Introduction to Psychology Finals Reviewer 2024-2025 PDF

Note: The reviewers created by the HAU meaning of the information—but let's Psychology Society ensure consistency and quality elaborate on that later. during your review process. Be reminded that the 2. Keeping It...

Note: The reviewers created by the HAU meaning of the information—but let's Psychology Society ensure consistency and quality elaborate on that later. during your review process. Be reminded that the 2. Keeping It In: Storage. The next step in content of the reviewers is based ONLY ON THE GIVEN MODULES by the subject’s instructor. memory is to hold on to the information for some period of time in a process called Thank you and Goodluck on your Exam! storage. The period of time will actually be Laus Deo Semper! of different lengths, depending on the system of memory being used. For example, Lesson 7: Memory in one system of memory, people hold on to What is Memory? information just long enough to work with it, about 20 seconds or so. In another system - Memory is a process, but it also has a of memory, people hold on to information "place" in the brain. more or less permanently. - The best definition of memory is an active 3. Getting It Out: Retrieval. The biggest system that receives information from the problem many people have is retrieval, that senses, puts that information into a usable is, getting the information they know they form, organizes it as it stores it away, and have out of storage. Have you ever handed then retrieves the information from in an essay test and then remembered storage (adapted from Baddeley, 1996, several other things you could have said? 2003). Three Processes of Memory Models of Memory 1. Putting It In: Encoding. The first process in - Memory experts have proposed several the memory system is to get sensory different ways of looking at memory. The information (sight, sound, etc.) into a form model that many researchers feel is the most that the brain can use. This is called comprehensive and has perhaps been the encoding. most influential over the last several Encoding is the set of mental operations decades is the (1) information-processing that people perform on sensory model. This approach focuses on the way information to convert that information information is handled, or processed, into a form that is usable in the brain's through three different systems of memory. storage systems. Encoding is not limited to The processes of encoding, storage, and turning sensory information into signals retrieval are seen as part of this model. for the brain. Encoding is accomplished - While it is common to refer to the three differently in each of the three different systems of the information processing model storage systems of memory. In one system, as stages of memory, that term seems to encoding may involve rehearsing imply a sequence of events. information over and over to keep it in - While many aspects of memory formation memory, whereas in another system, may follow a series of steps or stages, there encoding involves elaborating on the are those who see memory as a This reviewer is not for sale.  simultaneous process, with the creation can be said that people have a "memory" for and storage of memories taking place across that information that can be accessed if a series of mental networks "stretched" needed. across the brain (McClelland & Rumelhart, - There are two kinds of sensory memory 1988; Plaut & McClelland, 2010; Rumelhart that have been studied extensively: The et al., 1986). iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) - This simultaneous processing allows sensory memories. people to retrieve many different aspects of a memory all at once, facilitating much Iconic Sensory Memory faster reactions and decisions-something - Visual sensory memory is often called Brad Williams in our opening story seems to iconic memory, and only lasts for a be very good at. This model of memory, fraction of a second. Icon is the Greek derived from work in the development of word for "image." Iconic memory. was artificial intelligence (Al), is called the (2) studied in several classic experiments by parallel distributed processing (PDP) model. George Sperling (1960). In the Al world, PDP is related to connectionism, the use of artificial neural Capacity of Iconic Memory networks to explain the mental abilities of humans (Bechtel & Abrahamsen, 2002; - Sperling had found in his early studies that if Clark, 1991; Marcus, 2001; Schapiro & he presented a grid of letters using a McClelland, 2009). machine that allowed very fast presentation, - Numerous experiments have shown that his subjects could only remember about four thinking about the meaning of something or five of the letters, no matter how many is a deeper level of processing and results had been presented. in longer retention of the word (Cermak & - Later, he developed a method called the Craik, 1979; Craik & Tulving, 1975; Paul et “partial report method,” in which he al., 2005; Watson et al., 1999). This model showed a grid of letters similar to those in of memory is called the (3) the previous one but immediately sounded a levels-of-processing model. high, medium, or low tone just after the grid was shown. Using this method, Sperling The Information-Processing Model: Three found that subjects could accurately Memory Systems report any of the three rows. This meant that the entire grid was in iconic memory - Sensory memory is the first stage of and available to the subjects. The capacity memory, the point at which information of iconic memory is everything that can enters the nervous system through the be seen at one time. sensory systems-eyes, ears, and so on. Information is encoded into sensory Duration of Iconic Memory memory as neural messages in the nervous system. As long as those neural - Sperling also found that if he delayed the messages are traveling through the system, it tone for a brief period of time, after about This reviewer is not for sale.  a second, subjects could no longer recall conversations with others. It allows the letters from the grid any better than they person to remember what someone said had during the whole report procedure. The just long enough to recognize the meaning iconic information had completely faded of a phrase. out of sensory memory in that brief time. - As with iconic memory, it also allows In real life, information that has just people to hold on to incoming auditory entered iconic memory will be pushed out information long enough for the lower very quickly by new information, a brain centers to determine whether or not process called masking (Cowan, 1988). processing by higher brain centers is needed. Research suggests that after only a quarter of a second, old information is replaced by SHORT-TERM MEMORY new information. - Although it is rare, some people do have - If an incoming sensory message is what is properly called eidetic imagery, or important enough to enter consciousness, the ability to access a visual sensory that message will move from sensory memory over a long period of time. memory to the next stage of memory, called Although the popular term photographic short-term memory (STM). memory is often used to mean this rare - Unlike sensory memory, short-term ability, some people claiming to have memories are held for up to 30 seconds or photographic memory actually mean that more. Selective attention is the ability to they have an extremely good memory. focus on only one stimulus from among all Having a very good memory and having sensory input (Broadbent, 1958). It is eidetic imagery ability are two very different through selective attention that things. information enters our STM system. - Iconic memory helps the visual system to - In Dr. Donald E. Broadbent's original filter view surroundings as continuous and theory, a kind of "bottleneck" occurs stable in spite of these saccadic between sensory memory and short-term movements. It also allows enough time for memory. Only a stimulus that is the brain stem to decide if the information "important" enough (determined by a kind is important enough to be brought into of "pre-analysis" accomplished by the consciousness. attention centers in the brain stem) will be selected from all of the information in 1. Echoic Sensory Memory sensory memory to be consciously analyzed for meaning in STM. When a person is - Echoic memory's capacity is limited to thinking actively about information, that what can be heard at any one moment and information is said to be conscious and is is smaller than the capacity of iconic also in STM. memory, although it lasts longer-about 2 - Dr. Anne M. Treisman (Treisman, 2006; to 4 seconds (Schweickert, 1993). Triesman & Gelade, 1980) proposed that - Echoic memory is very useful when