal themselves and become closer in a relationship. Depth: refers to the intimacy and personal significance of the information that individuals share with each other. Depth and Breadth of Self-Disclosure Depth of penetration: Degree of disclosure in a specific area of life. Breadth of penetration: Range of areas in life over which disclosure take place. It is a degree of intimacy. Observations by Altman and Taylor 1. Peripheral items are exchanged sooner than private information. 2. Self-disclosure is reciprocal, especially in early relationship stages. 3. Penetration is rapid at first but slows as deeper layers are reached. 4. Depenetration is a gradual process of withdrawing layer by layer. Additional Influencing Factors 1. Perceived Rewards and Risks: o People weigh potential benefits and risks of self-disclosure. 2. Context and Norms: o Social context and cultural norms influence self-disclosure rates. 3. Reciprocity: o People are more likely to disclose when they perceive their partner is also disclosing. Critique of the Theory Pro One of the key strengths is its simplicity Provides a useful framework for understanding interpersonal interactions and relationship development. Cons 1. Complexity of Relationships: o The theory may not account for the complexity of relationships. o Relationships can progress at different speeds. 2. Success of Relationships: o It does not explain why some relationships are more successful than others. 3. Assumption of Uniform Progression: o The theory assumes all relationships progress in the same manner, which may not reflect reality. Chapter 6: Group Communication (Groupthink Theory) Group Communication Theory: o Focuses on how communication functions within groups or teams. o Examines processes, dynamics, and patterns of communication. o Looks at information sharing, decision-making, and conflict resolution. Groupthink VS Group Thinking Groupthink: o Tendency of a group to make decisions without critical evaluation or consideration of alternative viewpoints. o Often leads to poor or irrational outcomes. Group Thinking: o General process of thinking within a group. o Can include both positive collaboration and negative groupthink behaviors. History and Orientation Irving Janis (1972, 1982): o Developed the Groupthink theory. o Emphasizes that group cohesiveness can lead to poor decision-making. o Discussed by Lewin in the 1930s. Overview Groupthink Theory: o Explores how cohesive groups may make poor decisions due to a desire for consensus and a reluctance to challenge the group's prevailing opinion o Highlights negative consequences of group conformity on decision-making. Key Concepts Occurs when group members prioritize harmony and consensus over critical thinking and evaluation of alternatives. Symptoms of Groupthink: 1. Illusion of invulnerability. 2. Collective rationalization. 3. Belief in inherent morality.  4. Self-censorship. Impact on Communication: 1. Suppresses dissenting viewpoints. 2. Can lead to flawed decisions. 3. Importance of open communication to improve decision-making quality. Impact on Decision-Making Negative Consequences: 1. Poorly considered decisions ignoring alternative viewpoints. 2. Escalation of commitment to failing actions. 3. Increased vulnerability to external threats. 4. Diminished creativity and innovation. 5. Reduced overall quality of decisions. Preventing Groupthink Measures to Mitigate Groupthink: 1. Encourage open communication: Leaders and group members should foster an environment where dissenting (opposite) opinions are welcomed and valued. 2. Appoint a devil's advocate: Designating a member to play the role of a devil's advocate (questioning or challenging prevailing viewpoints) can help bring alternative perspectives to light. 3. Seek external input: Bringing in outside experts or consultants can provide fresh viewpoints and challenge the group's assumptions. 4. Encourage critical evaluation: Group members should be encouraged to critically evaluate decisions, consider potential consequences, and conduct thorough risk assessments. 5. Maintain diversity: Diverse groups are less susceptible to groupthink, as differing backgrounds and perspectives naturally lead to a wider range of viewpoints. Chapter 7: Organizational Communication Introduction Communication is essential in every organization. Effective inter-organizational communication can increase the general efficiency of teams and the organization. On the other hand, ineffective communication can decrease people's motivation and performance. Organizational communication significantly impacts behavior. Organizational Communication Functions There are five main functions of communication: 1. Management: Manages employee behavior regarding roles and compliance. 2. Feedback: initiates feedback for employees in terms of performance. 3. Information: creates information exchange within the organization. 4. Persuasion: Encourages commitment to the organization's mission. 