Media Effects Models Workbook PDF

WORKBOOK **The relationship between the media, their content and presentation, and audiences.**  **AKA The effects of the Media on the Audience**  When sociologists develop theories about how the media affects its audience, they tend to use either a **Passive Audience** Model or an **Active Audie...

WORKBOOK **The relationship between the media, their content and presentation, and audiences.**  **AKA The effects of the Media on the Audience**  When sociologists develop theories about how the media affects its audience, they tend to use either a **Passive Audience** Model or an **Active Audience** Model   - **Passive Audience** M**odels** assume the media audiences are passive "cultural dopes" who mindlessly accept media messages, for example, The Hypodermic Syringe Model   - **Active Audience Models** assume media audiences actively interpret or criticise  media texts and messages, giving them different meanings and interpretations from that intended, or simply ignore or reject them altogether    **The Different Models of the effects of Media   including Evaluation**  **The Hypodermic Syringe Model (Passive audience, direct effect)** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **The Hypodermic Syringe | The Hypodermic Syringe Model | | Model[ ]** | argues that the Media has | | | a DIRECT and immediate effect on | | (Passive audience, direct effect) | the audience. The **audience are | | | passive and easily manipulated.** | | | It assumes that audiences are | | | passive and unthinking and are | | | unable to resist the messages | | | that are injected into them (like | | | a syringe). It's also called | | | Magic Bullet theory.    | | | | | |. see criticisms including | | | Cumberbatch, and criticisms by | | | active audience approaches | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ The Hypodermic Syringe Model argues that the Media has a DIRECT and **immediate** effect on the audience. The audience are p**assive** and **easily manipulated.** **For example, believing everything that Donald Trump says** The Hypodermic Syringe Model is relatively simple. It assumes that audiences are passive and unthinking and are **unable to resist the messages that are injected into them** (like a syringe). It's also called Magic Bullet theory.    The audience is filled with the dominant ideology, and sexist and racist stereotyped images, and accept and act on these images.   The **Radical feminist Dworkin** blames much of men's violence against women, particularly rape, on the **hypodermic syringe model**. **The Hypodermic Syringe model** was behind many of the **Moral panics** over the **effects of the media** on behaviour. It was the model used to explain the **murder of Jamie Bulgar** (a little boy) by two young boys.  Venables is said to have watched the horror film **'Child's Play'** in the weeks leading up to the murder, and drawn pictures of children being murdered, as in the film   **Bandura'**s **BoBo Doll Experiment** supposedly provided evidence for the Hypodermic Syringe Model. **Bandura** gathered young children to watch an adult being violent with a BoBo Doll. He found that the children **imitated** the adult.      **Criticisms of the Hypodermic Syringe Model **  It assumes that audiences are easily manipulated.  It assumes the media has enormous power and influence compared to other agencies of socialisation and people's own experiences.  **Cumberbatch** (see later) argues that there is very little evidence that media content has an immediate effect on audiences.   It assumes there's a homogeneous (everyone is the same) rather than plurality (many different) of responses to media content  ** ** **Active Audience Approaches** **Active audience** approaches are **critical of the hypodermic syringe model** because it **assumes that media audiences are homogenous** -- that they all share similar characteristics, and **that media audiences are passive. Active audience** approaches argue that media messages can be **polysemic;** they can be read and interpreted in different ways by different people and groups  There are several **active audience** models **Selective Filtering Theory (Klapper)** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Selective Filtering Theory** | The selective filtering theory | | | suggests that people actively | | (active audience) | engage with media content, and | | | that there are three filters that | | | people apply when using and | | | interpreting that content: | | | | | | **Selective exposure:** | | | individuals select media content | | | that fits in with their existing | | | views and interests. **Selective | | | perception**: individuals will | | | interpret the message in | | | accordance with whether it fits | | | in with their own views or not. | | | They may accept some of it, all | | | of it, or none of it.  | | | | | | **Selective retention**: | | | individuals will only remember | | | media messages that support their | | | beliefs and forget material that | | | does not fit with their own | | | views.  