Cognition Memory PDF

Cognition Memory Pages – 157 to 162 Three Box Model Sensory Memory George Sperling demonstrated through experiments the existance of this sensory memory. Sperling documented the existence of iconic memory (one of the sensory memory subtypes). Through several experiments, he showed s...

Cognition Memory Pages – 157 to 162 Three Box Model Sensory Memory George Sperling demonstrated through experiments the existance of this sensory memory. Sperling documented the existence of iconic memory (one of the sensory memory subtypes). Through several experiments, he showed support for his hypothesis that human beings store a perfect image of the visual world for a brief moment, before it is discarded from memory. Sensory Memory In AP Psychology, "sensory memory" refers to the extremely brief storage of sensory information, holding an exact copy of incoming stimuli for a few seconds, allowing us to perceive the world around us by retaining impressions of sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and touch just long enough to process them further; it is considered the first stage of memory processing and includes types like iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory. Key points about sensory memory: Short duration: Sensory memory lasts only a fraction of a second. George Sperling Iconic and Echoic Memory Cocktail Party Effect The cocktail party effect refers to the ability of people to focus on a single talker or conversation in a noisy environment. For example, if you are talking to a friend at a noisy party, you are able to listen and understand what they are talking about – and ignore what other people nearby are saying. On the other hand the cocktail party effect may allow you to single out a specific sound or sense that seems important, such as someone dropping your name in a nearby conversation. Cocktail Party Effect Short Term Memory / Working Memory In AP Psychology, "short-term memory" refers to the mental capacity to hold a small amount of information actively for a brief period, typically lasting only a few seconds to about 30 seconds, where information is readily available for processing before being either transferred to long-term memory or forgotten if not rehearsed; it has a limited capacity, often cited as around 7 items, based on George Miller's research. Key points about short-term memory: Limited capacity: Can only hold a small amount of information at a time. Short duration: Information quickly fades if not actively rehearsed. Active processing: Information is actively manipulated and processed while in short-term memory. Example: Remembering a phone number just after hearing it. Short Term Memory – Central Executive Central Executive - In AP Psychology, the "central executive" refers to a cognitive control system within Baddeley's working memory model, acting as the "boss" that manages attention, coordinates information processing, and directs the other components of working memory (like the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad) to complete tasks, essentially making decisions about where to allocate cognitive resources. Key points about the central executive: Function: It controls which information is prioritized and processed, allowing for complex cognitive tasks like planning, decision-making, and multitasking. Limited capacity: Although it oversees the entire working memory system, the central executive itself has a limited capacity, meaning it can only handle a certain amount of information at once. Role in attention: It plays a crucial role in directing and maintaining focus on relevant stimuli, while filtering out distractions Short Term Memory – Visuospatial Sketchpad Visuospatial Sketchpad: In AP Psychology, the "visuospatial sketchpad" refers to a component of working memory responsible for temporarily storing and manipulating visual and spatial information, like the layout of a room or the image of an object, allowing us to mentally visualize and process these details; essentially, it's like a mental "scratchpad" for visual imagery. Holds visual information such as colors, shapes, and spatial relationships. Part of working memory: This component is part of Baddeley's model of working memory, alongside the phonological loop (for auditory information) and the central executive (which controls both). Examples of usage: When navigating a room, mentally picturing a complex design, or recalling the details of a picture. Short Term Memory – Auditory Loop Auditory Loop: In AP Psychology, an "auditory loop" refers to the "phonological loop," which is a component of working memory responsible for temporarily storing and rehearsing auditory information like words or sounds, essentially acting like a mental loop that repeats the information to help with memory retention; it's considered a part of the larger working memory model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It allows you to hold and manipulate verbal information in your mind for a short period, like when you're trying to remember a phone number or repeating something someone just said to you. Components: