Cities of Vesuvius Study Notes PDF

Core Study: Cities of Vesuvius – Pompeii and Herculaneum Chapter 1 - Survey: 2 1.1 the geographical setting and natural features of Campania 2 1.2 the eruption of AD 79 and its impac...

Core Study: Cities of Vesuvius – Pompeii and Herculaneum Chapter 1 - Survey: 2 1.1 the geographical setting and natural features of Campania 2 1.2 the eruption of AD 79 and its impact on Pompeii and Herculaneum 3 1.3 early discoveries and the changing nature of excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time 6 1.4 representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time 8 Chapter 2 - Investigating Sources for Pompeii and Herculaneum: 9 2.1 the evidence provided by the range of sources, including site layout, streetscapes, public and private buildings, ancient writers, official inscriptions, graffiti, wall paintings, statues, mosaics, human, animal and plant remains from Pompeii and Herculaneum 9 2.1.1 site layouts and streetscapes 9 2.1.2 public and private buildings 10 2.2 the economy: role of the forum, trade, commerce, industries, occupations 13 2.3 the social structure: men, women, freedmen, slaves 18 2.4 local political life: decuriones, magistrates, comitium 21 2.5 everyday life: housing, leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water supply, sanitation 25 2.6 religion: household gods, temples, foreign cults and religions, tombs 31 2.7 the influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art and architecture 35 Chapter 3 - Reconstructing and Conserving the Past: 36 3.1 changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies 36 3.1.1 impact of new research 37 3.1.2 impact of new technologies 38 3.2 issues of conservation and reconstruction 38 3.3 ethical issues: excavation and conservation, study and display of human remains 40 3.4 value and impact of tourism: problems and solutions 42 1 Chapter 1 - Survey: 1.1 the geographical setting and natural features of Campania The towns were located on a coastal plain; Campania Campania is located 200 km south of Rome Campania is mountainous and hilly The area was known for its temperate climate and beautiful landscape The climate was ideal for agriculture → hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. Close to the sea meant trade and communication was easy/access to the rest of the Mediterranean was good. The Apennines were to the east of Campania The River Sarno flows through Campania Pliny the Elder described Campania as “​One of the loveliest places on earth”, “Manifestly the work of nature in a happy mood”, “A region “blessed by fortune” Tacitus described the Bay of Naples as “​a most beautiful bay - beautiful that is before the eruption of Mt Vesuvius changed the landscape​” The painting (right) was found on a wall in the House of Centenary (Pompeii) and it depicts Bacchus (god of wine/agriculture). He is standing before Mt Vesuvius and because Bacchus is in the painting we know that Pompeii is being depicted as fertile and agriculturally well off. The snakes also symbolise fertility and rebirth. Mount Vesuvius: - Approx. 1300m high - Herculaneum = 7-8km from Vesuvius - Pompeii = 10 km from Vesuvius - Meant that there was rich volcanic soil - Provides pumice and other rock The Resources: - Crops: wheat/ barley/ range of vegetables/ dates/ figs/ olives (olive oil)/ grapes (wine) - Livestock: sheep; goats (meat, milk, skins and wool) - Marine resources: fish and shellfish (a thriving industry for this in the towns, garum (fermented fish sauce), salt (evaporation from shallow pools of seawater) used to preserve food. - Other: a type of local clay was used to make a great variety of pottery containers for wine, olive oil etc a type of local sand was mixed with lime to make cement. - The eruption caused foods to be carbonised and meant that they were preserved. This tells us what they ate and is good evidence. Food was mostly carbonised in Herculaneum. (Olives and figs are shown to be carbonised → ) Coastline (Campania) - Bay provided several same anchorages - Safe harbour = trading - Rich waters = thriving fishing and shellfish industry 2  Impact of Mt Vesuvius on the Physical environment: - Rich volcanic soil (potash and phosphorus → green, lush naturally occurring trees, shrubs and herbs = shade, fragrance, flavour for cooking, wildlife - Provided spurs (areas raised by lava): - Pompeii was built on a spur that was 25-40m above sea level = access to sea and mountain breezes + it overlooked the Sarno River + natural protection from predators - Herculaneum: on steeply sloping spur right on coast → access was harder than Pompeii but great ocean views, breezes etc = idea as a resort town - Pumice is a volcanic rock that was ideal for grinding grain and pressing olives + it was an export product of Pompeii. - Other volcanic rocks were good for road building, building sites etc Pompeii: Located 22km southeast of Naples, 10 km south of Mt Vesuvius on a low hill formed by a volcanic eruption and covers 60ha Commercial town relying on trade along the Sarno river in the south and the coastal road. Strategically important because it was the only route that liked the south and north. Connected the seaside area with a fertile agricultural region on the inland Estimated population around 15,000 Herculaneum​: Located 8km from Naples, on a steep hill and overlooked the Bay of Naples and Mt Vesuvius (7km away) Holiday resort for rich roman traders Estimated population of 5000 1.2 the eruption of AD 79 and its impact on Pompeii and Herculaneum Two key sources of evidence preceding the eruption: 1. The earthquake and other associated events: - When: 62CE, Pompeii and Herculaneum were hit by a severe earthquake - Effect: widespread damage and some citizens fled the town - Evidence: damaged buildings and their reconstructions, Seneca’s account of the event in ‘Naturales Quaestiones’ → “I have heard that Pompeii, the famous city in Campania has been levelled by an earthquake... It devastated Campania, which had never been safe from this calamity, yet still had never been damaged…some villas crashed to the ground, other here and there shook without damage.” (Similar to the earth tremors that would have preceded the eruption of Vesuvius and would have been relatively common in the Campania region.) 3  2. Pliny the Younger (not overly reliable because it was written 25 years after the event and was heavily edited for his reputation:​ “For many days there have been earth tremors, not particularly fearful because they are usually in Campania. However, that night they were so strong that you would believe that everything was not being shaken, but overturned.” There were two phases of the Eruption: the Plinian Phase and the Pelean Phase First Phase → Plinian Phase: Before lava flowed from Vesuvius, a huge column of ash and pumice rose about 33km high above Vesuvius Effect: a layer of pumice fell on Pompeii for several hours. Pumice fell at a rate of 12-15cm per hour. Pompeii was eventually covered in a layer that was 2.5-2.8m higher. Not as much ash fell on Herculaneum due to wind direction and topography. There are four key sources of evidence on this phase: 1. Pliny the Younger: (Pliny’s first letter to Tacitus) “Its appearance and shape are best described as being like a pine tree, for it rose to a great height as if on a very long trunk and spread out its branches... ashes were falling hotter and thicker. Not pumice blackened and charred by fire...it was daylight elsewhere but here it was blacker and denser than any other night...” (Pliny’s second letter to Tacitus) “Not ash was falling, not yet as thickly. A dense blackness behind us threatened and pursued us like a torrent…” 2. Dio Cassius (AD 150-235) “An extraordinary crash was heard as if the mountain was falling down and huge stones were hurled up... a great amount of fire and never-ending smoke, so that the whole atmosphere darkened…” 3. Startius (AD 45-96) “Vesuvius throws up broken fury, tumbling out a fire rivalling that of Sicilian flames...the mountain has not ceased to threaten in a deadly manner.” 4. Haraldur Sigurdsson (Modern) - Studied the eruption of Mt Vesuvius and compared it to the eruption of Mt St Helens. He compared the stratigraphy of both sites. Second Phase → Pelean Phase: Pyroclastic surges/flow → current of hot gas and rock The peak of eruption peaked hurricane of heavier, denser pumice Caused widespread collapse of buildings, established volcanic cloud-first deadly pyroclastic surge There were six surges in total and they each had different effects on either town 4  Surge Effect First - Buried Herculaneum, killing all inhabitants - Missed Pompeii - Flowed at 300km p/h - Approx 400 degrees celsius - Carbonised everything organic including furniture, wood and papyrus Second - Missed Pompeii - Further buried Herc. and completely sealed underground Third - May have reached city walls of Pompeii - Further buried Herculaneum Fourth - Lethal to Pompeii - It covered the city with hot gas - Killed nearly all inhabitants Fifth - Further buried Pompeii Sixth - Further buried Pompeii - Herculaneum was covered under 20m of debris Evidence for this stage: 1. Sigurdsson’s evidence: - Stratigraphy: the study of layers of rock - Findings: shows different layers of volcanic rock corresponding pyroclastic flows - Suggestions: waves of eruption came one after the other 2. 2018- the discovery of human remain in Pompeii - Skull of a man found detached away from the rest of his lower body Causes of Death: Pompeii: - Death from falling masonry/buildings - Trapped by falling ash and debris which then led to asphyxiation - Thermal shock due to the pyroclastic surges Herculaneum: - Thermal shock from pyroclastic surges (evidence = cracked skills - Drowned in attempts to flee via the bay Evidence Prior Eruption: In 62 CE there was a massive earthquake in Pompeii and Herculaneum Evidence: - Damaged buildings and their attempted or half-finished reconstruction - Seneca (4BCE - 65CE): “​ I’ve heard that Pompeii, the famous city in Campania has been levelled by an earthquake… it devastated Campania, which had never been 5  safe from this calamity, yet still had never been damaged… some villas crashed to the ground, others here and there shook without damage.” 