Research shows that that | | | people tend to remember only the | | | things they agree with. | | | | | | These three filters involve some | | | active choice on the part of the | | | audience, and **challenges the | | | hypodermic syringe model with** | | | its idea that the audiences are | | | homogenous in their reaction | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ The **selective filtering theory**   is an i**nterpretivist** approach. Klapper suggests that people **actively engage** with media content, and that there are three **filters** that people apply **when interpreting** that content    **Selective exposure**: individuals select media content that fits in with their existing views and interests  **Selective perception:** individuals will interpret the message in accordance with whether it fits in with their own views or not. They may accept some of it, all of it, or none of it.  **Selective retention**: individuals will only remember media messages that support their beliefs and forget material that does not fit with their own views.  Research shows that that people tend to remember only the things they agree with. **Klapper** is **arguing** that **these three filters** involve some **active choice** on the part of the **audience, and challenges the hypodermic syringe model with its idea that the audiences are homogenous in their reaction**   **Reception analysis model (Hall and Morley)** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Reception analysis model** | The reception analysis model of | | | media effects **suggests people | | Active audience | interpret the same media content | | | in different wa**ys because of | | | their different social | | | backgrounds. people actively | | | choose to make one of three | | | "readings" or interpretations of | | | media content: | | | | | | **The preferred (dominant) | | | reading**. The preferred reading | | | is the message   that the media | | | would prefer their audiences to | | | believe, and some people accept | | | this preferred reading, and | | | believe the message.  | | | | | |  **A negotiated reading.** | | | this audience mixes the preferred | | | reading with alternative ideas. | | | They slightly alter the meaning | | | from that intended by the Media   | | | to fit in with their own ideas. | | | | | | Some audiences take | | | an oppositional **reading** - | | | rejects the preferred reading | | | and   constructs a meaning | | | totally different to the Dominant | | | reading intended by the Media  | | | | | | the reading that audiences adopt | | | will be influenced by their own | | | knowledge and experiences and the | | | social groups to which they | | | belong. | | | | | | media messages can be polysemic | | | (they can be read and interpreted | | | in different ways by different | | | people and groups | | | | | | **selective filtering theory and | | | reception analysis are criticised | | | by Neo Marxists** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Stuart Hall Reception theory explained!** Good you tube video; you can make notes if you wish The reception analysis model of media effects suggests that people interpret the same media content in different ways because of their different social backgrounds. Stuart Hall and David Morley developed the Reception Analysis Model in the 1970s to explore how audiences interact with media. The model suggests that the meaning of media is not fixed, but is negotiated by audiences based on their own experiences, values, and beliefs They researched 29 different groups made of people from a range of backgrounds to **see how they interpreted the** content of a news programme. They theorized that people actively choose to make one of three "readings" or interpretations of media content **The preferred (dominant) reading.  Media texts** are **encoded with a dominant hegemonic viewpoint by those who produce them.** The **preferred reading is** the message   that the media would **prefer** their audiences to believe, and **some people accept this preferred reading**, and believe the message.   **A negotiated reading.** this audience mixes the preferred reading with alternative ideas. They slightly alter the meaning from that intended by the Media   to fit in with their own ideas Some audiences take an oppositional **reading**.  This audience rejects the preferred reading and   constructs a meaning totally different to the dominant reading intended by the Media  **Hall and Morley** argue that the reading that audiences adopt will be influenced by their own knowledge and experiences and the social groups to which they belong. In summary, **audiences will interpret Media content differently. The audience** is **Active, not passive**, and media messages can be **polysemic** (they can be read and **interpreted in** **different ways by different people and groups) ** **Criticisms of selective** **filtering theory and reception analysis** **Philo** of the **Neo Marxist** **Glasgow University Media Group** is critical of the view that **audiences make their own interpretations of the Media,** and the idea that **media messages can be polysemic** (that they can be read and interpreted in different ways by different people and groups). **Philo** argues that these approaches **UNDERESTIMATE  the Media's power over the audience**. For example, with the **selective filtering theory** media producers have **techniques and skills to get through these filters,** and influence audiences **Philo** argues that research by the **GUMG** has shown that the **media has a great deal of power** in forming the way audiences view the world, and that **most people accept the Dominant Reading**, **unless they have access to alternative forms of information.  ** In a study of the 1984/5 **Coal Miners Strike** in Britain, the TV news constantly showed images of violence between the police and coal miners, with a **bias to blaming the miners for the violence**.  Philo found that people from different social class backgrounds interpreted these images **in the same way that was being shown** and **believed the miners to be responsible for the violence**, as that was how the violence was presented. **.** This was the case even with those who were sympathetic to the miners. **This directly challenges reception analysis** The **only exception** was **those who had access to an alternative form of information** -- people who had been to the scenes of the strike (the picket lines). Those people **rejected the dominant reading**, as they had experienced the events first hand.  Selective Filtering and Reception Analysis are also **challenged by the Cultural Effects Model which argues that over a slow period of time most people are brainwashed into accepting dominant ideology**   **Cultural effects model** -- Drip Drip Effect +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Cultural effects model** | The Cultural Effects model argues | | | there is a slow process (Drip | | Drip Drip Effect | Drip) of brainwashing. The | | | **repetition** of ruling class | | Neo Marxist | ideology found in the media over | | | a long period of time means that | | Hall | gradually most people accept the | | | dominant ideology - capitalist | | | values and norms, as the correct, | | | sensible way of seeing the world. | | | | | | It's not a direct effect, like | | | the hypodermic syringe model, but | | | has an indirect effect | | | | | | **Pluralists   challenge the | | | Cultural Effects Model.** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **NEO MARXIST, including Hall** The **Cultural Effects model** is another **active** **rather than passive** model, so **therefore challenges the hypodermic syringe model (**as do **selective filtering theory and reception analysis)** **HOWEVER,** the **Cultural Effects Model** argues that the media has an **indirect way** of shaping people's view of the world which gradually makes people accept the dominant ideology. **There is a slow process (Drip Drip) of brainwashing.** the **repetition of the ruling class ideology** found in the media means that **gradually most people accept the dominant ideology** - **capitalist values and norms, as** the **correct, sensible way of seeing the world. I this way,** the **Cultural Hegemony** of the Dominant Class is maintained.    The **cultural effects model**, a **Neo Marxist** approach, does accept that peoples background and upbringing will influence how they interpret the media message and whether they accept them or reject them. **However,** the **cultural effects model** also argues that the repetition of the **preferred reading/dominant reading put** forward by the producers of the media, over a long period of time, means that most people gradually accept ruling class ideology It's **not a direct effect**, like the **hypodermic syringe model**, but has an **indirect effect** Some examples: the values of the rich and powerful are repeated so often that they gradually come to be shared by most people, such as *happiness is about possessions and money.* The regular repetition of stereotypes of certain groups means that these stereotypes become normal and accepted by most readers -- such as asylum seekers are illegal immigrants, or the poor are benefit scroungers, or black people are criminals  **The Glasgow University Media Group** produced extensive evidence to show the  **limited ability of the audience** **to  reject the  media's dominant ideology. ** For example, during the **coal miner's strike** in the 1980s, all viewers, even those sympathetic with the minors' cause, believed the coal miners were responsible for the fights  between the strikers and the police   **Criticisms of the cultural effects model** **Pluralists**   **challenge the Cultural Effects Model. For example, Pluralists question the idea that Media messages have a Dominant reading.** They would argue that Media **messages are diverse; there** are **a range of media messages to choose fro**m. Further, Journalists themselves have some independence. **Journalists too can be critical of the Dominant Ideology**, and their news reports will reflect this  **Uses and Gratification Model** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Uses and gratification model** |   | | | | | (Active audience) | The Uses and Gratification Model | | | emphasizes **what audiences use | | Pluralist | the media for, rather than what | | | the media does to influence | | | audiences**. Model suggests that | | | audience USES the media in | | | various ways for their own | | | pleasure and interests | | | (gratification).  