The phonological loop consists of two parts: Phonological store: Holds the auditory information itself. Articulatory process: The inner voice that rehearses the information by repeating it silently. Maintenance Rehearsal In AP Psychology, "maintenance rehearsal" refers to the process of repeatedly saying or thinking about a piece of information to keep it active in your short- term memory, essentially just repeating information without necessarily trying to connect it to deeper meaning or existing knowledge, allowing for temporary storage but not necessarily long-term retention; it's a shallow level of processing. Key points about maintenance rehearsal: Function: To hold information in short-term memory for a brief period. Method: Simple repetition of information, either verbally or mentally. Example: Repeating a phone number until you can dial it. Contrast with elaborative rehearsal: Unlike maintenance rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal involves actively linking new information to existing knowledge or creating meaningful associations to better encode information into long-term memory. Elaborative Rehearsal In AP Psychology, "elaborative rehearsal" refers to a memory technique where new information is actively linked to existing knowledge in long-term memory by creating associations and meaning, resulting in better retention compared to simply repeating the information (rote learning); essentially, it involves "deep processing" of information to transfer it from short-term to long-term memory. Key points about elaborative rehearsal: Deeper processing: Unlike simple repetition (maintenance rehearsal), elaborative rehearsal involves actively thinking about the meaning and connections of new information. Creating associations: By linking new information to existing knowledge in your memory, you build a network of related concepts, making it easier to recall. Example: Remembering someone's name "Sandy" by picturing a sandy beach. Effortful Processing In AP Psychology, "effortful processing" refers to the active processing of information that requires conscious effort and attention, meaning you must actively work to encode and remember information, often used when learning new concepts or complex ideas that don't automatically stick in your memory; it's the opposite of automatic processing which happens without conscious effort. Requires conscious attention: You need to focus on the information to process it effectively. Used for learning new things: Studying for a test or learning a new skill typically involves effortful processing. Contrast with automatic processing: Automatic processing happens without conscious effort, like remembering how to ride a bike. Example of effortful processing: Studying vocabulary words for a foreign language by repeatedly writing and saying them out loud. Trying to solve a complex math problem. Memorizing a speech for a presentation. Long Term Memory In AP Psychology, "long-term memory" refers to the memory system that stores information for extended periods, potentially a lifetime, with seemingly unlimited capacity, allowing us to recall experiences, facts, and skills from long ago; essentially, it's the final stage where information is transferred from short-term memory for long-term storage. Capacity: Considered to have an unlimited capacity. Duration: Can store information for years or even a lifetime. Types of long-term memory: Episodic memory: Memories of specific personal experiences and events. Semantic memory: Memories of facts and general knowledge. Procedural memory: Memories of motor skills and how to perform actions. Prospective Memory In AP Psychology, "prospective memory" refers to the ability to remember to perform an intended action at a specific future time, essentially remembering to do something in the future, like remembering to pick up groceries on the way home from work or take medication at a certain time. Focus on future actions: Unlike retrospective memory which involves recalling past events, prospective memory is all about remembering to do something planned for the future. Important factors: Factors like cues, time-based reminders, and context play a crucial role in successfully utilizing prospective memory. Examples: Remembering to mail a letter, attend a doctor's appointment, or pick up a friend from the airport are all examples of prospective memory George Miller – Magic 7 What is the Miller's magic 7 theory? It is often interpreted to argue that the number of objects an average human can hold in short-term memory is 7 ± 2. This has occasionally been referred to as Miller's law. Miller’s Law Miller’s law can be expanded through memory techniques. Chunking – Grouping Subjects – such as grouping disorders by disorder categories. Mnemonic Devices - Mnemonics are memory devices that help learners recall larger pieces of information, especially in the form of lists like characteristics, steps, stages, parts, etc. We knew back in 1967 from a study by Gerald R. Miller that mnemonics increased recall. Rehearse – repeating material to encode it Explicit and Emplicit Memory