a selective attention operates in a two-stage person wants to have meaningful filtering process: In the first stage, This reviewer is not for sale.  incoming stimuli in sensory memory are we store every single thing that has ever filtered on the basis of simple physical happened to us. We only store long-lasting characteristics, similar to Broadbent's memories of events and concepts that are original idea. "signal strength" of meaningful and important to us. unselected sensory stimuli in comparison to the selected stimuli. Elaborative Rehearsal - In the second stage, only the stimuli that - Elaborative rehearsal is a way of meet a certain threshold of importance transferring information from STM into are processed. Since the attenuated stimuli LTM by making that information are still present at this second stage, meaningful in some way (Postman, 1975). something as subjectively important as one's - The easiest way to do this is to connect new own name may be able to be "plucked" out information with something that is of the attenuated incoming stimuli. Even already well known (Craik & when deeply asleep, when the selective Lockhart,1972; Postman, 1975). attention filter is not working at its peak level, it still functions. Types of Long-Term Information Duration Nondeclarative (Implicit) LTM - As for duration, the name long term says it all. There is a relatively permanent - Memories for things that people know how physical change in the brain itself when a to do, like tying shoes and riding a bicycle, memory is formed. That means that many are a kind of LTM called nondeclarative of the memories people have stored away (implicit) memory. The fact that people for a long, long time-even since childhood have the knowledge of how to tie their — may still be there. That does not mean shoes, for example, is implied by the fact that people can always retrieve those that they can actually tie them. memories. - Nondeclarative memories are not only - The memories may be available but not demonstrated in the performance of a accessible, meaning that they are still there, task, such as procedural memory which but for various reasons (discussed later includes skills and habits, or through under the topic of forgetting) people cannot priming, the improvement in identifying "get to" them. It's like knowing that there is or processing concepts, words, or objects a certain item on the back of the top shelf of after having prior experience with them, the kitchen cabinet but having no ladder or but also in memory associations learned step stool to reach it. The item is there through classical or operant conditioning (available), but you can't get to it (not that may not be in conscious awareness accessible). (Schacter & Wagner, 2013; Squire & - "Long term" also does not mean that all Kandel, 2009). memories are stored forever; our personal - The amygdala is the most probable memories are too numerous to be location for emotional associations, such permanently retained, for example. Nor do as fear, and the cerebellum in the This reviewer is not for sale.  hind-brain is responsible for storage of Retrieval Cues memories of conditioned responses, skills, and habits (Debiec et al., 2010; Kandel & - One of the main reasons that maintenance Siegelbaum, 2013; Squire et al., 1993). rehearsal is not a very good way to get - Evidence that separate areas of the brain information into LTM is that saying control nondeclarative memory comes something over and over gives only one from studies of people with damage to the kind of retrieval cue (a stimulus for hippocampal area of the brain. This remembering), the sound of the word or damage causes them to have anterograde phrase. When people try to remember a amnesia, in which new long-term piece of information by thinking of what it declarative memories cannot be formed. means and how it fits in with what they already know, they are giving themselves Declarative (Explicit) LTM cues for meaning in addition to sound. The more cues stored with a piece of - Procedural memory is about the things that information, the easier the retrieval of people can do, but declarative (explicit) that information will be (Roediger, 2000; memory is about all the things that people Roediger & Guynn, 1996). can know-the facts and information that make up knowledge. There are two types Recall and Recognition of declarative long term memories: One type of declarative memory is general - There are two kinds of retrieval of knowledge that anyone has the ability to memories, recall and recognition. It is the know. Most of this information is what is difference between these two retrieval learned in school or by reading. This kind methods that makes some kinds of exams of LTM is called semantic memory. The seem harder than others. In recall, word semantic refers to meaning, so this memories are retrieved with few or no kind of knowledge is the awareness of the external cues, such as filling in the blanks meanings of words, concepts, and terms on an application form. Recognition, on the as well as names of objects, math skills, other hand, involves looking at or hearing and so on. Semantic memories are information and matching it to what is relatively permanent. already in memory. - The other kind of factual memory is the personal knowledge that each person has of Retrieval Failure: It's Right on the Tip of My his or her daily life and personal history, a Tongue kind of autobiographical memory (LePort et al., 2012). Memories of what has - Whenever people find themselves struggling happened to people each day, certain for an answer, recall has failed (at least birthdays, anniversaries that were temporarily). Sometimes the answer seems particularly special, childhood events, and so very close to the surface of conscious so on are called episodic memory, because thought that it feels like it's "on the tip of they represent episodes from their lives. This reviewer is not for sale.  the tongue." (If people could just get their - This isn't forgetting so much as it is tongues out there far enough, they could encoding failure, the failure to process read it.) This is sometimes called the tip of information into memory. the tongue (TOT) phenomenon (Brown & McNeill, 1966; Burke et al., 1991). MEMORY TRACE DECAY THEORY Although people may be able to say how long the word is or name letters that start or - One of the older theories of forgetting even end the word, they cannot retrieve the involves the concept of a memory trace. A sound or actual spelling of the word to memory trace is some physical change in allow it to be pulled into the auditory the brain, perhaps in a neuron or in the "recorder" of STM so that it can be fully activity between neurons, which occurs retrieved. This particular memory problem when a memory is formed (Brown, 1958; gets more common as we get older, Peterson & Peterson, 1959). Over time, if although it should not be taken as a sign of these traces are not used, they may decay, oncoming dementia unless the increase is fading into nothing. But is decay a good sudden (Osshera et al., 2012). explanation for forgetting from long-term memory? When referring to LTM, decay The Serial Position Effect theory is usually called disuse, and the phrase "use it or lose it" takes on great - Another interesting feature of recall is that it meaning (Bjork & Bjork, 1992). is often subject to a kind of "prejudice" of memory retrieval, in which information at INTERFERENCE THEORY the beginning and the end of a list, such as a poem or song, tends to be remembered - A possible explanation of LTM forgetting is more easily and accurately. This is called that although most long-term memories may the serial position effect (Murdock, 1962). be stored more or less permanently in the brain, those memories may not always be Why do we Forget? accessible to attempted retrieval because other information interferes (Anderson & ENCODING FAILURE Neely, 1995). - There are several reasons why people forget Proactive Interference things. One of the simplest is that some things never get encoded in the first place. - The reason you reached for the gearshift in Your friend, for example, may have said the "old" place is called proactive something to you as he walked out the door, interference: the tendency for older or and you may have heard him, but if you previously learned material to interfere weren't paying attention to what he said, it with the learning (and subsequent retrieval) would not get past sensory memory. of new material. This reviewer is not for sale. Retroactive Interference severe over time, causing the person to become more and more forgetful about - When newer information interferes with everyday tasks. Eventually more dangerous the retrieval of older information, this is forgetting