We use the | | | media in any way that we want, | | | when we want, for specific | | | purposes. | | | | | | an ACTIVE approach because | | | audience is active in choosing | | | how it uses the media. Hence it | | | argues that **the media has weak | | | effects on the audience (not very | | | powerful**) | | | | | | Blumer and Katz identified | | | several different uses of the | | | media eg Entertainment and | | | escape. Education/information. | | | Social interaction/personal | | | relationships. Personal identity. | | | Background wallpaper | | | | | | The Model therefore argues that | | | because the Media's effects vary | | | from individual to individual, | | | **you cannot generalise about | | | media effects**, because it | | | depends what people use the media | | | for. | | | | | | It can be seen as a pluralist | | | approach. They argue that the | | | media offers a diverse range of | | | activities, catering to all | | | interests.  | | | | | | **Marxist criticism-** | | | Model assumes people have free | | | choice, but they don't | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Nice video by a Media Studies teacher Media Studies - Uses & Gratifications Theory - Simple Guide** Make notes if you wish ============================================================================================================================ **PLURALIST** **Uses and Gratification Model: ACTIVE Audience Approach**   **The Uses and Gratification Model** is the model with the **most active audience**, and the **weakest effects** of the media on the audience.It emphasizes **what audiences use the media for, rather than what the media does to influence audiences**   The **Uses and Gratification Model** suggests that audience **USES the media** in various ways **for their own pleasure and interests** (**Gratification**).  We use the media in any way that we want, when we want, **for specific purposes**. It is an **ACTIVE** approach because the **audience is active in choosing how it uses the media**. Hence it argues that the **media has weak effects on** the audience **(**not very powerful) **Blumer and Katz identified** five main uses of the media:    - - - - - The **Uses and Gratification Model therefore** argues that because the Media's effects vary from individual to individual, y**ou cannot generalise about media effect**s, because it depends what people use the media for. People make **conscious choices** about how to use the Media, and so **the effects are going to be different** depending on why the person is using it.   It can be seen as a **pluralist** approach. They argue that the media offers a **diverse range** of activities, catering to all interests.    **Criticisms of the Uses and Gratification Model**  **Marxists** argue that the actual "**needs" of** the audience are **created by the Media**. For example, the "need" for a product such as **Facebook or TikTok** is **created by Capitalists** to **make money and** distract people from the real issues that affect them, such as social inequality.  Although it **appears** as though the consumer chooses how they use the media, you could say it\'s **the media who ultimately creates all of those choices**  **Further, t**he Model **underestimates the power of the New Media** and its owners **to influence people's choices** in how they use the Media. The **New Media** knows everything about us and targets products and websites at us. **Media companies make the choices for us, and** **advertising** has a powerful influence in this. In other words, the **Uses and Gratification Model**  **assumes people have free choice**, but they don't.   **Postmodernist views** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Postmodernist views** | Postmodernist - basically an | | | extension of reception analysis, | | | that people interpret the same | | | media content in different ways, | | | but Postmodernists focus on how | | | individual members of audiences | | | create their own meanings from a | | | media text. | | | | | | Postmodernists argue that | | | generalisations about media | | | effects on audiences are | | | impossible because people react | | | to the same media content in a | | | variety of ways. | | | | | | Postmodernists also argue that | | | there is no such thing as | | | absolute truth (all truth is | | | relative), therefore it is | | | impossible to judge whether media | | | content is having a positive or | | | negative effect | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Postmodernist** views are basically an extension of reception analysis, that people i**nterpret** the **same media content in different ways, but** **Postmodernists** focus on **how individual members of audiences create their own meanings from** a media text. **Postmodernists** would argue that **generalisations about media effects on audiences are impossible** because **people react to the same media content in a variety of ways.** **Postmodernists** also argue that there is **no such thing as absolute truth** (all truth is relative), therefore it **is impossible to judge whether media content is having a positive or negative effect** **The relationship between Violence and the Media** **Violence**, including pornography is now part of Popular Culture.  