5. Emotional Sharing: leads to emotional sharing in organizational groups. Allows members to express satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Modern VS Classical Organizational Communication Organizational communication is a critical aspect of any workplace, and various theories have been developed over time to understand and improve communication within organizations 1. Hierarchy vs. Flexibility: o Classical: Emphasis on hierarchical structures and formal communication. o Modern: Recognizes the need for flexibility, informal communication, and adaptability. 2. Focus on People: o Classical: Focus on tasks, efficiency, and structure. o Modern: Emphasis on human relations, employee satisfaction, and cultural aspects. 3. Adaptability to Change: o Classical: More rigid, resistant to change. o Modern: Embraces change, adapts communication strategies based on environmental factors.  4. View of Communication: o Classical: Communication as a tool for issuing orders and ensuring compliance. o Modern: Sees communication as a dynamic, interactive process that contributes to organizational culture and effectiveness. Media Richness Theory History and Orientation: o Based on contingency theory and information processing theory (Galbraith 1977). o Developed by Daft & Lengel (1984). Core Assumptions and Statements: o People want to overcome equivocality and uncertainty in organizations. o Different media are better suited for specific tasks. o Media richness hierarchy is based on four criteria: 1. Availability of instant feedback. 2. Capacity to transmit multiple cues (body language, tone). 3. Use of natural language. 4. Personal focus of the medium. Example of Media Richness: o Face-to-face communication is the richest medium, followed by: 1. Telephone 2. Electronic mail 3. Letter 4. Note 5. Memo 6. Special report 7. Flier and bulletin Media Richness Theory Conclusion Effective managers match communication media to specific tasks based on required richness. The theory has faced criticism for oversimplifying the media-communication effectiveness relationship. Factors like user skill and familiarity also play a significant role. Chapter 8: Normative Communication Theories Introduction Definition: Normative theories describe or establish rules or standards of behavior. Purpose: They provide ethical guidelines and principles for responsible communication. Role: Serve as frameworks that provide ethical guidelines for evaluating the media's role in society. These theories aim to answer questions about what the media should do, what values they should uphold, and what ethical standards they should follow in their operations? Nature Concern: Prescribing or guiding how communication should ideally take place. Offerings: Recommendations, guidelines, and ethical principles for effective communication. Focus Emphasis: Ethical considerations, social values, and normative standards. Key Questions: 1. How should people communicate? 2. What principles should guide ethical communication? Assumptions Belief: There are ethical and normative standards that should govern communication practices. Guidance: Provide direction on how individuals and organizations should communicate ethically and effectively. Examples 1. Social Responsibility Theory: o Media organizations have a responsibility to serve the public interest. o Act as a watchdog on power. o Provide accurate and fair information while being accountable for their actions.  2. Authoritarian Theory: o All forms of communication are under government control or elite authority. o In authoritarian regimes, the government controls the flow of information using censorship and propaganda - to maintain its authority and shape public opinion. o Media outlets and journalists may be manipulated to serve the ruling regime's interests, limiting freedom of speech and press independence. o Authoritarian Theory stands in contrast to theories that emphasize media freedom and independence, such as the Libertarian and Social Responsibility Theories. Conclusion Importance: Normative theories shape our understanding of the ethical responsibilities of media and communication professionals. Function: Help ensure media outlets serve the public interest, uphold democratic values, and maintain credibility and integrity. Guidance: Assist media practitioners in making ethical decisions and contribute to discussions on ethical challenges in communication. Chapter 9: Mass Communication Theories Mass Communication: o Refers to process of transmitting information, ideas, and messages to a large and diverse audience through various media channels. o Involves production, distribution, and consumption of content via television, radio, newspapers, magazines, the internet, and social media. o Impacts how people perceive and interact with the world. Mass Communication Theories: o Frameworks that help understand how information is disseminated, received, and processed in large scale media systems. o Provide insights into the dynamics of mass communication and the role of media in society. 