1.3 early discoveries and the changing nature of excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time Archeological sites in Pompeii and Herculaneum are some of the oldest in the world (took over 200 years to uncover what they have) Pompeii and Herculaneum have both been managed by various groups and individuals all with different aims, purposes, backgrounds and methodologies that had a critical impact upon how excavations were conducted and upon our understanding today. Pompeii was discovered in the 1590s Herculaneum was discovered in 1711 There was lots of looting during the early discovering of the sites and the repercussions of this can still be felt today Many valuable artefacts were ransacked and removed leaving gaps in knowledge ‘Excavations’ began that included more treasure hunts Looting started to finish after Karl Webber and Johann Winckelmann began to actively oppose it and the quality of the excavation improved with a more organised approach (taking one area at a time and keeping drawings of buildings for reference) Between 1805 and 1815, a large excavation project took place under the direction of the French king and architect Francois Mazois who published records of the excavation After 1815 the excavation continued on a smaller scale and Pompeii became a famous tourist attraction Excavating took on a more haphazard approach and many excavators had ulterior motives (there was a greater focus on the more ‘pretty’ buildings) Things improved and because of technology and historical advances the investigation became more systematic and organised over time Archeologists Contributions Antonio Bonucci (1818-1819) Bonnucci uncovered a variety of important buildings and locations in Pompeii, including the Forum, the Temple of Fortuna Augusta, the House of the Faun and the gladiator barracks Giuseppe Fiorelli (1860-1875) Fiorelli was the mastermind behind famous plaster casts in Pompeii Utilising what was at the time pretty advanced archaeological technology and techniques, Fiorelli organised for the plaster to be poured into cavities left behind by the not decomposed human and animal remains This had significant implications for the excavation of Pompeii as it allowed for a deeper understanding of what the final moments looked like for those in Pompeii along with detailed insight into things like fashion However, one major drawback is that through utilising this method was have not lost the ability to analyse the actual 6  remains through scientific analysis as they have not been destroyed He developed a more scientific and structured approach to record-keeping and had a more methodical system of excavation which reduced the haphazardness of previous methods He divided Pompeii into regions each of which were given a name or a grid number He was concerned with the protection of what had been excavated and set up roofs over protected sites He excavated from the roof of a building downwards Later he established a training school for archeologists which meant that future workers on the site would be employing has comparatively better methods in the future August Mau (1873-1909) He is known for categorising the Pompeiian wall art into four main styles He worked out a system of dating buildings through dating the frescos Vittorio Spinazzola (1910-1923) He excavated the Via dell’Abbondanza (main road of Pompeii) which revealed lots of new information such as the discovery of new taverns, shops and bars He discovered the Fullery of Stephanus and reconstructed balconies/upper stories of many houses He was the first archeologist to use photography to record findings rather than just relying on drawings which meant there was more detail in depictions of artefacts/buildings Amedeo Mairuir (1942-1961) He was the longest-running archeologist He used stratigraphic methods to excavate Pompeii and continued excavations around the Via dell’Abbondanza, unearthing the amphitheatre and palaestra He also excavated: - The House of the Surgeon - Walls of the city - The Villa of Mysteries - The Casa dell’ Efebo Has received criticism for excavating too fast, damaging archaeological remains in the process and his links of Mussolini (suggesting Italian exceptionalism by revealing a more grandiose history) Fausto Zevi (1977-present) He initiated the switch from excavation to conversation and restoration and was responsible for photographic recordings of wall paintings and mosaics. He established international cooperation between teams from Italy, Holland, Spain, Germany, Britain, Australia and the US 7 1.4 representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time The various representations of Pompeii and Herc during the 18th and 19th century were influenced by two European movements: Neoclassicism ​- a movement in the decorative and visual arts, theatre, music and architecture that drew its inspiration from ancient Greece and Rome Romanticism ​- an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement characterised by its emphasis on emotion, imagination, individualism and glorification of the past After the success of Guiseppe Fiorelli’s plaster casts, interpretations of the events were romanticised - focusing on humanity rather than the disaster Some artists incorporated fantasy - inaccurate but appealing to the audience SOURCE​: Charles Dickens:​ ‘fascinated by Pompeii's mixture of the macabre and the beautiful… and the thought of sudden death’ … Pictures from Italy: ‘one loses all sense of time and heed of other things in the strange melancholy sensation of seeing the Destroyed and the Destroyer making this quiet picture in the sun’ Other artists and writers used the fate of Pompeii and Herculaneum as a powerful metaphor for ‘death’s abrupt invasion’ and universal extinction. A series of paintings focused on the cataclysmic and apocalyptic end of Pompeii inspiring God-fearing (e.g. John Martin’s The Destruction of Pompeii - man’s helplessness in the face of nature and the wrath of God) 20th and 21st Century Representations: Pompeii and Herculaneum continued to be represented in both fact and fiction and often sensationalised mainly through the film adaptations of Bulwer-Lytton's novel As the 21st century rolled around with the emergence of technology - documentaries, video clips on youtube, Robert Harris’ novel P ​ ompeii ​and ​Pompeii (​ film in 2014) Virtual reality tours through digitally reconstructed houses and building 8 Chapter 2 - Investigating Sources for Pompeii and Herculaneum: 2.1 the evidence provided by the range of sources, including site layout, streetscapes, public and private buildings, ancient writers, official inscriptions, graffiti, wall paintings, statues, mosaics, human, animal and plant remains from Pompeii and Herculaneum - the economy: role of the forum, trade, commerce, industries, occupations - the social structure: men, women, freedmen, slaves - local political life: decuriones, magistrates, comitium - everyday life: housing, leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water supply, sanitation - religion: household gods, temples, foreign cults and religions, tombs - the influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art and architecture 2.1.1 site layouts and streetscapes There are many physical differences between both Pompeii and Herculaneum and neither of the towns have been excavated completely Key terms: - Insulae​: ​a block of buildings, typically a residential area (each entrance to an insula was numbered) - Region:​ made up of up to 22 insula - Via​: a road - Decumani​: roads crossing east-west - Decumanus Maximus​: the main road - Cardines​: roads crossing north-south Similarities between Pompeii and Herculaneum: - Laid out in a grid system: main roads (decumani) crossed by minor roads (cardini) created blocks (insulae) - Both had town walls: Herculaneum’s was modest and Pompeii’s was 3.2km following defensive line of the natural landscape Pompeii​: Geographical area: 66 hectares % of town excavated: 66% It was a thriving port and commercial centre with a large forum which featured temples, markets and a range of admin and commercial buildings. There were 7 gates which provided entry points into Pompeii Streets: - Laid out in a grid pattern - The main east-west street = Via dell’Abbondanza - The main north-south street = Via Sabina Roads: - Paved in blocks of volcanic stone 9  - Have many deep ruts showing the volume of traffic in the area - Most roads have footpaths on either side - In Pompeii, there are raised stone blocks to help pedestrians cross without getting their feet wet (drainage water flowed into the street). This wasn’t the case for Herculaneum because they had a drainage system that ran beneath the roads Herculaneum: Geographical area: 12 hectares % of town excavated: 4 complete insulae blocks Smaller of the two towns Streets: - North-South = Cardo III, IV and V - East-West = Decumanus Maximus and Decumanus Inferior Herculaneum had an underground drainage system It was situated on a cliff overlooking the sea which meant there were boat sheds (found on the ancient beach) There was a mix of commercial and residential uses Herculaneum was more of a resort/residential town compared to Pompeii Difficult to understand the streetscape of Herculaneum because it hasn’t all been uncovered Differences​: Pompeii Herculaneum Geographically larger Geographically smaller 2/3 excavated Only 4 insulae excavated Consistently wider roads Varied road widths Stepping stones No stepping stones 2.1.2 public and private buildings In Pompeii, commerce was conducted in: - Public buildings in and around the forum - Private shops extending along the main streets and scattered around residencies - Evidence comes from excavations showing the number and variety of shops in Pompeii 10 Public Buildings: Could be accessed by the general public and served a variety of purposes Basilicas: - Basilicas were used for political and judicial purposes - Basilicas were used law courts, for contract signings and various other government and legal proceedings Pompeii Herculaneum - The Basilica of Pompeii was built in the - Known as the Basilica Noniana (named Forum between 128-70 BCE after Marcus Nonius Balbus who funded - Structure and design: Hellenistic reconstruction after the earthquake) architectural style and Corinthian-style - Structure and design: only half columns which divide the building and excavated, features 10 columns around 5 entrances leading out to the forum the perimeter - It was one of the busiest civic places as - The building is well preserved and so the centre of the town’s economic and are many of its contents (frescos and judicial landscape marble busts) - Evidence suggests that the first floor - It is important to note however that this was used for archives while the upper may not have even been the Basilica floor was used as a platform for judges and could be a temple or shrine Temples: - Temples were religious buildings that function in a similar way to churches or mosques - They were places of worship for a range of gods and goddesses (Polytheistic society) - These religions were heavily influenced by Egyptian and Greek culture and this can be seen in the architecture Pompeii Herculaneum - 10 major temples have been - No temples have been excavated as of 2018 discovered in Pompeii including - However, this doesn’t mean there is evidence of the Temple of Isis, Apollo, possible temples in Herculaneum Jupiter - An inscription reveals that Emperor Vespasian - Most of these temples are restored the Temple of the Mater Peum and located in the Forum other types of religious buildings have been emphasising their importance uncovered such as the Shrine of the Augustales Palaestra: - A palaestra is an open-air sports ground and has been found in both Pompeii and Herculaneum. - Believed that they played an important role in the leisure of the towns (accommodating to both sport and gym activities) 11  Pompeii Herculaneum - Was built at public expense as a response - Took up an entire insula to Augustus’ desire to provide a place to - The large, open area featured a exercise shallow, cross-shaped pool with a - A significant feature was the swimming bronze fountain pool in the centre - Citizens would go to the palaestra to - Though it was mainly used as a sports view events and competitive events ground there is evidence of religious use were hosted by wealthy citizens such at well (associated with the Imperial Cult) as Marcus Nonius Balbus Theatres: - Multiple theatres have been discovered in both Pompeii and Herculaneum - Going to the theatre is believed to have been a very popular leisure activity and play an important role within the social and cultural landscape of both towns Pompeii Herculaneum - A large theatre was uncovered and is believed to - A decent size theatre has been have been used to put on plays: seats closest to unearthed the front were reserved for the most important - This was originally decorated with citizens marble columns and gilded statues - There was also a second, smaller theatre most but then as it was one of the first likely used for more serious performances like buildings discovered in lectures Herculaneum much of it has been - Graffiti advertising theatres have been found looted. Private Buildings: Residents still valued their privacy and alone time Key terms: - Atrium​: a formal entrance hall - Cubiculum:​ a small room, typically believed to have served the purpose of a bedroom - Culina​: kitchen - Compluvium​: a small hole in the roof that allows rainwater to come in collect in the implivian - Impluvian​: a small pool in the atrium, used to catch rainwater that comes through the compluvium - Fauces​: hallways leading from the door of the house into the atrium - Lararium​: household shrine - Peristyle​: colonnaded garden or courtyard - Tabernae​: shopfront attached to the house - Tablinum​: office space or study area - Triclinium​: a dining room (tri - 3 sofas circled the table) - Vestibulum:​ entrance lobby 12 Urban Housing: There is significant evidence for housing in both towns Domus ​= private urban house Wallace-Hadrill categorised the D ​ omus ​into categories based on size, domestic function and architectural elements: 1. The largest houses were designed for hospitality and large-scale admission of visitors with separate space for the slaves. They often had two ​atria ​(large gardens) and some with two peristyles 2. The average Pompeiian house with between 8-13 rooms with most having an integrated workshop or shop, a fairly symmetrical plan and common architectural features such as an a​ trium, tablinum​ and ​peristyle 3. Larger workshop residences of 2-7 rooms on the ground floor some with an a ​ trium 4. Shops and workshops with 1-2 roomed residences behind or above Villas​: The remains of about 100 villas have been discovered Villas varied in scale, architectural features and luxury and unlike urban houses, they did not look inward Villas built for relaxation and leisure (​otium): - These villas were often built on different levels with terraces and ​belvederes (​ a structure built to obtain a view), a subterranean portico, expansive garden, water displays, thermal baths and decorated marble floors - Some examples of these villas are the Villa of the Papyri and the Villa of Mysteries Working villas (​rusticae): - Many wealth Romans bought country farms and added elaborate residential quarters (a combination of agriculture and luxury) - These villas had: produce conservation facilities, a threshing floor, a barn for storage of fodder, cellars, stables, tool sheds - These villas have only been partly excavated 2.2 the economy: role of the forum, trade, commerce, industries, occupations Pompeii h ​ ad a very active and healthy economy (especially compared to Herculaneum). Pompeii is the larger of the two towns and this meant the population of Pompeii was more diverse and fluctuating. This meant that economic and commercial activities needed to be more plentiful to accommodate for this. Herculaneum​ had more restricted economic activities. As a more residential town than Pompeii, Herculaneum’s economic focus was directed more towards the needs of the local population The four industries of the economy are: trade, commerce, industry and occupation Forum provided economic life in both towns 13 Role of the Forum: There hasn’t been a forum uncovered in Herculaneum The forum was the centre of all political, economic and religious life in both towns (even though the forum in Herculaneum hasn’t been uncovered) Most prominent buildings in Pompeii were located in the Forum (e.g. Basilica of Pompeii) Shops, markets, temples were found in the Forum Mensa Ponderaria: - Found in the Pompeiian forum - This was used to check the accuracy of the measures of the merchants who sold their products in the forum - Purpose - this was a standardised weight and measuring system and ensured honesty in trading The Main Forum: - Surrounded by two-storey buildings on three sides with porticoes linking the various buildings and providing shelter - Statues of influential citizens and the imperial family are found here - Many temples can be found in the Forum such as the Temple of Apollo, Jupiter, Vespasian - Commercial buildings in the Forum include the macellum (marketplace), mensa (stone table of weights and measures near the macellum), the Building of Eumachia - Political buildings in the Forum include the Basilica and the Comitium - The Forum contained at least 40 statues of influential men and women The Triangular Forum: - Earliest forum in Pompeii - Evidence of a 6th-century temple - Located near the theatres Trade: Trade covers the exchange of goods and services across the Roman Empire Pompeii and Herculaneum engaged with this process in different ways Pompeii played a very important role in the overall economy of Campania and was a trading centre The geographical position of Pompeii made it ideal for trade → busy harbour which was accessible through the Mediterranean Sea and the Sarno River The main sources of trade in Pompeii were agriculture and fishing The key exports (according to Pliny) were garum, wine and pottery or tiles Garum: - Garum is a fermented fish sauce - Scaurus was one of the makers of the sauce 14  - Over 50 containers with his name on them have been found around Pompeii. - 30% of containers found in Compania have his name on them - ‘Ex Oficina Scauri’ = ‘from Scaurus’ shop’ - Pliny the Elder mentions the fine quality of Pompeii’s garum. Millstones: - Used to grind wheat into flour - Cato writes of importing one from Pompeii - despite the huge expense of transporting it because the volcanic tufa of Pompeii made the best millstones Roughly 20 warehouses have been uncovered in Pompeii and these would’ve been used for sale and movement Trade = exchange of ideas, languages, religions - this is all evident in Pompeii and Herculaneum Wheel ruts are not nearly as defined in Herculaneum as in Pompeii. = may support the argument that not much commercial traffic flowed through the town The key imports were wine and pottery Most evidence comes from designs and inscriptions on pottery. One example is the garum exportation Prominent trading partners included: Egypt, Sicily, Syria and Palestine Herculaneum wasn’t as big on trading and instead focused more on local needs Commerce: Commerce in Pompeii and Herculaneum involves various facets of local trade including shops, markets and other local businesses Roman coinage was used and there have been coins found in both Pompeii and