The **New Media** means that **violent imagery is easy to access** and almost impossible to control. Digital Technology means that violence can also be interactive, for example in online gaming. The streaming of violent films means that children can easily watch violent content. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | **Arguments supporting the view | | | that the media causes violent | | | behaviour** | +===================================+===================================+ | Moral panics | There have been several Moral | | | Panics about the effects of | | | violent online games and movies, | | | and media violence is often | | | blamed for the increasing | | | violence and crime in society e.g | | | murder of Jamie Bulgar | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | social media glamorises the | children as carrying knives | | carrying of knives BBC Report | because of the influence of | | | social media that glamorises the | | | carrying of knives and guns., | | | particularly "zombie knives", | | | popularised by zombie films. | | | Carrying knives leads to knife | | | crime  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | culture of fear created by media | the culture of fear created by | | | the American media leads to | | | ordinary people having guns, | | | which leads to young people | | | having access to guns and | | | committing high school massacres | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Copy Cat (imitation) theory of | Copycat (imitation) theory of | | violence | violence is based on Hypodermic | | | Syringe Model. children copy what | | | they see, as shown in Bandura's | | | BoBo Doll experiment   | | | | | | **See criticisms of conclusions | | | of BoBo Doll experiment** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Disinhibition Theory. | Disinhibition theory argues that | | | our normal barriers to being | | | violent are weakened after | | | exposure to media violence. | | | Aggressive behaviour becomes | | | normalised, and therefore | | | aggression is seen as a | | | \'normal\' response in certain | | | circumstances.  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Desensitization Argument: | very similar to Disinhibition | | | theory.  repeated exposure of | | | children to media violence has a | | | Drip Drip  effect. Children are | | | socialised into accepting a | | | culture of violence, where | | | violence is seen as a normal part | | | of life, and a way of solving | | | problems. seeing violence in the | | | media, and in games means people | | | become less disturbed and less | | | sensitive about violence. They | | | have less sympathy for victims, | | | and have an increased risk of | | | violent, aggressive behaviour as | | | adults. | | | | | | See case of Girl X, and Newson's | | | research | | | | | |   | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ There have been several **Moral Panics about** the effects of violent online games and movies, and **media violence is often blamed for the increasing violence and crime in society.  ** The **murder of Jamie Bulgar** by **two young boys** was partly blamed on the fact that one boy watched the horror film **'Child's Play'** in the weeks leading up to the murder, and had drawn pictures of children being murdered, as in the film.    **Arguments that support the view that the media causes violence (with evaluation)** **A  2023 BBC report argues** that **children** as young as nine are **carrying knives** **because of the influence of social media**, music videos and films that **glamorise the carrying of knives and guns**. Many people in music videos are carrying weapons. Primary school children are carrying and showing off knives as if they are a new pair of trainers, a campaigner has said, particularly "**zombie knives**", **popularised by zombie films**. Carrying knives leads, of course, to knife crime  It has also been argued that the **culture of fear** created by the **American media** leads to **ordinary people having guns**, which leads to young people having access to guns and **committing high school massacres such as the one at Columbine**    ** The Copy Cat** (imitation) theory **of violence is** based on the **Hypodermic Syringe Model**. Media violence is like injecting a drug into the audience. It causes **children to Copy what they see**, as shown in **Bandura's BoBo Doll experiment.  **In his laboratory experiment Bandura gathered young children to **watch an adult being violent with a BoBo Doll**. He found that the children **imitated** **the adult. **  SEE VIDEO BELOW   **However,** the **conclusions of the Bo Bo Doll experiment** have been criticised in several ways  Apart from the ethical issues involved in the experiment (it is wrong to deliberately expose children to violent and aggressive actions) there are other criticisms **Gauntlett** criticises experiments such as the BoBo Doll, as the presence of a researcher can produce the **Hawthorne Effect.**  People, particularly children, behave differently when they are being observed and they may have thought they were expected to imitate the adults' aggression towards the doll.     