occurs, such as taking extra doses called retroactive interference. What of medication or leaving something cooking happens when you change back from the car on the stove unattended. As Alzheimer's with the gearshift on the floor to the older disease progresses, memories of the past car with the gear shift on the wheel? You'll seem to begin "erasing" as retrograde probably reach down to the floor at least amnesia also takes hold. It is a costly once or twice because the newer skill disease to care for, and caregivers often retroactively interferes with remembering face severe emotional and financial burdens the old way of doing it. in caring for a loved one who is slowly becoming a stranger. How does amnesia occur? - Infantile amnesia involves the type of memory that exists in the first few years - People who are in accidents in which they of life, when a child is still considered an received a head injury often are unable to infant. Early memories tend to be implicit recall the accident itself. Sometimes they and, as stated earlier in this chapter, implicit cannot remember the last several hours or memories are difficult to bring to even days before the accident. This type of consciousness. Explicit memory, which is amnesia (literally, "without memory") is the more verbal and conscious form of called retrograde amnesia, which is loss of memory, does not really develop until after memory from the point of injury about age 2, when the hippocampus is backwards (Hodges, 1994). more fully developed and language skills - Concussions can also cause a more blossom (Carver & Bauer, 2001). temporary version of the kind of amnesia. This kind of amnesia is called anterograde Lesson 8: Cognition amnesia, or the loss of memories from the How Do People Think? point of injury or illness forward (Squire & Slater, 1978). People with this kind of - Thinking, or cognition (from a Latin word amnesia have difficulty remembering meaning "to know"), can be defined as anything new. This is also the kind of mental activity that goes on in the brain amnesia most often seen in people with when a person is processing information, senile dementia, a mental disorder in organizing it, understanding it, and which severe forgetfulness, mental communicating it to others. confusion, and mood swings are the - Thinking includes memory, but it is much primary symptoms. more. When people think, they are not only - Alzheimer's disease, the primary memory aware of the information in the brain but problem, at least in the beginning, is also are making decisions about it, anterograde amnesia. Memory loss may be comparing it to other information, and rather mild at first but becomes more using it to solve problems. This reviewer is not for sale.  - Thinking also includes more than just a kind - People are surrounded by objects, events, of verbal "stream of consciousness." When and activities that are not as clearly defined people think, they often have images as as formal concepts. What is a vehicle? Cars well as words in their minds. and trucks leap immediately to mind, but what about a bobsled, or a raft? Those last MENTAL IMAGERY two objects aren't quite as easy to classify as vehicles immediately, but they fit some of - As stated earlier, short-term memories are the rules for "vehicle." These are examples encoded in the form of sounds and also as of natural concepts, concepts people form visual images, forming a mental picture of not as a result of a strict set of rules, but the world. Thus, mental images rather as the result of experiences with (representations that stand in for objects or these concepts in the real world (Ahn, events and have a picture-like quality) are 1998; Barton & Komatsu, 1989; Rosch, one of several tools used in the thought 1973). process. - Formal concepts are well defined, but natural concepts are "fuzzy" (Hampton, CONCEPTS AND PROTOTYPES 1998). Natural concepts are important in helping people understand their - Mental images are only one form of surroundings in a less structured manner mental representation. Another aspect of than school-taught formal concepts, and they thought processes is the use of concepts. form the basis for interpreting those Concepts are ideas that represent a class surroundings and the events that may or category of objects, events, or occur in everyday life. activities. People use concepts to think - In the United States, apples are a good about objects or events without having to example of a prototype, a concept that think about all the specific examples of closely matches the defining the category. This ability to think in terms characteristics of the concept (Mervis & of concepts allows us to communicate with Rosch, 1981; Rosch, 1977). each other. - People who do have very different - Concepts can have very strict definitions, experiences with fruit, for instance, will such as the concept of a square as a shape have different prototypes, which are the with four equal sides. most basic examples of concepts. - Concepts defined by specific rules or - Concepts are one of the ways people deal features are called formal concepts and are with all the information that bombards quite rigid. For example, in geometry there their senses every day, allowing them to are triangles, squares, rectangles, polygons, organize their perceptions of the world and lines. In psychology, there are around them. This organization may take double-blind experiments, sleep stages, and the form of schemas, mental conditioned stimuli, to name a few. Each of generalizations about objects, places, these concepts must fit very specific events, and people (for example, one's features to be considered true examples. schema for "library" would no doubt include This reviewer is not for sale.  books and bookshelves), or scripts, a kind of formulas are algorithms. When librarians schema that involves a familiar sequence of organize books on bookshelves, they also activities (for example, "going to a movie" use an algorithm: Place books in would include traveling there, getting the alphabetical order within each category. ticket, buying snacks, finding the right Computers, however, can run searches like theater, etc.). Concepts not only help people this one very quickly, so the systematic think, but also they are an important tool search algorithm is a useful part of some in problem solving, a type of thinking that computer programs. people engage in every day and in many different situations. A heuristic, or "rule of thumb," is a simple rule that is intended to apply to many PROBLEM-SOLVING AND situations. Whereas an algorithm is very DECISION-MAKING STRATEGIES specific and will always lead to a solution, a heuristic is an educated guess based on - Images and concepts are mental tools that prior experiences that helps narrow down can be used to solve problems and make the possible solutions for a problem. decisions. Problem solving occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and a. Representativeness heuristic is used for behaving in certain ways. categorizing objects and simply assumes - Problem solving is one aspect of decision that any object (or person) that shares making, or identifying, evaluating, and characteristics with the members of a choosing among several alternatives. particular category is also a member of There are several different ways in which that category. people can think in order to solve problems. b. Another heuristic that can have undesired Trial and error, also known as a outcomes is the availability heuristic, which mechanical solution. Trial and error refers is based on our estimation of the to trying one solution after another until frequency or likelihood of an event based finding one that works. Mechanical on how easy it is to recall relevant solutions can also involve solving by rote, information from memory or how easy it or a learned set of rules. This is how word is for us to think of related examples problems were solved in grade school, for (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973). example. One type of rote solution is to use an algorithm. c. A useful heuristic that does work much of the time is to work backward (working Algorithms are specific, step-by-step backward) from the goal. procedures for solving certain types of problems. Algorithms will always result in d. Sometimes it's better to break a goal down a correct solution, if there is a correct into subgoals, so that as each subgoal is solution to be found, and you have achieved, the final solution is that much enough time to find it. Mathematical closer. This reviewer is not for sale.  