Herculaneum Examples of local shops include: Gem cutter, perfume vendor, greengrocer, garum seller, wine and hot food bar Pompeii: - Commerce was conducted in both public (in and around the forum) and private (along with the main streets and scattered among residencies in most insulae) buildings - Owners of large houses often rented out rooms as workshops/shops. - Commerce was conducted in public buildings that opened onto the street. The largest and most prominent businesses were in the Forum - Marketplaces have been excavated in the Forums: two permanent and one weekly: the ​macellum (​ meat and fish market), the Forum Holitorm (sold dry food such as cereals and beans), temporary stalls sold food or clothes - There were approximately 20 taverns/bars which were mainly located along the Via dell’Abbondanza where, according to graffiti, people indulged in drinking, eating, prostitution and gambling 15  - Fast food stations known as ​thermapolia (​130 have been uncovered)​ ​have been excavated with evidence such as benchtops with ceramic pots (​dolias)​ built in to store the hot goods. The remnants of this food have also been discovered e.g. carbonised nuts - Large houses often rented out rooms to be used as shops, taverns, workshops or other commercial buildings - Asellina’s Tavern was run by a woman. She hired foreign waitress. Customers' debts have been scrawled on the walls. Political slogans found on walls outside her shop, showing interest in forthcoming elections. This is a private building. Herculaneum: - As no Forum has been uncovered in Herculaneum there is little evidence of commerce - Little evidence of manufacturing or trade, several shops have been uncovered, mostly selling clothing + food. Banking and Real Estate: House of Jucundus (Pompeii) - He was a very wealthy man, son of an ex-slave - Evidence​: w ​ ax tablets found, records of rent collection, auction results and loan records - 150 receipts for rent and loans were recorded on waxed wooden tablets Hotels: Visiting traders could find a bed for a night in many of the hotels found close to the port in Pompeii. The Hostel of the Muses - could hold/feed at least 50 guests Industries: Pompeii: - Agriculture​: This was important in Pompeii due to the fertility of the region. The waterfront nature of Pompeii meant fishing was an important industry and garum was the primary export - Oil​/w​ ine​: Stone presses and storage jars have been discovered (e.g. Villa of Mysteries). Wine has a very prominent export and import base and several vineyards have also been excavated. Pliny the Elder discusses the high quality of Pompeian wine. Olive oil has many uses such as cooking, lighting, massaging soap. - Pottery​: Clay was used to create lamps, jugs and flatware - Bakeries​: over 30 bakeries have been found and this is known because of the mills - Fullonicas ​(laundromat): The house of Stephanus included a fullonica known as the Fullery of Stephanus. The Building of Eumachia was one of the largest fulling centres and these are 16  believed to have provided cleaning services and produced/dyed cloth - Sex​: Prostitution was conducted in local brothels, taverns and houses. The largest brothel that has been excavated in Pompeii was a multi-room establishment. Prominent industry and this can be seen because penises were carved into roads and buildings to provide directions to the nearest brothel. There is also evidence in artworks and murals in brothels. Called Lupanarium Herculaneum: - Agriculture​: Very prominent in Herculaneum due to the fertility of the region and was the main source of employment - Fishing​: Was also a prominent industry. Fishing hooks, skeletons, nets, a boat and boat sheds have been uncovered - Oil/wine​: Provided jobs - Pottery​: Clay was used to create lamps, jugs and flatware. Two kilns have been discovered outside the gates of Herculaneum - Bakeries​: A bakery has been discovered in Herculaneum. Brick ovens and lava stones were turned by donkeys whose skeletons can be found in the mills - Sex​: Was not as thriving as in Pompeii but taverns have been discovered Occupations: Pompeii: - More than 50 ways of making a living in Pompeii - Agriculture​: Vineyards have been excavated and art has been found depicting agricultural produce and fish motifs (e.g. the Marine mosaic from the House of the Faun) - Grape/oil pressers:​ Wine presses and vats found in the Villa Regina of Bosocreale - Wheat harvesters:​ Mill wheels used to grind flour have been discovered - Fullers, weavers and dryers:​ The Fullery of Stephanus was bleaching and dying establishments with tanks, basins and troughs to wash and dye clothes - Prostitutes:​ There is lots of graffiti to suggest this was a common occupation as well as erotic scenes depicted in art on the walls of ​stabiae b ​ aths and the walls of brothels with names of prostitutes functioning like a menu - Merchant and tavern owners:​ Over 130 taverns in Pompeii as well as the m ​ acellum in the forum and many private buildings with shop fronts attached - Bakers:​ 30 bakeries have been uncovered in Pompeii and carbonised bread has been discovered - Surgeon:​ One of the oldest houses excavated was the House of the Surgeon containing a range of surgical equipment that reveals how advanced their society was Herculaneum: - Herculaneum was more focused on agriculture and fishing in comparison to Pompeii which featured a wider range of possible occupations - Fish skeletons, nets, a boat and boat sheds have been discovered 17  - Other occupations include: bakers (millstones discovered and donkey remains) and prostitution (graffiti and erotic scenes depicted in art on the walls of suburban baths) Occupations Evidence - Julia Felix: Name means = ‘fortunate one’ She was a wealthy widow, property owner and businessman She inherited her landholdings and money from her family (believed to have been freedman) and owned a magnificent estate in Pompeii that took up a whole i​ nsula Her large estate suffered damage in 62CE and sometime later she transformed parts of her home into privately run commercial baths for prestige clients, shops, taverns and mezzanine lodgings and upper floor apartments She advertised them for rent to the Pompeiian residents who had lost their homes or businesses Occupations Evidence - Lucius Caecilius Jucundus: The Basilica fronting onto the Forum is believed to have been not only the law court but an exchange where businessmen or speculators met clients and signed contracts One man who would have frequented the Basilica was Jucundus He was a wealthy son of a freedman who made money by: - Conducting auctions - Lending money to merchants - Renting and selling land, properties, businesses and slaves - Collecting local taxes on behalf of the city There were 150 wax tablets found in his house and these were records of his transactions between 27-62CE. This showed historians what was being bought and sold 2.3 the social structure: men, women, freedmen, slaves In Ancient Rome, there was a clear social structure that had an impact on the rights, responsibilities and freedoms of people The social hierarchy was widespread across the Roman Empire and was also evident in Pompeii and Herculaneum The social structure was very much dependent on family wealth and class It wasn’t equally split through the 3 groups: slaves made up approximately 40% 18 Freeborn: Covers all people who were not born into slavery. This means individuals at the top of the social and political spectrum Had more rights and freedoms than the other groups in society There were still disparities in status and freedom amongst freeborn citizens such as separation between the status of men and women Men: - Pinnacle of the social elite and had the most rights freedoms and rights in society - There were some distinctions in rank between freeborn men e.g. upper-class patricians and the local elite were distinct from wealthy landowners, businessmen and ordinary citizens - Overall freedmen had full legal rights and had the opportunity to advance their social and political status through holding public office - The region of Campania was attractive to those of the upper class as a holiday destination and this meant that wealthy men owned large estates and villas around the Bay of Naples - Evidence on men is plentiful: “​ History is deeply male. History is essentially non-young. History is about the rich and famous, not the poor. History favours that articulate, not the silent...History has much to say about the way the powerful handle power, for power, engenders records.”