Laboratory experiments only last a **short time and** are **measuring immediate effects**. We **have no idea if the violent effect is long lasting**. And if we could measure later violence in the children, y**ou could not prove it was because of exposure to violence against the BoBo Dol**l. It could be for other social reasons, such as being brought up in a violent family   **Albert Bandura\'s Media Effects Theory Explained! Bobo Doll Experiment good** video critiquing the theory that violent media causes violence, Make notes if you wish ======================================================================================================================================================================= **Disinhibition Theory**. A further theory to explain how the media can influence violence is **disinhibition theory (McCabe and Martin)**. **Disinhibition theory** argues that our **normal barriers to being violent are weakened after exposure to media violence**. Aggressive behaviour becomes normalised, and therefore **aggression is seen as a \'normal\' response in certain circumstances.** Superheroes can provide an aggressive role model, in the name of justice. Adult films can present role models as James Bond which children may look up to and imitate. This process of **disinhibition** is more powerful if violence is rewarded. Many **computer games** reward the player for initiating violence.    **Desensitization Argument:** This is very similar to Disinhibition theory**.  Newson** argues that repeated exposure of children to media violence has a **Drip Drip**  effect. Children are **socialised into accepting a culture of violence**, where violence is **seen as a normal part of life**, and a way of solving problems. Constantly seeing violence in the media, and in games, means people become less disturbed and **less sensitive about** violence. They have **less sympathy for victims**, and have an **increased risk of violent, aggressive behaviour as adults**. Experts say that **Girl X,** the 16-year-old murderer of Brianna Ghey,  watched torture and death on the dark web and **became desensitised to murder**.  **Professor Woodward** said watching such content would no doubt have caused her to become disinhibited and desensitised to imagery most ordinary people would find horrifying,     **Newson** argued that there was a definite link between media violence and real-world violence. He reviewed **Anderson's 200 laboratory studies** which appeared to show that **even brief exposure to media violence can cause desensitization** to real-world violence, increases in aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, and decreases in empathy and helping behaviour.     However, there are **many arguments against the view that the media causes violent behaviour**    +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | **Arguments against the view that | | | the media causes violent | | | behaviour**  | +===================================+===================================+ | No direct link between watching | Newson's research was not | | media violence and aggressive | evidence based. The people | | behaviour -- could be other | displaying violent tendencies may | | causes | have had such tendencies | | | regardless of anything they | | | viewed.   | | | | | | Livingstone argues that just | | | because we may find what we think | | | is a link between watching media | | | violence and violent behaviour, | | | it does not mean that watching | | | media violence has caused the | | | violent behaviour.  There could | | | be other causes, and we can't | | | separate them in experiments.  Is | | | it that the violent programme is | | | making people more aggressive OR | | | do aggressive people choose to | | | watch violent programmes | | | (selective exposure) OR do social | | | circumstances make people more | | | aggressive AND lead them to watch | | | more violent TV?**  ** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cathartic Effect of watching | ** ** | | media violence | | | | watching media violence does not | | | make the audience more | | | aggressive. It reduces violent | | | tendencies, and can have a | | | positive effect on their well | | | being | | | | | | watching screen violence can | | | provide a safe outlet for | | | people's aggressive tendencies. | | | This is known as** catharsis** a | | | cathartic effect. Media violence | | | allows people to "live out" their | | | violent tendencies in the fantasy | | | world of the media rather than in | | | the real world.   | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Sensitisation Theory | Sensitisation Theory argues that | | | seeing the effects of violence | | (opposite to desensitization) | and especially the pain and | | | suffering that it causes to the | | | victim and their families, may | | | make us sensitive to violence, | | | more aware of its consequences | | | and so less inclined to commit | | | violent acts. | | | | | |   | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Media increases the fear of | media violence and the reporting | | violent crime | of violent crime may lead people | | | to believe that we live in a | | | violent society. people who watch | | | TV, and are therefore exposed to | | | more violence, have exaggerated | | | fears about crime and violence. | | | more