When the solution to a problem seems to hesitant or even unable to think of other come suddenly to mind, it is called insight. possibilities. In humans, insight often takes the form of an "aha!" moment—the solution seems to Confirmation Bias come in a flash. A person may realize that this problem is similar to another one that he - Another barrier to effective decision making or she already knows how to solve or might or problem solving is confirmation bias, see that an object can be used for a different the tendency to search for evidence that purpose than its original one. fits one's beliefs while ignoring any evidence to the contrary. This is similar to Problems with Problem Solving and Decision a mental set, except that what is "set" is a Making belief rather than a method of solving problems. Functional Fixedness CREATIVITY - One problem-solving difficulty involves thinking about objects only in terms of - Not every problem can be answered by their typical uses, which is a phenomenon using information already at hand and the called functional fixedness (literally, "fixed rules of logic in applying that information. on the function"). - Sometimes a problem requires coming up - Have you ever searched high and low for a with entirely new ways of looking at the screwdriver to fix something around the problem or unusual, inventive solutions. house? All the while there are several This kind of thinking is called creativity: objects close at hand that could be used to solving problems by combining ideas or tighten a screw: a butter knife, a key, or even behavior in new ways. a dime in your pocket. Because the tendency - The logical method for problem solving that is to think of those objects in terms of has been discussed so far is based on a type cooking, unlocking, and spending, we of thinking called convergent thinking. In sometimes ignore the less obvious possible convergent thinking, a problem is seen as uses. The string problem introduced before having only one answer and all lines of is an example of functional fixedness. thinking will eventually lead to (converge on) that single answer by using previous Mental Sets knowledge and logic (Ciardiello, 1998). - Divergent thinking is the reverse of - Functional fixedness is actually a kind of convergent thinking. Here a person starts at mental set, which is defined as the one point and comes up with many tendency for people to persist in using different, or divergent, ideas or problem-solving patterns that have possibilities based on that point (Finke, worked for them in the past. Solutions that 1995). Divergent thinkers will obviously be have worked in the past tend to be the ones less prone to some of the barriers to people try first, and people are often This reviewer is not for sale.  problem solving, such as functional Theories of Intelligence fixedness. Spearman's G Factor STIMULANT DIVERGENT THINKING - Charles Spearman (1904) saw intelligence as two different abilities. The ability to 1. Brainstorming - Generate as many ideas reason and solve problems was labeled g as possible in a short period of time, factor for general intelligence, whereas without judging each idea's merits until all task-specific abilities in certain areas such as ideas are recorded. music, business, or art are labeled s factor for specific intelligence. A traditional IQ 2. Keeping a Journal - Carry a journal to test would most likely measure g factor, write down ideas as they occur or a but Spearman believed that superiority in recorder to capture those same ideas and one type of intelligence predicts thoughts. superiority overall. Although his early research found some support for specific 3. Freewriting - Write down or record intelligences, other researchers (Guilford, everything that comes to mind about a topic 1967; Thurstone, 1938) felt that Spearman had oversimplified the concept of without revising or proofreading until all of intelligence. the information is written or recorded in - Intelligence began to be viewed as some way. Organize it later. composed of numerous factors. In fact, Guilford (1967) proposed that there were 4. Mind or Subject Writing - Start with a 120 types of intelligence. central idea and draw a "map" with lines from the center to other related ideas, Garner's Multiple Intelligences forming a visual representation of the concepts and their connections. - One of the later theorists to propose the existence of several kinds of intelligence is INTELLIGENCE Howard Gardner (1993b, 1999). Although many people use the terms reason, logic, and - Psychologists have come up with a knowledge as if they are the same ability, workable definition that combines many of Gardner believes that they are different the ideas just mentioned: They define aspects of intelligence, along with several intelligence as the ability to learn from other abilities. He originally listed seven one's experiences, acquire knowledge, and different kinds of intelligence but later use resources effectively in adapting to added an eighth type and then proposed a new situations or solving problems tentative ninth (Gardner, 1998, 1999b). (Sternberg & Kaufman,1998; Wechsler, 1975). These are the characteristics that individuals need in order to survive in their culture. This reviewer is not for sale. Gardener’s Nine Intelligence Existentialist Ability to see Various Careers, (A candidate the "big philosophical Type of Description Sample intelligence) picture" of the thinkers Intelligence Occupation human world by asking Verbal/ Ability to use Writers, questions about Linguistic language. speakers life, death, and the ultimate Musical Ability to Musicians, even reality of compose and/or those who do not human perform music. read musical existence notes but can perform and compose Sternberg's Triarchic Theory - Robert Sternberg (1988, 1997b) has theorized that Logic/ Ability to think Scientists, Mathematical logically and to engineers there are three kinds of intelligence. Called solve the triarchic theory of intelligence (triarchic mathematical means three), this theory includes problems. analytical, creative, and practical intelligence. Visual/Spatial Ability to Pilots, understand how astronauts, objects are artists, a. Analytical intelligence refers to the ability oriented in navigators to break problems down into component space. parts, or analysis, for problem solving. This is the type of intelligence that is measured by intelligence tests and Movement Ability to Dancers, athletes control one’s academic achievement tests, or "book body motions. smarts" as some people like to call it. Interpersonal Sensitivity to Psychologists, b. Creative intelligence is the ability to deal others and managers with new and different concepts and to understanding the motivation come up with new ways of solving of others. problems (divergent thinking, in other words); it also refers to the ability to Intrapersonal Understanding Various automatically process certain aspects of of one’s people-oriented information, which frees up cognitive emotions and careers resources to deal with novelty (Sternberg, how they guide actions. 2005). Naturalist Ability to Farmers, c. Practical intelligence is best described as recognize the landscapers, "street smarts," or the ability to use patterns found biologists, information to get along in life. People in nature. botanists with a high degree of practical intelligence This reviewer is not for sale.  know how to be tactful, how to manipulate Stanford-Binet and IQ situations to their advantage, and how to use inside information to increase their - Lewis Terman (1916), a researcher at odds of success. Stanford University, adopted German psychologist William Stern's method for MEASURING INTELLIGENCE comparing mental age and chronological age (number of years since birth) for use - When educators in France realized that some with the translated and revised Binet test. students needed more help with learning - Stern's (1912) formula was to divide the than others did. They thought that if a way mental age (MA) by the chronological age could be found to identify these students (CA) and multiply the result by 100 to get more in need, they could be given a different rid of any decimal points. The resulting kind of education than the more capable score is called an intelligence quotient, or students. 