​ - Vincent Jon 1995 - The majority of literary sources when they are not focusing on the environment or the eruption, tend to discuss the lives and accomplishments of these powerful men. - Statues, monuments and tombs were mostly dedicated to wealthy freeborn men - Marcus Nonius Balbus: important male in Herculaneum. Often depicted on horseback and has several statues - Marcus Holconius Rufus: according to the inscription was military tribune of the people and d ​ uumvir quinquennial ​two times. He was also a Priest of Augustus and a patron of the colony. Women: - In comparison to freeborn men, women were not allowed as many rights, freedoms or responsibilities. - Women could not hold political office and were under the legal control of their male guardians (either husband or father) - Women weren’t completely powerless and there are examples of women making something of themselves in terms of wealth and occupation - Freeborn women could own property, conduct businesses, construct buildings and tombs and could be priestesses - Along with this though women were restricted from taking part in the electoral process and voting there is still epigraphical evidence: there is graffiti showing women taking part in the political process through the written influence (​ S​ OURCE 19  → "​ Asellina and her girls urge you to vote for Gaius Lollius Fuscus for Minister of Public Affairs") - Upper-class women experienced great luxury and could be given a basic education - Some upper-class women (​ such as Eumachia) were born into wealth and were able to commission building projects such as Eumachia’s Collegium of the Fullers in the Forum. - Some women in Pompeii and Herculaneum were so influential that they had statues, buildings and tombs erected in their honour. - Lower-class freeborn still had a place within society but it was much more restricted - Many women worked in partnership with their husbands whether it be helping to run and organise business - Other women would make or fix clothes to make some money - Prostitution was only allowed for lower-class women as patrician women were forbidden Freedmen: Also known as ​liberti a ​ nd describes a person who has been freed from slavery This could be achieved either through purchasing themselves from their master (some slaves could have jobs on the side and therefore saved up to be able to be freed), being directly released by their master in a situation known as manumission or if a master will explicitly requested the freedom of their slaves after their death. Though freedmen were not considered full citizens and therefore couldn’t receive the same rights and freedoms of freeborn, that didn’t mean they couldn’t make a name or money for themselves Freedmen were excluded from becoming senators but were allowed to vote (only men) Most freedmen worked for their former masters (took on their master’s name) and became wealthy by doing so Formed a significant part of the population and many of them owned workshops and small businesses with some of them even acquiring their own slaves Successful freedmen: The Vettii brothers in Pompeii. They were successful wine producers. Archaeological evidence of their success was found in the House of the Vettii which was very fancy 20  Freedmen and freedwomen were not treated the same way. Freedwomen were restricted from holding any formal political office but they could still engage in an occupation The children of freedmen and freedwomen could become citizens if they were born after their parents were manumitted. If a child was born while the parents were still slaves then the child was a slave and the property of the master. Freedmen and freedwomen had to buy their children after being manumitted Slaves: Slaves made up the vast population of Pompeii Slaves had no legal rights or freedoms and were owned by another individual. The master could order their slaves to do anything for them even if it was abusive or cruel The majority of slaves undertook household roles such as cooking, cleaning, serving and nursing. Some more educated slaves were given other jobs such as tutors or secretaries Not all slaves were used for domestic purposes and many slaves undertook active work in the workshops and businesses of their masters Slaves that attended to agricultural estates would often perform the hard manual labour that other individuals wouldn’t want to do e.g. ploughing or harvesting Some slaves were owned by the town council and worked in public areas such as the baths There isn’t much evidence for the lives of slaves because the lives of slaves weren’t considered to be important SOURCE ​→ Slaves depicted in the foreground of Pompeii fresco. Slaves are tending and serving those at a banquet. 2.4 local political life: decuriones, magistrates, comitium Both Herculaneum and Pompeii were self-governing which meant they organised their own political elections and parties. They were still under Roman rule and were subject to imperial decrees and proclamations This political landscape had a critical impact on how both towns were governed Graffiti: - Election notices also give us information about how often elections took place in Pompeii. - This showed ample support for candidates - Archaeologists have discovered that election notices were whitewashed over once the campaign was over, creating layers. - We know that elections took place every year in March. But the series of notices also give us the names of the candidates for office over the years. Each town had its own town council known as ​ordo decurionum ​which were inhabited by councillors. 21  Both towns were democracies - males over the age of 25 would elect magistrates (the duumvir and aediles) The comitium was a place which was used for the People’s Assembly and for town meetings where citizens could question the members of the government Executive Branch (magistrates) - Board of 4 2x Duoviri: - Administered electoral rolls - Looked after criminal and civil cases - Could give the death penalty to slaves and foreigners - Made judgements about electoral candidates - Made judgements about unworthy members of the city council - Every 5 years they were elected as a quinquennial duoviri - additional job of taking a census and controlling morality 2x Aediles: - Administered to sacred and public buildings - Maintained public order - Regulated markets - Sponsored spectacles and theatre Elections were held in March each year There are many gaps in our knowledge of local political life for the towns To be allowed to run for any position you had to be male, wealthy and reputable Reputation: - Voters were interested in the personal integrity and prestige of the candidate - We see a lot of graffiti that starts with statements like…. ‘Worthy of the Republic’, ‘Most Worthy’, ‘Most Upright’, ‘Excellent’, ‘Virtuous’, ‘Lives a reserved life’ Wealth: - Needed wealth as these positions were not paid - They were expected to: make generous cash contributions to the public funds, sponsor shows and games in honour of particular gods, dedicate buildings and statues and renovate public buildings that needed it 22 Organisation of the Pompeiian Government: Executive Branch: A Board of Four (quattuorviri) was the executive arm of the government which consisted of two duoviri (singular = duumvir) and two aediles Duovir: - Administered electoral roll - Looked after both criminal and civil cases (murder, robbery, misuse of funds etc). Could only give death penalty to slaves and foreigners - Made judgements about electoral candidates - Made judgements about unworthy members - Every 5 years the duovir were elected as a quinquennial duorivi which meant they had to take a census and a morality check Aediles: - Election of this position allowed a man to stand for the higher office and possible future entry into the council - They were able to administer sacred and public buildings, maintained road and sewerage, regulated markets, maintained public order and sponsored spectacles and theatre Legislative Branch: City Council: - Comprised of ​decurionum a ​ nd had 100 members - Made up of ex-magistrates (magistrates = politicians0 - Membership was for life - There was a survey every 5 years to get rid of any dodgy people and the list was revised - Debated and voted on issues affecting the administration of the city and they advised the board of 4. - Only convened for the election of magistrates People’s assembly: - These were people who were able to vote on the two aediles and duoviri - This was their only voting rights - Done on ballot paper (to keep anonymity) and they had to receive the absolute majority - Consisted only of male citizens of 25 years and older - Voted in the comitum → part of the Forum - Mary Beard says: “When Pompeiian voters were choosing between different candidates for office, they were choosing between competing benefactors. Old money counted for more than recently acquired wealth.” Elections: 23  Roughly 2500 voters in Pompeii Freedmen could vote but were never allowed to run for office Women couldn’t vote or run for office but were influential and enthusiastic about politics Had to be reputable and rich and this was considered important People running to be a magistrate wore white togas The manifestos written on walls were done by their supporters, never the politicians themselves They didn’t make electoral promises Examples: M​ arcus Nonius Balbus (Herculaneum) and Marcus Holconius Rufus (Pompeii) 24 2.5 everyday life: housing, leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water supply, sanitation Our knowledge of the everyday life of the citizens from Pompeii and Herculaneum is extensive Due to the well-preserved historical sites and general evidence, historians know a significant amount about the everyday life of people from Pompeii and Herculaneum Leisure Activities: Leisure activities mean things people did in their spare time Some common leisure activities included: - Attending public spectacles or performances (e.g. gladiatorial games, theatre) - Prostitution - Gambling - Drinking - Visiting the baths - Playing sport - Playing music - Painting Theatres’ popularity can be seen in various mosaics and frescoes: Some mosaics depict the popularity of gambling. This mosaic shows cockfighting in the House of the Faun (Pompeii): 25 Pompeii Herculaneum There is evidence to suggest that the theatre was a popular There is evidence to destination for leisure → a large theatre with a capacity of around suggest that going to 5,000 people was believed to have been used to stage comedies, the theatre was popular tragedies and farces. There is also another smaller theatre which fit in Herculaneum around 1,000 people and held concerts and poetry recitals A theatre seating Public spectacle, in general, was also common in Pompeii → A very approximately 2,500 large amphitheatre has been discovered with a capacity of around people was the first 10,000-20,000 people. Human and animals remains were found. Also building discovered in found was gladiatorial helmets, greaves and weapons. There were Herculaneum but was also inscriptions and graffiti around the amphitheatre and elsewhere ruined by initial Going to the gym was also a common leisure activity (as evidenced excavators who used it by the discovery of the ​palestra). V ​ arious activities undertaken there