1. Agenda-Setting Theory Suggests that media influences public perception by deciding which topics to cover prominently. Media can shape the public agenda by highlighting certain issues while downplaying others. Core Assumptions and Statements Agenda-setting is the creation of public awareness and concern of salient issues by the news media. 1. The press and media do not reflect reality; they filter and shape it. 2. Media focus on a few issues leads the public to perceive those issues as more important. 2. Cultivation Theory Developed by George Gerbner. Definition: Cultivation is the deliberate development of a particular quality or skill. Proposes that prolonged exposure to media, especially television, shapes an individual's perceptions of reality. Heavy media consumers may adopt views and values portrayed in media content. Key Points Television is responsible for shaping viewers’ conceptions of social reality.  Heavy viewers are more influenced by television framing than light viewers, especially on unfamiliar topics. 2 groups of television viewers: the heavy viewers and the light viewers. 3. Uses and Gratifications Theory Definition: Gratification means pleasure and satisfaction. Focuses on why individuals consume media and what they seek to gain from it. People actively choose media to satisfy needs like information, entertainment, or social interaction. Core Assumptions and Statements Objectives: 1. Explains how individuals use mass communication to gratify their needs. “What do people do with the media” 2. Discovers underlying motives for media use. 3. Identifies positive and negative consequences of media use. Conclusion Theories of mass communication help understand the complexities of media's impact on individuals and society. Provide insights into how media can shape public opinion and culture. Chapter 10: Media Effects Theories (Part 1) (Strong Effects) Media effects theories explain how media influences individuals and society. They explore how media content shapes attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, and perceptions. Key media effects theories include: 1. Hypodermic Needle Theory (Magic Bullet Theory) (strong effect) 2. Two Step Flow Theory (medium effect) 3. Selective Exposure Theory (limited effect) Hypodermic Needle Theory or Magic Bullet Theory Introduction Hypodermic: medical tools used to inject drugs under the skin. This theory suggests that media messages have a direct and immediate effect on audiences. It compares media to a "magic bullet" that can effortlessly shape public opinion and behavior. The theory has been largely discredited for oversimplifying media effects. History and Orientation The hypodermic needle theory implies that mass media has a direct, immediate, and powerful effect on audiences. Factors contributing to this 'strong effects' theory include: 1. The rise of radio and television. 2. The emergence of the persuasion industries, such as advertising and propaganda. 3. The Payne Fund studies of the 1930s, which investigated the impact of movies on society, especially on children and adolescents. Core Assumptions and Statements The theory suggests mass media can influence large groups directly and uniformly by 'shooting' and 'injecting' messages to trigger responses. The imagery of a bullet and needle indicates a powerful flow of information from sender to receiver.  The bullet theory graphically suggests that the message is a bullet, fired from the "media gun" into the viewer's "head". Media messages are seen as injected into a passive audience, which is immediately influenced. Audiences are viewed as powerless to resist the impact of the message. Key Points According to the theory, there is no escape from the message's effect. People are seen as passive, receiving many 'shots' of media content. People end up thinking what they are told because there is no other source of information. Critique and Conclusion Studies (Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet, 1944/1968) during the 1940 election showed that many remained unaffected by propaganda. The studies were conducted during the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940 Interpersonal communication had more influence than media. The magic bullet theory was replaced by more nuanced models like the Two-Step Flow Theory and Diffusion of Innovations Theory. Modern communication theories recognize that audiences actively interpret and respond to media messages, influenced by various factors. The Magic Bullet Theory is considered outdated by contemporary scholars. Critics argue it oversimplifies the complex relationship between media and audiences. Modern theories provide a more accurate perspective on media's interaction with society and individuals. Chapter 11: Media Effects Theories (Part 2) (Medium Effects) Two Step Flow Theory Introduction Developed by Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet. It challenges the earlier Magic Bullet Theory, which claimed media messages directly impact individuals. Instead, it suggests that media influence is mediated by opinion leaders or influencers who act as intermediaries between the media and the public. History and Orientation Introduced in the 1944 study "The People's Choice," which examined decision- making during a Presidential election. Researchers expected to find direct media influence on voting intentions but found otherwise. Key Findings Informal, personal contacts were more frequently cited as sources of influence than media exposure. This led to the development of the Two-Step Flow Theory of mass communication by Katz and Lazarsfeld. Core Assumption Information from the media moves in two stages: 1. Opinion leaders receive information from mass media. 