Implicit memory and explicit memory are both types of long-term memory. Information that you remember unconsciously and effortlessly is known as implicit memory, while information that you have to consciously work to remember is known as explicit memory. Explicit Memory – declarative memory – things we tried to remember. Implicit Memory – nondeclarative memory – things we unintentionally memorized. Eidetic / photographic memory Studied by Alexander Luria. Eidetic memory (/aɪˈdɛtɪk/ eye-DET-ik), also known as photographic memory and total recall, is the ability to recall an image from memory with high precision—at least for a brief period of time—after seeing it only once and without using a mnemonic device. Eidedic Memory Alexander Luria Levels of Processing Model The Levels of Processing Model, a prominent theory in cognitive psychology, discusses into how information is encoded and stored in memory. The Levels of Processing Model proposed by Craik and Lockhart in 1972 suggests that memory retention depends on the depth or level to which information is processed. Levels of Processing Model Memories are neither long or short term. They are Deeply processed or Shallowly Processed. Shallow – repetition and remembering after a short time. You remember quickly but may not retain it. Deep – Study something in context and relate to it or give it meaning, you will likely recall it much later on. Levels of Processing Retrieval Two kinds of retrieval methods: Recall and Recognition. Recognition – matching a current event or fact with one already in memory. (I’ve seen that animal, that’s a gecko ; I’ve heard this song, this is Chopin’s Moonlight Sonata) Recall – retrieving a memory with external cue. (What color is the sky ; How old is your sister ; How do you perform a glissade) Serial Position Effect Herman Ebbinhaus established that the order items in a list is related to whether or not we will recall them. Primacy Effect – we are more likely to remember things at the start of the list. Recency Effect – we are more likely to remember things that we most recently heard. Together they form the serial position effect – also called serial position curve. Tip of the tongue phenomenon Temporary inability to remember something already known. You search for the answer and feel like with enough time you can remember, but at that moment you cant. Possibly explained by semantic network theory. Semantic Network Theory Brain might form new memories by connecting meaning and context with meanings already in memory. This implies a web of interconnected memories – each one in context tied to hundreds of thousands of other memories. This also implies that by listing traits that are connected to the memory, you can get closer and closer to that memory. (Saying words like – red, fruit, adam, eve, snake, tree – can lead to the word apple) Semantic Network Theory Semantic Network Theory Mood Congruent / State Dependent Mood Congruent - Consistency between a person's emotional state with the broader situations and circumstances being experienced by the persons at that time. You tend to attach memories based on the mood or emotion you were feeling with that memory. Example – People with depression often go back to a number of other times they have been similarly unhappy. Mood Mood Congruent / State Dependent State Dependent Memory – memories tied to the state a person was in. Such as tired, drunk, sleepy, or excited. Harold went to a bar when drunk but can’t remember it until he becomes intoxicated again. Samantha is tired from studying last minute, only at this point does she remember that she did this last test too. State Dependent Flashbulb memory Recovered Memories Another key point concerning recovered memories is that people may not think about the abuse for many years or may forget their previous recollections of their traumatic experience. Such people might then spontaneously recover memories of abuse when reminded about the abuse outside of therapy. This could have issues as the memories are capable of being fabricated, or even influenced by a therapist attempting to find issues. This is called Constructed Memories. False Memories – Constructed Memories Forgetting Forgetting means failure of retrieval. One major cause is Decay – since memory isn’t used. Relearning – If you forget, when you memorize again, the memory is stronger. Forgetting Amnesia Anterograde Amnesia – Individuals with damage to hippocampus may have anterograde amnesia – meaning they cannot encode new memories. Amnesia Interference Retroactive Interference – Learning new things interferes with remembering old information. Proactive Interference – Older Information already learned gets in the way of recalling newer information. Mnemonic Device – Retroactive Interference keeps you from being retro – or doing old stuff. Interference Interference Long Term Potentiation LTP Long-term potentiation (LTP) is operationally defined as a long-lasting increase in synaptic efficacy following high-frequency stimulation of afferent fibers. The more you use a memory, the more the neural connection is strengthened.