as a marble quarry include athletics, javelin, swimming and discus No amphitheatre has Some frescoes depict Pompeiian men and women painting and been found but playing music. Various musical instruments have also been because of the sheer uncovered. size of the one Drinking and gambling were also popular pastimes. Empty wine jars discovered in Pompeii, and graffiti have also been found it is believed that Prostitution was legal and taxed in Pompeii due to its vast popularity. people from Various brothels have been discovered as well as graffiti depicting neighbouring towns sexual acts (i.e. Herculaneum) probably travelled to Pompeii to watch public spectacles Theatre in Pompeii Food and Dining: People thoroughly enjoyed food and going out to eat Archaeological evidence from both towns has revealed lots about the general diet of the population, along with what foods were available and how food was prepared and served Seafood made up a significant portion of both towns’ diets along with various fruits and vegetables (e.g. dates, figs, olives) Bread and sausages were also common 26  Dining was common in both public and private spheres Market places, taverns and restaurants are around both towns Thermapolia = version of fast food Many villas also had their own dining areas known as t​ ricillium Pompeii Herculaneum Many frescoes and pieces of wall art in villas Herculaneum has much more and houses of Pompeii depict a variety of food evidence of organic matter types. For example, the marine mosaics in the (compared to Pompeii) since after the House of the Faun show a variety of seafood eruption Herculaneum faced the and a wall painting from the House of the brunt of the later pyroclastic surges Centenary depicts grapes which meant carbonisation was Preserved bread and containers to store garum common and wine have also been found Archaeologists have discovered Thermapolia h ​ ave also been excavated and carbonised bread, eggs, figs and nuts identified by distinctive masonry counter in the Other discovered foods include seeds front and the earthenware jars called ​dolia from fruit, fish bones, shells and inside them cuttlefish. The prominence in seafood Dining activities were frequently depicted in suggests that seafood was a wall paintings and mosaics prominent part of a Herculaneum diet Silverware has been discovered in the House of Thermapolia h ​ ave also been Menander excavated Clothing: There was not much variety in clothing choices and styles Clothing was an important factor in determining the status and rank. The wealthy upper class of Pompeii and Herculaneum would wear white knee-length tunics with a belt Some official positions also wore purple Wealthy women also had a particular style choice which detonated their significance. This was a garment called a ​stola ​which was an ankle-length, sleeveless tunic that suspended from around the shoulders Jewellery was also a common accessory which was worn by both genders Hats were not worn because they were associated with slaves or country people Pompeii Herculaneum Frescos, mosaics, statues and various other artworks Herculaneum also had various found in public and private buildings of Pompeii give us frescos, mosaics and statues that an indication of the popular styles worn at the time. For revealed clothing styles. For example, example, the statue of Eumachia reveals the fashion of the Statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus high-ranking women at the time reveals the fashion choices of high The discovery of the Fullonica of Stephanus and the ranking men at the time contents within it provides evidence of how clothes were The female skeleton wearing an made and treated assortment of rings (the Ring Lady) is It is believed that clothing was predominantly made from evidence for the wearing of jewellery wool or linen in Herculaneum 27  Human and animal urine was typically used in cleaning and drying clothes. To make sure there was a constant supply, ​fullones ​would often place buckets on the street corner where people could urinate which could be taken back and used after they had been filled Health: It is generally believed that the populations of Pompeii and Herculaneum were quite healthy In analysing the human remains found from both sites we can deduce the average diet, height and common diseases and injuries A study conducted by Estelle Lazer revealed that the population of both towns were well-nourished and their diet was typically healthy These studies also revealed the most common diseases and ailments of the time and the medicinal and surgical practices employed Medicine: - The practice of medicine was based on experimentation through trial and error - Medical practitioners were mostly slaves but anyone was able to call themselves a doctor and treat people if they were asked - Much of their knowledge came from studying Hippocrates (a Greek physician) - Medicine in both towns improved as doctors began to take not of successful treatments - A range of plants, animals and other elements were used in their medicine. Natural remedies were very popular - Morphine was extracted from opium poppies as a pain reliever and vinegar was used to bathe wounds and reduce infections Disease: - Tuberculosis and malaria were the two most common diseases at the time and Romans did not have enough knowledge to prevent or treat the diseases effectively - There was an extensive aqueduct system which delivered freshwater as well as sophisticated sewerage systems that prevented water-borne diseases. It is believed that lead pipes drastically increased the risk of lead poisoning (Romans were unaware of this) - There was a good understanding of nutrition which aided them in maintaining good health and preventing disease Surgery: - There is evidence to suggest that surgical procedures were performed in Pompeii - Surgical instruments have been discovered such as tweezers, forceps, probes, clamps, pliers, drills and instruments for manipulating bone fractures - Roman surgical instruments were not too different from modern ones and were likely used for similar purposes - Prosthesis were made to replaced lost limbs, set broken bones and perform surgeries 28  Pompeii Herculaneum The House of the Estelle Lazer’s study of 300 skulls found in Surgeon is one of the Herculaneum revealed a lot about the health of the oldest houses population: excavated in Pompeii - Scientifica analysis of the bones revealed that and over 40 surgical people were well-nourished and healthy instruments have been - The decay of teeth was likely due to the discovered there grindstone in the flour used to make bread Two skeletons - Lazer’s study also revealed the truth about the discovered in Pompeii demographics impacted by the eruption. Before provide evidence to her study, it was believed that victims were suggest that mainly sick or elderly as other healthy members trephination was a of society escaped. Her study showed that popular surgical people varied in both age and health status procedure and was Carbonised remains of food and artworks depicting done successfully marine and agricultural produce reveal key aspects of Carbonised remains of Herculaneum’s diet which was quite healthy food and artworks The presence of fish hooks, nets, boats and boat sheds depicting marine and reveal that seafood was a significant component of agricultural produce their diet which contributed to their overall health reveal key aspects of Pompeiian’s diets Baths​: Taking a bath was a popular pastime in Pompeii and Herculaneum Going to the baths (they were in public buildings as opposed to private v​ illas) ​was not only a ritual of cleanliness but also a social and leisure activity There were various activities that individuals could partake in e.g. there was hot and cold baths, swimming pools, saunas, places to get a massage and exercise enclosures SOURCE ​→ “​As the most common time for bathing is general midday to evening, care should also be taken that the men’s and women’s caldaria are connected within the same area” - ​Vitruvius Pompeii Herculaneum Pompeii had several public baths including the Two baths have been excavated in Stabian, Forum, Central, Suburban, Sarno and Herculaneum: the central and Amphitheatre baths. The fact that there are so many suburban baths is evidence for the popularity of the activity There is evidence (e.g. wall art) Water was supplied through cisterns and well at the suggesting that prostitution was Stabian Baths that have been uncovered common in the suburban baths Artefacts related to activities undertaken at the wich certain rooms designed for baths have also been uncovered such as s ​ triglis ​- this activity tools used to scrape dirt, sweat and oil off a person’s Wall paintings and mosaics found body after exercising and before bathing in the baths provide evidence for Wall paintings and mosaics found in the baths how the baths were used provide evidence for how the baths were used 29 The f​ rigidarium ​(cold bath) in a bathhouse (Pompeii) Water Supply and Sanitation: The water technology and sanitation of Pompeii and Herculaneum were quite advanced Aqueducts were used in both towns to transport water from one place to another and though methods varied between the two towns, both had a sewerage system in place Pompeii Herculaneum Pompeii relied upon the River Sarno for its Herculaneum’s water supply system was water supply, using deep wells and rain more elaborate with most private homes collecting cisterns to capture it connected to it Imperial aqueducts were built under Three fountains have been uncovered Emperor Augustus (extending from the Sanitation was a lot better in Herculaneum Misenum port to Pompeii) with a complex underground sewerage Some private homes in Pompeii were system contributing to the overall healthier connected directly to this water supply and cleaner environment however it was also publicly available through water fountains (42 of which have been uncovered) Pompeii was distinctly more unhygienic than Herculaneum with waste being Water fountain in flushed onto the streets (hence the Herculaneum stepping stones) A sponge and stick was also used instead of toilet paper (both public and private) 30 2.6 religion: household gods, temples, foreign cults and religions, tombs Like almost all ancient culture, religion played a prominent role in both towns The Roman religion was based on the worship of the Capitoline Triad which included: - Jupiter: protector of the state (Zeus) - Juno: carer of women (Hera) - Minerva: patroness of craft-workers (Athena) Along with this, there was the Imperial Cult who worshipped a divine spirit (Genius of the Emperor) The state religion and the Imperial Cult did have a prominent and influential presence but it was not the only religion practised There is evidence for multiple religions and cults within both Pompeii and Herculaneum (these were influenced by Greek and Egyptian religions) Temples: Temples are religious buildings that function in a similar way to churches, mosques and synagogues They were a place of worship for a range of the goddesses and gods These religions were heavily influenced by Egyptian and Greek culture and thus the iconography and architecture of this culture are frequently represented in the temples Pompeii Herculaneum 10 major temples have been No temples have been excavated in discovered in Pompeii including Herculaneum (but they may exist) the Temple of Isis, Apollo, Jupiter, There is still evidence for them. An Venus, Vespasian, Public Lares inscription found in Herculaneum reveals that and Fortuna Augusta Emperor Vespasian restored the Temple of The majority of these temples are the Mater Peum in the forum (emphasises Other types of religious buildings have been importance) uncovered such as the shrine of the Augustales Temple of Isis - Pompeii 31 Temple of Apollo - Pompeii Temple of Jupiter - Pompeii Household Gods: Religion wasn’t only experienced on a public level but also on private levels too Many homes featured a room known as the ​lararium. T ​ he ​lararia w ​ ere shrines to the gods of the household They varied in their elaborate nature with some being wall paintings whereas others were detailed shrines with many details, statues and designs Laraia a​ re featured in multiple homes across both towns showing that these household gods must have played a highly significant role within the religious landscape of the two towns Worship was a daily event which involved the entire family (the paterfamilias led his family in prayer) Worship included making offerings such as crops and incense Another common feature of a ​lararium w ​ as snake and serpent iconography. Ancient Romans views snakes as guardians 32  Pompeii Herculaneum Laraia have been discovered in many of Laraia have been discovered in many of the villas in Pompeii (including the the houses and villas of Herculaneum House of the Vettii) and in the peristyle including the House of the Skeleton of the House of the Golden Cupids Larirum to the household gods Foreign Cults and Religion: Both towns were heavily influenced by other nations and their religious groups (particularly Egyptian and Greek) There is evidence to suggest that Pompeii had a very multicultural population Historians believe that foreign cults were popular because the cults offered the idea of another life after death through resurrection or rebirth Some cults that are believed to have had a presence include: - The Imperial Cult (not foreign) - The Cult of Isis → Egyptian religion that played a prominent social and cultural role in both towns. The cult was popular amongst slaves and women. - The Cult of Bacchus → Quite popular even though there was attempted repression of the cult. Due to the values of this god the cult was popular and Campania relied heavily on their trade of wine. S ​ OURCE → ​ “​The intoxicating effect of wine and trance-inducing techniques, such as ecstatic dancing to pipes and drums were delivered to liberate the initiate to the return to a more natural state of being.​” Pompeii Herculaneum The Temple of Isis is evidence for the popularity A fresco from Herculaneum of the Cult of Isis in Pompeii. It was rebuilt after depicts the worship of the the 62 CE earthquake displaying the importance goddess Isis, revealing to Shrines to the goddess Isis have been found in archeologists and historians many homes across Pompeii (e.g. Villa of Julia that even though no temples Felix) have yet been excavated, the Wall art in the House of the Vettii and the House Cult of Isis was still popular in of the Centenary also features Dionysiac imagery Herculaneum 33 Tombs: Roman religion accepted the existence of the afterlife and they believed that a deceased person's spirit had the opportunity to enter the underworld or to remain on earth as a ghost. Ability to enter the underworld came with burial and funerary practices There is no direct description of the Roman funerary practises but our understanding of these practices includes: - 5-part funeral structure: procession, cremation and burial, eulogy, feast, commemoration - Tombs were to be located outside the city walls. Types of tombs included: - Seat tombs: curved stone seats with room for several people to sit and pay respect to the dead - Citizens tombs: varied in size and they could include altars, paintings, statues, official inscriptions about background, occupation and official positions - Family tombs: these were popular amongst rich families and can be distinguished by the number of statues at the front of the tomb, representing the different members of the family Tombs were a symbol of wealth and status: - A huge, elaborately decorated tomb indicated a wealthy family - A simple tombstone indicated a poorer family Pompeii Herculaneum Tombs line the entrance roads into Pompeii. Seat tombs No tombs have been have been discovered for the Priestesses Eumachia and discovered in Mamia Herculaneum Inscriptions on tombs provide insight into the lives and activities of many Pompeiian citizens - from lowly slaves to the most influential of society. However, it is important to note that less significant individuals had less extensive inscriptions Seat tomb to Mamia 34 2.7 the influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art and architecture Religion: In both towns, Roman religion was essentially Greek religion with different names They worshipped the same Gods just under different titles and this influence is evident in various artworks in temples and villas The mural depicting the Cult of Dionysus in the Villa of Mysteries also illustrates the religious practices in Pompeii A public fountain in Herculaneum depicting the Greek god Apollo has also been discovered In terms of Egyptian include, the Temple of Isis in Pompeii is a vital piece of evidence (significant because it was being rebuilt after the 62CE earthquake) Carbonised remains in pits and around the altar of the Temple of Isis show that sacrifices to the gods took place In the House of the Gilded Cupid, there is a chapel dedicated to the gods of Egypt (Isis, Serpis and Anubis) Statues of gods and goddesses have also been found in Pompeii. A lot of which are believed to the ​lararium ​statues of household gods Herculaneum has a more limited range of evidence for Egyptian religious include but a lararium o​ f a statue of Isis has been found Architecture: In both towns, Greek culture was very influential Many public and private buildings were modelled in the image of Greek culture Columns are an example of the Greek influence (e.g. the Pompeiian basilica features all three Greek column styles: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian) The layout of Roman villas and houses featured many Greek elements (e.g. peristyles) Theatres and palaestra were also strongly influenced by Greek design There is also some evidence for Egyptian influence in many fantastical artworks including depictions of Egyptian animals and plant life Art: In Pompeii, some statues found are exact copies of Greek statues Greek mythology is depicted in many mosaics and frescoes Nilotic (Egyptians) imagery is also featured in various artworks such as Pompeii’s Alexander Mosaic (which shows the River Nile) The Temple of Isis also depicts scenes from Egyptian mythology due to its close connection to Egyptian spirituality and religion In Herculaneum, small statues of the Egyptian goddess Isis have been discovered but there is more evidence in Pompeii 35 Chapter 3 - Reconstructing and Conserving the Past: 3.1 changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies Interpretations develop over time and this is a fundamental feature of history As new research and new technology becomes available, new avenues of research are also open For example, when a stone slab was found in Pompeii, many historians immediately concluded that it was a kitchen benchtop however after new research, interpretations of the stone slab changed and now it is believed that is was an altar In regards to the study of Pompeii and Herculaneum, there are a variety of historical and historiographical issues that have been debated and interpretations have transformed particularly regarding: - The earthquake of 62CE - Death and cause of death - Buildings Earthquake of 62CE: Originally it was believed that damage caused by the earthquake of 62CE was still being repaired at the time of the eruption (17 years later) Though some buildings were repaired after the earthquake (i.e. Temple of Isis) whilst others were left in ruins (Temple of Jupiter) This suggested that Pompeii was experiencing economic decline and couldn’t fund repairs Later, historian Alison Cooley has challenged this. She suggested that some of the repair work being undertaken at the time of the eruption may simply have been urban renewal which would have taken place irrespective of the earthquake Along