likely to overestimate their | | | risk of being a victim, and to | | | assume the crime rate is rising, | | | even when it is not  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Postmodernists | Postmodernists argue it is | | | impossible to test the effects of | | | media violence on the audience. | | | In a media saturated society, | | | where people channel surf, we | | | have no idea how much violence | | | people watch, or what meanings | | | the audiences give it  | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Cumberbatch** criticised **Newson**'s report, arguing that it was **not evidence based**, **Cumberbatch** argued that the 200 laboratory studies referred to by Newson **did not find a direct link between seeing media violence and aggressive behaviour**. The link between media violence and violent behaviour was not proven. The people displaying violent tendencies may have had such tendencies regardless of anything they viewed.** **    **Livingstone** points out that just because we may find what we think is a link between watching media violence and violent behaviour, it **does not mean that watching media violence has caused the violent behaviour.  There could be other causes, and we can't separate them in experiments. **    **This is how he explains it. ** If the evidence points towards those who watch more violent TV being more aggressive, we still have to ask further questions. **Is it that the violent programme is making people more aggressive** **OR** **do aggressive people choose to watch violent programmes (**selective exposure) **OR do social circumstances make people more aggressive AND lead them to watch more violent TV?  **   ** Cathartic Effect of watching media violence** **Medie violence as cathartic** is the argument that watching media **violence** does not make the audience more aggressive. **It reduces violent tendencies,** and can **have a positive effect on their well being** **Fesbach and Sanger found** that watching screen violence can provide a safe outlet for people's aggressive tendencies. This is known as **catharsis a** **cathartic effect**. Media violence allows people to "**live out" their violent tendencies in the fantasy world of the media** **rather than in the real world.**   **Sensitisation Theory**  **Young** in his **Sensitisation Theory argued** that **seeing the effects of violence** and especially the pain and suffering that it causes to the victim and their families, may make us **sensitive to violence**, more aware of its consequences and so **less inclined to commit violent acts**. **Sensitisation**  is the opposite of Desensitization. **Exposure to media violence can make people more sensitive to the consequences of violence and less tolerant of real-life violence**    **However, Media increases the fear of violent crime**   Although what is shown in the media may not make people violent, **media violence and the reporting of violent crime** (news values) may **lead people to believe that we live in a violent society**. **Gerbner** found that **people who watch TV,**   and are therefore exposed to more violence, have exaggerated fears about crime and violence. They are more likely to **overestimate their risk of being a victim**, and **to assume the crime rate is rising**, even when it is not  **Postmodernist**s would argue that it is impossible to test the effects of media violence on the audience. In a **media saturated society**, where people channel surf, we have no idea how much violence people watch, **or what meanings the audiences give it**  **Quick fire questions** Which theory of media effects suggests the media has a direct effect on our behaviour? Which theory of media effect suggests that the audience are passive puppets of what they watch? Who conducted the Bobo Doll experiment? What are the three filters that people apply when interpreting that media content, according to selective filtering theory ? What are the three types of reading according to the reception analysis model of media effects? What are the 5 media affects models? Which theory of media effects is associated with the Neo-Marxists? Give one criticism of the Cultural effects model Which model is the Pluralist model? What is the argument made by the uses and gratification model? What is disinhibition theory? What is the desensitization argument, and with which sociologist is it associated? What term means watching screen violence can provide a safe outlet for people's aggressive tendencies? What is sensitization theory? A screenshot of a computer screen Description automatically generated  **ITEM N**   Violence in the media is now a major part of popular culture, for example in computer games, in tv programmes and movies, and on websites, and more people are exposed to violent media imagery than ever before. Some have concluded that such media violence is responsible for more real-life violence in society, though the reliability of the evidence on which this conclusion is based on is widely disputed by many sociologists.     **Applying material from Item N and your knowledge, evaluate the view that exposure to media violence may make people behave in a more violent way and create more real-life violence in society. (20 marks)**