1Q. (A quotient is a number that results from dividing one number by another.) Binet 's Mental Ability Test The Wechsler Tests - In those early days, a French psychologist named Alfred Binet was asked by the - Although the original Stanford-Binet Test is French Ministry of Education to design a now in its fifth edition and includes formal test of intelligence that would help different questions for people of different identify children who were unable to age groups, it is not the only IQ test that is learn as quickly or as well as others, so popular today. David Wechsler (Wechsler, that they could be given remedial 2002, 2003, 2008) was the first to devise a education. series of tests designed for specific age - Eventually, he and colleague Théodore groups. Originally dissatisfied with the fact Simon came up with a test that not only that the Stanford-Binet was designed for distinguished between fast and slow children but being administered to adults, he learners but also between children of developed an IQ test specifically for adults. different age groups as well (Binet & He later designed tests specifically for older Simon, 1916). They noticed that the fast school-age children and preschool children, learners seemed to give answers to questions as well as those in the early grades. that older children might give, whereas the - The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale slow learners gave answers that were more (WAIS-IV), Wechsler Intelligence Scale typical of a younger child. Binet decided for Children (WISC-IV), and the Wechsler that the key element to be tested was a Preschool and Primary Scale of child's mental age, or the average age at Intelligence (WPPSI-IV) are the three which children could successfully answer a versions of this test, and in the United States particular level of questions. these tests are now used more frequently than the Stanford-Binet. In earlier editions, another way these tests differed from the This reviewer is not for sale.  Stanford-Binet was by having both a Visual Look at a completed puzzle and verbal and performance (nonverbal) Puzzles select three components from a set scale, as well as providing an overall score of options that would re-create the of intelligence (the original Stanford-Binet puzzle, all within a specified time was composed predominantly of verbal limit. items). Working Memory Index - While still using both verbal and nonverbal items, the WISC-IV and WAIS-IV organize Digit Span Recall lists of numbers, some lists items into four index scales that provide an forward and some lists in reverse overall score of intelligence and index order, and recall a mixed list of scores related to four specific cognitive numbers in correct ascending order. domains—verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, Arithmetic Three women divided 18 golf balls and processing speed. Table 7.4 has sample equally among themselves. How items for each of the four index scales from many golf balls did each person the WAIS-IV. receive? If two buttons cost $0.15, what will bethe cost of a dozen buttons? Stimulated Sample Items From the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) Processing Speed Index Stimulated Sample Items Symbol Visually scan a group of symbols Search to identify specific target symbols, Verbal Comprehension Index within a specified time limit. Similarities In what way are a circle and a Coding Learn a different symbol for triangle alike? specific numbers and then fill in the blank under the number with Vocabulary What is a hippopotamus? What the correct symbol. (This test is does "resemble" mean? timed.) Information What is steam made of? What is pepper? Who wrote Tom Sawyer? EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE - One explanation for why some people who do poorly in school succeed in life and why Perceptual Reasoning Index some who do well in school don't do so well Block After looking at a pattern or in the "real" world is that success relies on a Design design, try to arrange small cubes certain degree of emotional intelligence, in the same pattern. the accurate awareness of and ability to Matrix After looking at an incomplete manage one's own emotions to facilitate Reasoning matrix pattern or series, select an thinking and attain specific goals, and the option that completes the matrix or ability to understand what others feel series. This reviewer is not for sale.  (Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Mayer, Salovey, et THE LEVELS OF LANGUAGE ANALYSIS al., 2008). Grammar - Grammar is the system of rules governing - The concept of emotional intelligence was the structure and use of a language. first introduced by Peter Salovey and John According to famed linguist Noam Mayer (1990) and later popularized by Dan Chomsky (Chomsky, 2006; Chomsky et al., Goleman (1995). And while Goleman 2002), humans have an innate ability to originally suggested emotional intelligence understand and produce language through was a more powerful influence on success a device he calls the language acquisition in life than more traditional views of device, or LAD. intelligence, his work and the work of others - He defined the LAD as an innate used the term in a variety of different ways "program" that contained a schema for than originally proposed, and claims by human language. The children matched the some were not backed by scientific language they heard against this schema evidence. For example, emotional and, thus, language developed in a intelligence is not the same as having high well-researched sequence (Chomsky, 1957, self-esteem or being optimistic. One who is 1964, 1981, 1986). While humans may learn emotionally intelligent possesses the specific language (English, Spanish, self-control of emotions such as anger, Mandarin, etc.) through the processes of impulsiveness, and anxiety. Empathy, the imitation, reinforcement, and shaping, the ability to understand what others feel, is complexities of the grammar of a language also a component, as are an awareness of are, according to Chomsky, to some degree one's own emotions, sensitivity, persistence "wired in" to the developing brain. even in the face of frustrations, and the Grammar includes phonemes (the basic ability to motivate oneself (Salovey & sounds of language), morphology (the study Mayer, 1990; Mayer & Salovey, 1997). of the formation of words), rules for the order of words known as syntax, and LANGUAGE pragmatics (the practical social expectations and uses of language). - Language is a system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an infinite a. Phonemes - Phonemes are the basic units of number of meaningful statements can be sound in a language. The a in the word car made for the purpose of communicating is a very different phoneme from the a in the with others. word day, even though it is the same letter of - Language allows people not only to the alphabet. The difference is in how we communicate with one another but also to say the sound of the a in each word. represent their own internal mental Phonemes are more than just the different activity. In other words, language is a very ways in which we pronounce single letters, important part of how people think. too. Th, sh, and au are also phonemes. Phonemes for different languages are also different, and one of the biggest problems This reviewer is not for sale.  for people who are trying to learn another a need for more information, and the language is the inability to both hear and different ways in which one speaks to pronounce the phonemes of that other different people (Yule, 1996). Part of the language. pragmatics of language includes knowing - Although infants are born with the ability to just what rhythm and emphasis to use when recognize all phonemes (Werker & Lalonde, communicating with others, called 1988), after about 9 months, that ability has intonation. deteriorated and the infant recognizes only - When speaking to infants, adults and the phonemes of the language to which the children are changing the inflection when infant is exposed (Boyson-Bardies et al., they use the higher pitch and stress certain 1989). words differently than others. Some languages, such as japanese, are highly b. Morphemes - Morphemes are the smallest sensitive to intonation, meaning that units of meaning within a language. For changing the stress or pitch of certain words example, the word playing consists of two or syllables of a particular word can change morphemes, play and ing. its meaning entirely (Beckman & Pierrehumbert,1986). c. Syntax - Syntax is a system of rules for combining words and phrases to form THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN grammatically correct sentences. Syntax is LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT quite important, as just a simple mix-up can cause sentences to be completely - Two very influential developmental misunderstood. For example, "John psychologists, Jean Piaget and Lev kidnapped the boy" has a different meaning Vygotsky, often debated the relationship of from "John, the kidnapped boy," although all language and thought (Duncan, 1995). four words are the same (Lasnik, 1990). - Piaget (1926, 1962) theorized that concepts preceded and aided the development of d. Semantics - Semantics are rules for language. For example, a child would have determining the meaning of words and to have a concept or mental schema for sentences. Sentences, for example, can have "mother" before being able to learn the word the same semantic meaning while having "mama." In a sense, concepts become the different syntax: "Johnny hit the ball" and "pegs" upon which words are "hung." "the ball was hit by Johnny." Piaget also noticed that preschool children seemed to spend a great deal of time e. Pragmatics - The pragmatics of language talking to themselves-even when playing has to do with the practical aspects of with another child. Each child would be communicating with others, or the social talking about something totally unrelated "niceties" of language. Simply put, to the speech of the other, in a process pragmatics involves knowing things like Piaget called collective monologue. how to take turns in a conversation, the use of gestures to emphasize a point or indicate - This reviewer is not for sale.  Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis - Piaget believed that this kind of nonsocial speech was very egocentric (from the child's - The hypothesis that language shapes and point of view only, with no regard for the influences thoughts was accepted by listener), and that as the child became more many theorists, with a few notable socially involved and less egocentric, these exceptions, such as Piaget. One of the nonsocial speech patterns would reduce. best-known versions of this view is the - Vygotsky, however, believed almost the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (named for the opposite. He theorized that language two theorists who developed it, Edward actually helped develop concepts and that Sapir and his student, Benjamin Lee language could also help the child learn to Whorf). This hypothesis assumes that the control behavior-including social thought processes and concepts within behavior (Vygotsky, 1962, 1978, 1987). any culture are determined by the words - For Vygotsky, the word helped form the of the culture (Sapir, 1921; Whorf,1956). It concept: Once a child had learned the word has come to be known as the linguistic "mama," the various elements of relativity hypothesis, meaning that thought "mama-ness"— warm, soft, food, safety, and processes and concepts are controlled by so on-could come together around that word. (relative to) language. That is, the words Vygotsky also believed that the people use determine much of the way in "egocentric" speech of the preschool child which they think about the world around was actually a way for the child to form them. thoughts and control actions. This "private - One of the most famous examples used by speech" was a way for children to plan Whorf to support this idea was that of the their behavior and organize actions so Inuits, Native Americans living in the that their goals could be obtained. Arctic. Supposedly, the Inuits have many - Since socializing with other children would more words for snow than do people in other demand much more self-control and cultures. One estimate was 23 different behavioral regulation on the part of the words, whereas other estimates have ranged preschool child, Vygotsky believed that in the hundreds. Unfortunately, this private speech would actually increase as anecdotal evidence has turned out to be children become more socially active in false, being more myth than reality the preschool years. This was, of course, (Pullum, 1991). In fact, English speakers the opposite of Piaget's assumption, and the also have many different words for snow evidence seems to bear out Vygotsky's view: (sleet, slush, powder, dusting, and yellow to Children, especially bright children, do name a few). tend to use more private speech when learning how to socialize with other Animal Studies in Language children or when working on a difficult task (Berk, 1992; Berk & Spuhl, 1995; - Can animals be taught to use symbols that Bivens & Berk, 1990). are abstract? There have been attempts to teach animals (primates and dolphins) This reviewer is not for sale.  how to use sign language (as animals lack bonus to an employee for increased the vocal structure to form spoken words), performance, or tipping a server in a restaurant but many of these attempts were simply for good service. The child, employee, and not "good science." The most successful of server are motivated to work for the external or extrinsic rewards. these experiments (which is not without its - In contrast, intrinsic motivation is the type of critics as well) has been with Kanzi, a motivation in which a person performs an bonobo chimpanzee trained to press action because the act itself is fun, rewarding, abstract symbols on a computer keyboard challenging, or satisfying in some internal (Savage-Rumbaugh & Lewin, 1994). manner. Both outcome and level of effort can - Kanzi actually was not the original subject vary depending on the type of motivation. of the study-his mother, Matata, was the chimp being trained. She did not learn Instincts And The Evolutionary Approach many of the symbols, but Kanzi watched his mother use the keyboard and appeared - Early attempts to understand motivation focused to learn how to use the symbols through on the biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior called instincts that exist that observation. At last count, Kanzi in both people and animals. Just as animals are could understand about 150 spoken governed by their instincts to perform activities English words. such as migrating, nest building, mating, and protecting their territory, evolutionary theorists Lesson 9: Motivation proposed that human beings may also be governed by similar instincts (James, 1890; MOTIVATION McDougall, 1908). For instance, according to these theorists, the human instinct to reproduce - Motivation is the process by which activities is responsible for sexual behavior, and the are started, directed, and continued so that human instinct for territorial protection may be physical or psychological needs or wants are related to aggressive behavior. met (Petri, 1996). The word itself comes from the Latin word movere, which means "to Approaches Based on Needs And Drives move." Motivation is what "moves" people to do the things they do. - The next approach to understanding motivation - There are different types of motivation. focuses on the concepts of needs and drives. A Sometimes people are driven to do something need is a requirement of some material (such because of an external reward of some sort (or as food or water) that is essential for survival of the avoidance of an unpleasant consequence, as the organism. when someone goes to work at a job to make - When an organism has a need, it leads to a money and avoid losing possessions such as a psychological tension as well as a physical house or a car). arousal that motivates the organism to act in - In extrinsic motivation, a person performs an order to fulfill the need and reduce the action because it leads to an outcome that is tension. This tension is called a drive (Hull, separate from the person (Ryan & Deci, 2000). 1943). Other examples would be giving a child money for every A received on a report card, offering a This reviewer is not for sale. Drive-Reduction Theory Different Strokes for Different Folks: Psychological Needs - It proposes just this connection between What are the characteristics of the three types of needs? internal physiological states and outward behavior. In this theory, there are two kinds of - Obviously, motivation is about needs. drives. Primary drives are those that involve Drive-reduction theory talks about needs, and survival needs of the body such as hunger and other theories of motivation include the thirst, whereas acquired (secondary) drives are concept of needs. In many of these theories, those that are learned through experience or most needs are the result of some inner conditioning, such as the need for money or physical drive (such as hunger or thirst) that social approval, or the need of recent former demands to be satisfied, but other theories smokers to have something to put in their examine our psychological needs. mouths. Primary reinforcers satisfy primary drives, and secondary reinforcers satisfy McClelland's Theory: Affiliation, Power, and acquired, or secondary, drives. Achievement Needs - This theory also includes the concept of homeostasis, or the tendency of the body to - Harvard University psychologist David C. maintain a steady state. When there is a McClelland (1961, 1987) proposed a theory of primary drive need, the body is in a state of motivation that highlights the importance of imbalance. This stimulates behavior that three psychological needs not typically brings the body back into balance, or considered by the other theories: affiliation, homeostasis. power, and achievement. - Although drive-reduction