with this, others have suggested that the lead up to the actual eruption would likely have caused tremors to occur which may have damaged some of the buildings that would otherwise assume had not been repaired Death and Cause of Death: Originally it was believed that those who died during the 79CE eruption were only the ones that could not leave fast enough due to old age, infancy, disability or illness Because of this, historians thought that the majority of able-bodied, healthy people had left in time Through scientific analysis, this interpretation has been greatly changed The investigations of two historians revealed that the skeletons of Herculaneum represented a normal and diverse cross-section of the population. This was done through the analysis of the chemical composition of human remains. The lack of infant remains could be explained by a fertility crisis in the city but there are inconsistencies in this argument (fails to recognised the faster rate of decomposition for infant’s bones) There is significant debate as to the nature of deaths caused by the eruption. Initially, it was believed that the citizens of Pompeii and Herculaneum died of asphyxiation but this was not the o ​ nly ​way people died 36  It was then discovered that in the initial phase of the eruption (Pompeii mostly affected), most of the people that died were inside their homes which collapsed under the weight of pumice which would then crush those inside Along with this, scientific analysis of the skeletons in Herculaneum revealed that rather than asphyxiation, those trapped in the boat sheds were instead killed by the intense heat caused by the pyroclastic surges which results in their brains boiling inside their skulls Buildings: Originally it was believed that each room in a building only had one use but this belief has been challenged by various discoveries For example, many people point to buildings such as the House of the Wooden Partition in Herculaneum to suggest that rooms may have had multiple functions. The partitions used to block off parts of the room are evidence to this Along with this, several buildings have been revealed to have multiple purposes such as the basilica 3.1.1 impact of new research Investigations undertaken by various groups have contributed to the expansion of knowledge and understanding of both towns The Insula of Menander Project (1978-present): This project aimed to ‘fill in the gaps’ of the earlier records of the sires and make them more detailed This involved a three-stage analysis and documentation of the whole ​insula: - Stage 1: examine architecture and interior decoration - Stage 2: study of interior decoration - Stage 3: examine loose finds This greatly contributed to our understanding of not only the Insula of Menander but of ancient Roman life The Pompeii Forum Project (1988-present): This project aimed to produce more accurate plans and elevations of surveying the remains and to recover architectural and decorative remains that were deteriorating These maps were used to stimulate discussion about Pompeiian urbanism amongst historians and other scholars thus contributing to our understanding of Pompeii The Herculaneum Conservation Project (2000-present): This involved Wallace-Hadrill, the Packard Humanities Institute of America and the Getty Conservation Institute The overall aim of the project was to half the serious deterioration of many buildings, artefacts and artworks and to maintain them sustainably Another aim was to help the Italian government procure funds and incentivise them to cooperate and support the restoration efforts One of how they responded to the issue of conservation was to employ falconers. This was done to solve the issue of pigeons 37  Many of their contributions were effective in preventing further damage to the two sites SOURCE ​→ “​The opportunity to study the city ‘from below’ ​[referring to the sewerage system] ​has allowed a whole series of building phases of the dumos above to be confirmed simply by the position and construction technique of their waste outlets” - Camardo The Via dell’Abbondanza Project (2004-2007): The Via dell’Abbondanza Project aimed to safely excavate the Via dell’Abbondanza and record findings accurately To achieve this, the team created photo mosaics of the 900 metres of the road to compare to originals from the early 1900s. By 2009, all the photo mosaics were completed, creating an extensive record for future archaeologists 3.1.2 impact of new technologies The introduction of new technologies has had a massive impact on ways excavations and research is conducted and has provided archaeologists and historians with lots of knowledge that would have otherwise been impossible to obtain Technology has contributed significantly to the changing interpretations of both towns Some of the most significant of these new archaeological and archival technology include: - X-rays and scanners: These were very useful in analysing human and animal remains (revealed lots about the health of the population). These are also extremely useful in analysing inanimate objects (allows knowledge without excavation) - Digital cameras: This was significant because previously archaeologists had relied on sketches or old photographs. Digital cameras assisted significantly in the recording process - Digital reconstruction and 3D rendering technology: Like x-rays and scanners, this technology is non-invasive and allows archaeologists to explore without causing any further damage to the artefacts or buildings 3.2 issues of conservation and reconstruction SOURCE ​→ “​The city’s second existence began with its gradual rediscovery in the 18th century. But just when Pompeii was being rediscovered, it began to die its second death. Not only because of the early excavation…but also because all the remains preserved by the catastrophic explosion were now exposed to the extremes of the weather, to vegetation and to man.”​ - Henri de Saint-Blanquat Attitudes towards both sites have shifted significantly from where they once were. The focus is no longer on monetary gain and attitudes towards the actual practice of excavating have also changed The focus is now on conversing, preserving and reconstructing This shifting attitude has led to an increased focus on the sustainability of the archaeological practices employed and ways in which groups contribute to the maintenance of the store 38  Ethical concerns are now being addressed in regards to ancient human remains, the study of which is critical in researching both towns Some of the most significant issues that the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum face in regards to conservation and reconstruction include: - Previous poorly conducted restoration - Vegetation - Environmental factors - Poor site protection and management concerning tourism Previous Restoration Previously there was less of a focus on conservation and restoration but there were still attempts at restoration and fixing buildings (particularly those that had been damaged by excavation) This restoration was attempted with a lack of specialised knowledge meaning that the state of the sites have deteriorated Examples of poor restoration include: - Spinazzola attempt to protect frescoes and mosaics with glass but that created a moist climate meaning deterioration was promoted - The reinforced concrete was used to repair various fixtures was badly mixed which resulted in the concrete flaking away to reveal the steel skeleton which when exposed to air begins to rust and expand - The use of poor quality mortar containing too much sand allows water and vegetation to penetrate the walls Environmental Factors: When discussing the environmental factors promoting the decay of Pompeii and Herculaneum there are three sections to look at: - Climate and weather - Vegetation - Animals The climate and weather of the region has had a significant impact on upon the deterioration of buildings, artefacts and artworks in both Pompeii and Herculaneum As frescoes continue to be exposed to harsh sunlight and rain they begin to fade. This was only exacerbated by flash photography which has now been prohibited The roof has been reconstructed to alleviate is problem Natural disasters such as earthquakes and earth tremors have also exacerbated damage to the site along with abnormally bad weather conditions. In particular, heavy rainfall is believed to be one of the reasons that House of the Gladiator collapsed Vegetation is another significant problem facing the conservation of Pompeii and Herculaneum The vegetation grows in damp environments which are common in the area this means that weeds can grow up the walls and create cracks in artefacts particularly in frescoes and mosaics which then damages them even further Animals around the site have considerably devastating impacts on the artefacts, buildings and artworks 39  Stray dogs like to roam the area and dogs exacerbate the decay of the site walking and urinating on things that they shouldn't Pigeons have also had a detrimental effect on the sites as they continually peck at the beam and doors of buildings but also their acidic droppings have caused considerable problems particularly Italian and International Contributions and Responsibilities: As the flight of Pompeii and Herculaneum becomes more apparent there has been more pressure placed upon the Italian government to step in and address these issues There have also been various international contributions to the conservation of the site Examples of contributions that the Italian government has made include: - Opening the Vesuvian National Park in 1995 to protect the natural, cultural and historical heritage of the area - Implementing a policy in 1997 that requires all income and revenue generated by tourism to be put back into the maintenance of the sites - Declaring Pompeii to be in a ‘state of emergency’ in 2008, allowing a commission to overse