2. They pass on their interpretations along with the media content. Key Implications 1. Media influence is indirect, filtered through opinion leaders. 2. Opinion leaders act as intermediaries who help shape and contextualize media messages for the public. 3. Interpersonal communication is crucial in the diffusion of media content and its effects on society. 4. Opinion leaders are crucial for disseminating information and influencing public opinion, making them targets for advertisers and politicians. Personal Influence The term "personal influence" describes the process between media messages and audience reactions. Opinion leaders significantly impact attitude and behavior changes and are similar to those they influence. Understanding Media Influence The theory enhances understanding of how mass media affects decision-making. It helps predict media message influence on audience behavior and explains failures in media campaigns. Evolution of the Theory The Two-Step Flow Theory led to the multi-step flow theory of mass communication or diffusion of innovation theory. Limitations While the Two-Step Flow Theory offers a better understanding of media influence than the Magic Bullet Theory, it has limitations. It assumes opinion leaders are always reliable and unbiased, which may not be true. Modern communication technologies, like social media, complicate information flow beyond the two-step model. Nonetheless, the role of opinion leaders and interpersonal communication in shaping public opinion remains relevant. Chapter 12: Media Effects Theories (Part 3) (Limited Effects) Selective Exposure Theory Introduction Selective Exposure Theory suggests that individuals prefer media content that aligns with their existing beliefs, attitudes, and values while avoiding content that contradicts or challenges their established viewpoints. People actively seek information that confirms their beliefs and avoid content that challenges them. Key Points of Selective Exposure Theory 1. Confirmation Bias: o The fact that people are more likely to accept or notice information if it appears to support what they already believe or expect o Example: A person who believes in climate change will seek out articles that support this view and ignore opposing information. 2. Avoidance of Cognitive Dissonance: o Dissonance = disagreement o Cognitive dissonance is the discomfort felt when holding conflicting beliefs. o To reduce this discomfort, individuals often avoid exposure to information that challenges their existing beliefs. o Example: A vegetarian may avoid articles about the health benefits of meat. 3. Partisan Media and Echo Chambers: o Partisan = strongly supporting a person, principle, or political party, often without considering or judging the matter very carefully o Echo chamber = a situation in which people only hear opinions of one type, or opinions that are similar to their own o Selective exposure can create media outlets that cater to specific ideological groups. o In echo chambers, individuals are exposed only to content that reinforces their beliefs. o Example: Partisan news channels present news that aligns with a specific political ideology. 4. Filter Bubbles: o Filter bubble = a situation in which someone only hears or sees news and information that supports what they already believe and like. o E.g. If we don’t come out of our filter bubble, we hear only the news that confirms our biases  o A filter bubble occurs when algorithms on social media and news sites show users content that aligns with their past behavior. o This limits exposure to diverse viewpoints. o Example: Users may only see news that confirms their biases due to algorithmic filtering. 5. Selective Perception: o This is the tendency to interpret information in a way that aligns with existing beliefs. o Example: two people watching the same news report on a political event may interpret it differently based on their political leanings. 6. Selective Retention: o People remember information that supports their beliefs better than information that challenges them. o This reinforces their convictions over time. Conclusion Selective Exposure Theory explains how individuals choose media content that aligns with their beliefs, reinforcing their views and potentially deepening societal divisions. The theory suggests that media effects are limited because audiences select content that matches their existing beliefs rather than being influenced by a single source.