theory works well to - According to McClelland, human beings have a explain the actions people take to reduce tension psychological need for friendly social created by needs, it does not explain all human interactions and relationships with others. Called motivation. Why do people eat when they are the need for affiliation (abbreviated as nAff in not really hungry? People don't always seek to McClelland's writings), people high in this need reduce their inner arousal either- sometimes they seek to be liked by others and to be held in seek to increase it. Bungee jumping, parachuting high regard by those around them. This makes as a recreation, rock climbing, and watching high affiliation people good team players, horror movies are all activities that increase the whereas a person high in achievement just might inner state of tension and arousal, and many run over a few team members on the way to the people love doing these activities. Why would top. people do such things if they don't reduce some - A second psychological need proposed by need or restore homeostasis? The answer is McClelland is the need for power (nPow). complex: There are different types of needs, Power is not about reaching a goal but about different effects of arousal, different having control over other people. People high incentives, and different levels of importance in this need would want to have influence over attached to many forms of behavior. The others and make an impact on them. They following theories explore some of these factors want their ideas to be the ones that are used, in motivation. regardless of whether or not their ideas will lead to success. Status and prestige are important, so these people wear expensive clothes, live in expensive houses, drive fancy cars, and dine in This reviewer is not for sale.  the best restaurants. Whereas someone who is a fate are considered to be external in locus of high achiever may not need a lot of money to control (A. P. MacDonald, 1970; Rotter, 1966). validate the achievement, someone who is high in the need for power typically sees the money Arousal Approaches (and cars, houses, jewelry, and other "toys") as the achievement. - Another explanation for human motivation involves the recognition of yet another type of - The need for achievement (nAch) involves a need, the need for stimulation. A stimulus strong desire to succeed in attaining goals, not motive is one that appears to be unlearned but only realistic ones but also challenging ones. causes an increase in stimulation. Examples People who are high in nAch look for careers would be curiosity, playing, and exploration. and hobbies that allow others to evaluate them because these high achievers also need to Optimum Arousal have feedback about their performance in addition to the achievement of reaching the goal. - In arousal theory, people are said to have an Although many of these people do become optimal (best or ideal) level of tension. Task wealthy, famous, and publicly successful, others performances, for example, may suffer if the fulfill their need to achieve in ways that lead level of arousal is too high (such as severe test only to their own personal success, not material anxiety) or even if the level of arousal is too low riches-they just want the challenge. (such as boredom). For many kinds of tasks, a Achievement motivation appears to be strongly moderate level of arousal seems to be best. related to success in school, occupational - This relationship between task performance and success, and the quality and amount of what a arousal has been explained by the person produces (Collins et al., 2004; Gillespie Yerkes-Dodson law (Teigen, 1994; Yerkes & et al., 2002; Spangler, 1992). Dodson, 1908), although Yerkes and Dodson formulated the law referring to stimulus How do people get to be high achievers? intensity, not arousal level (Winton, 1987). Personality and nAch: Carol Dweck's If people are supposed to be seeking a level of arousal Self-Theory of Motivation somewhere around the middle, why do some people love to do things like bungee-jumping? - According to motivation and personality psychologist Carol Dweck (1999), the need for - Even though the average person might require a achievement is closely linked to personality moderate level of arousal to feel content, there factors, including a person's view of how self are some people who need less arousal and some (the beliefs a person holds about his or her own who need more. The person who needs more abilities and relationships with others) can arousal is called a sensation seeker (Zuckerman, affect the individual's perception of the 1979, 1994). Sensation seekers seem to need success or failure of his or her actions. This more complex and varied sensory experiences concept is related to the much older notion of than do other people. The need does not always locus of control, in which people who assume have to involve danger. For example, students that they have control over what happens in who travel to other countries to study tend to their lives are considered to be internal in locus score higher on scales of sensation seeking than of control, and those who feel that their lives do students who stay at home (Schroth & are controlled by powerful others, luck, or This reviewer is not for sale.  McCormack, 2000). Sensation seeking may be related to temperament. Self-Determination Theory (SDT) Incentive Approaches - Another theory of motivation that is similar to - It's true that sometimes there is no physical need Maslow's hierarchy of needs is the self- present, yet people still eat, drink, or react as if determination theory (SDT) of Richard Ryan they did have a need. Even though that piece of and Edward Deci (2000). In this theory, there pie was not necessary to reduce a hunger drive, are three inborn and universal needs that help it was very rewarding, wasn't it? And on past people gain a complete sense of self and whole, occasions, that pie was also delicious and healthy relationships with others. The three rewarding, so there is anticipation of that reward needs are autonomy, or the need to be in now. The pie, in all its glorious promise of flavor control of one's own behavior and goals (i.e., and sweetness, becomes, in itself, an incentive to self-determination); competence, or the need to eat. Incentives are things that attract or lure be able to master the challenging tasks of people into action. In incentive approaches, one's life; and relatedness, or the need to feel a behavior is explained in terms of the external sense of belonging, intimacy, and security in stimulus and its rewarding properties. These relationships with others. rewarding properties exist independently of any need or level of arousal and can cause people to PHYSIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS OF HUNGER act only upon the incentive. Hormonal Influences Humanistic Approaches - One factor in hunger seems to be the insulin - Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is the first response that occurs after we begin to eat. humanistic theory based on the work of Insulin and glucagon are hormones that are Abraham Maslow (1943, 1987). Maslow secreted by the pancreas to control the levels proposed that there are several levels of needs of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the that a person must strive to meet before whole body, including glucose (blood sugar). achieving the highest level of personality Insulin reduces the level of glucose in the fulfillment. According to Maslow, bloodstream, for example, whereas glucagon self-actualization is the point that is seldom increases the level. Insulin, normally released in reached —at which people have satisfied the greater amounts after eating has begun, causes a lower needs and achieved their full human feeling of more hunger because of the drop in potential. blood sugar levels. Carbohydrates, especially those that are simple or highly refined (such as table sugar, fruit drinks, white flour, and white bread or pasta, cause the insulin level to spike even more than other foods do because there is such a large amount of glucose released by these foods at one time. - High blood sugar leads to more insulin released, which leads to a low blood sugar level, increased appetite, and the tendency to overeat. That is the basic principle behind many This reviewer is not for sale.  of the diets that promote low-carbohydrate - The rate at which the body burns energy when intake. The proponents of these diets argue that a person is resting is called the basal metabolic if people control the carbohydrates, they can rate (BMR) and is directly tied to the set point. control the insulin reaction and prevent hunger If a person's BMR decreases (as it does in cravings later on. adulthood and with decreased activity levels), - In recent years, a hormone called leptin has been that person's weight set point increases if the identified as one of the factors that controls same number of calories is consumed. appetite. When released into the bloodstream, leptin signals the hypothalamus that the body Obesity has had enough food, reducing appetite and increasing the feeling of being full, or satiated. - It would be nice if people all over the world ate just the amount of food that they needed and The Role of the Hypothalamus were able to maintain a healthy, normal weight. Unfortunately, that is not the case for many - The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) may people. Some people weigh far more than they be involved in stopping the eating response should, whereas others weigh far less. when glucose levels go up (Neary et al., 2004). - Several maladaptive eating problems, including In one study, rats whose VMH areas (located anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and toward the bottom and center of the binge- eating disorder, are classified as clinical hypothalamus) were damaged would no longer (mental) disorders in the Diagnostic and stop eating-they ate and ate until they were quite Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth overweight (Hetherington & Ranson, 1940). Edition, or DSM-5 (American Psychiatric - Another part of the hypothalamus, located on the Association, 2013), which is a listing of side and called the lateral hypothalamus (LH), disorders and their symptoms used by seems to influence the onset of eating when psychological professionals to make a diagnosis. insulin levels go up (Neary et al., 2004). Damage to this area caused rats to stop eating to There are several factors that contribute to obesity, a the point of starvation. They would eat only if condition in which the body weight of a person is 20 force-fed and still lost weight under those percent or more over the ideal body weight for that conditions (Anand & Brobeck, 1951; Hoebel & person's height: Teitelbaum, 1966). A significant factor in obesity is heredity. Weight Set Point and Basal Metabolic Rate There appear to be several sets of genes, some on different chromosomes, which influence a - Obviously, the role of the hypothalamus in person's likelihood of becoming obese (Barsh eating behavior is complex. Some researchers et al., 2000). If there is a history of obesity in a (Leibel et al., 1995; Nisbett, 1972) believe that particular family, each family member has a risk the hypothalamus affects the particular level of of becoming obese that is double or triple the weight that the body tries to maintain, called the risk of people who do not have a family history weight set point. Injury to the hypothalamus of obesity (Bouchard, 1997). does raise or lower the weight set point rather Hormones also play a role, particularly leptin, dramatically, causing either drastic weight which plays an important part in controlling loss or weight gain. appetite. Problems with leptin production or detection can lead to overeating (Friedman & Halaas, 1998). This reviewer is not for sale.  Another obesity factor is overeating. Around the Weren't the physical symptoms pretty similar? world, as developing countries build stronger Although facial expressions do differ among economies and their food supplies become various emotional responses (Ekman, 1980; stable, the rates of obesity increase dramatically Ekman et al., 1969; Ekman & Friesen, 1978), and quickly (Barsh et al., 2000). emotions are difficult to distinguish from one Metabolism slows down as people age. Aside another on the basis of physiological reactions from not changing the eating habits of their alone. youth and lowering their intake, as they earn more income people also often increase the The Behavior of Emotion: Emotional Expression amount of food they consume, thereby assuring How do people behave when in the grip of an emotion? a weight gain that may lead to obesity - There are facial expressions, body movements, EMOTION and actions that indicate to others how a person feels. Frowns, smiles, and sad expressions Emotion combine with hand gestures, the turning of one's body, and spoken words to produce an - Human beings are full of feelings, or emotions, understanding of emotion. People fight, run, and although emotions may be internal kiss, and yell, along with countless other actions processes, there are outward physical signs of stemming from the emotions they feel. Facial what people are feeling. This section explores expressions can vary across different cultures, the world of human emotions and how those although some aspects of facial expression emotions are connected to both thinking and seem to be universal. actions. Subjective Experience: Labeling Emotion THE THREE ELEMENTS OF EMOTION - The third element of emotion is interpreting - The Latin root word mot, meaning "to move," is the subjective feeling by giving it a label: anger, the source of both of the words we use in this fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, shame, interest, chapter over and over again—motive and and so on. Another way of labeling this element emotion. Emotion can be defined as the is to call it the "cognitive element," because the "feeling" aspect of consciousness, labeling process is a matter of retrieving characterized by three elements: a certain memories of previous similar experiences, physical arousal, a certain behavior that perceiving the context of the emotion, and reveals the feeling to the outside world, and an coming up with a solution—a label. inner awareness of the feeling. THEORIES OF EMOTION The Physiology of Emotion James-Lange Theory of Emotion - Physically, when a person experiences an emotion, an arousal is created by the - William James (1884, 1890, 1894), who was sympathetic nervous system. The heart rate also the founder of the functionalist perspective increases, breathing becomes more rapid, the in the early history of psychology, disagreed pupils dilate, and the mouth may become dry. with the common sense viewpoint. He believed Think about the last time you were angry and that the order of the components of emotions then about the last time you were frightened. was quite different. At nearly the same time, a This reviewer is not for sale.  physiologist and psychologist in Denmark, SCHACHTER-SINGER AND COGNITIVE Carl Lange (1885), came up with an AROUSAL THEORY OF EMOTION explanation of emotion so similar to that of James that the two names are used together to - The early theories talked about the emotion and refer to the theory-the James-Lange theory of the physical reaction, but what about the mental emotion. interpretation of those components? In their - In this theory, a stimulus of some sort (for cognitive arousal theory (two factor theory), example, the large snarling dog) produces a Schachter and Singer (1962) proposed that two physiological reaction. This reaction, which is things have to happen before emotion occurs: the arousal of the "fight-or-flight" the physical arousal and a labeling of the sympathetic nervous system (wanting to run), arousal based on cues from the surrounding produces bodily sensations such as increased environment. These two things happen at the heart rate, dry mouth, and rapid breathing. same time, resulting in the labeling of the James and Lange believed that the physical emotion. arousal led to the labeling of the emotion (fear). Simply put, "I am afraid because I am THE FACIAL FEEDBACK HYPOTHESIS: SMILE, aroused," "I am embarrassed because my face is YOU'LL FEEL BETTER red," "I am nervous because my stomach is fluttering," and "I am in love because my heart - In his 1898 book The Expression of the rate increases when I look at her (or him). Emotions in Man and Animals, Charles Darwin stated that facial expressions evolved as a way Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion of communicating intentions, such as threat or fear, and that these expressions are universal - Physiologists Walter Cannon (1927) and within a species rather than specific to a culture. Philip Bard (1934) theorized that the emotion He also believed (as in the James-Lange theory) and the physiological arousal occur more or that when such emotions are expressed freely less at the same time. Cannon, an expert in on the face, the emotion itself sympathetic arousal mechanisms, did not feel intensifies-meaning that the more one smiles, that the physical changes caused by various the happier one feels. emotions were distinct enough to allow them to be perceived as different emotions. Bard - Modern psychologists have proposed a theory of expanded on this idea by stating that the sensory emotion that is consistent with much of Darwin's information