Topic 1 - Pompeii Notes Scaffold (1) PDF

12 Ancient History – CITIES OF VESUVIUS: Pompeii and Herculaneum STUDY NOTE SCAFFOLD Syllabus Dot-Point Content Sources/ Significance SURVEY The geographical settin...

12 Ancient History – CITIES OF VESUVIUS: Pompeii and Herculaneum STUDY NOTE SCAFFOLD Syllabus Dot-Point Content Sources/ Significance SURVEY The geographical setting and General pliny-”the vines never stop growing” natural features of Campania -campanias climate was pleasant all year round, being hot and dry in the summer and mild and wet in the winter Florus describes Campania's coastline as-“the finest, not only in -volcanic material that seeped into the soil made it spongy and fertile, Italy, but in the entire world” which allowed vegetation such as oak, willow and poplar trees to grow extensively. this soil also allowed crops such as wheat and barley as well Tacitus described the Bay of Naples as various other fruits and vegetables as “a most beautiful bay - beautiful that is, before the eruption of Mt -campania was also abundant in clays, sands and limestones, which Vesuvius changed the landscape” combined with pumice stone produced by the volcano allowed pompeii and herculaneum to make their pottery and cement for their roads -The coastline provided rich marine resources including a thriving fish and shellfish industry -The sheltered Bay of Naples had several anchorages, making it a popular trading port and a good harbour for the Roman navy -  The eruption of AD 79 and its General: hurley-”obvious that the general impact on Pompeii and -the people living in campania would not have known they were living population had no understanding of Herculaneum under an active volcano as mt vesuvius last erupted 800 years prior and the forces of nature they were living was not in written memory with” -mt vesuvius's eruption in 79AD has been traditionally dated to August 24th-25th -a graffiti found in 2018 objects this as it states “the 16th day before the calends of November” which equates to the 17th of October. -the best source of info on the eruption is the writings of Pliny the younger. Pliny described what he saw in detail and basic chronology of the eruption to the historian tacitus. -pliny's statement may not be the most accurate source for several reasons. 1. he wrote the report around 25 years after the events so he may Tacitus states 62AD was the year of forgotten details and the order events happened in which an earthquake-”largely 2. the survivors he gathered his info from were likely traumatized destroyed the populous campanian and gave him brief dramatized descriptions of what happened town of pompeii” 3. his report served more as a glorification of his uncles bravery rather than an accurate description of the events -The eruptions had a different physical impact on Pompeii and herculaneum. Pompeii -1214 bodies were found at pompeii and approx ⅓ of these victims were found outside buildings on top of pumice and encased in ash. Mary Beard, “it was a very small -most of the second story buildings in Pompeii were destroyed nut the portion of the population of Pompeii ground floors were generally preserved by the pumice falls that died”  -those who tried to stay inside their homes all perished as their roofs began to collapse on top of them from the volcanic debris -those who sought safety on the rooftops were overwhelmed by the surges and died of asphyxiation as the ash formed a paste that clogged their lungs making it almost impossible to breath and the victims anguish can be seen in their faces on the cast Herculaneum -349 bodies have been found in herculaneum with the majority being found outside houses in ash. -in Herculaneum, many of the second story buildings were preserved by less damaging PDCs early in the eruption that buried the town -herculaneum was not as affected by PDCs as Pompeii was due to the southeast wind, however it bore the full force of pyroclastic surges. the end result of this buried herculaneum under 23m of Lar, a volcanic substance that dried like concrete. -Many inhabitants of Herculaneum tried to flee by boat, but the choppiness of the sea compared by Pliny the younger to a tsunami made this impossible. -300 bodies were found in boat sheds, however the heat of pyroclastic surges and the absence of pyroclastic flows meant that people died immediately when being hit with the heat. Dr Eireann Marshall- “brains exploded and their bodies charred” Early discoveries and the changing General nature of excavations in the 19th -the sites of pompeii and herculaneum have been excavated by many and 20th centuries archeologists over the centuries -some of their work was beneficial while others damaged the sites more than they helped -pompeii and herculaneum remained buried until the 16th century where they were discovered by accident by 592 workman digging a canal on the site of pompeii where they found frescoes and slabs of marble -proper excavation of pompeii and herculaneum did not begin until mid 18th century, however it was done with little care, breaking fresco walls and tunneling through houses -weber thought it was important to document the excavation and begin drawing up plans and maps and recording artefacts. Under this more systematic approach, the villa of papyri at herculaneum and the villa of Johann Winkclemann in a critical julia felix in pompeii were discovered in 1751 and 1755 account of the destruction of pompeii and herculaneum- “it is to his(webers) -after weber's death in 1764, he was replaced by francesco la vega. good sense we are indebted for all the Fransesco built upon weber's work adopting a systematic approach and good steps since taken, to bring to documenting all notable finds. la vega drew up the first plan of light this treasure of antiquities” herculaneum -in 1780 the excavations on herculaneum were suspended -the excavations resumed in 1808-1815 and were undertaken by francois mazois and a team of 1500 men. -Francois went back to the treasure hunting style of excavation similar to the early excavations, however many important finds were made including the forum baths, the temple of fortuna augusta and whole city blocks  -The excavations in Herculaneum using the treasure hunting style resumed until 1855. -Gluseppe Fiorell was appointed to the excavations in 1860. He developed an even more systematic method of excavation. He divided the topography of Pompeii into regions and introduced a numbering and naming system based on this -Fiorell moved slowly from house to house digging them from top to bottom rather than digging randomly as been previously done -Fiorell was the first to recognise the impressions of human remains and poured liquid plaster into the cavities to reveal human shapes. Representations of Pompeii and General Robert Harris, an author who wrote a Herculaneum over time -since pompeii and herculaneum discovery, interest in them has been novel in 2002 about Pompeii's last great throughout the centuries, embedding the culture of the cities in days states- “you tread such a narrow customaries and media throughout the centuries line between trying to make it authentic and make it -In the 17th and 18th century, it became customary for young wealthy accessible…You have to pick your way men to embark on a tour of Europe when they came of age. This was between these two.” done to show off their position and also as a way to complete their education -fascination with the last day of pompeii also developed and people saw this as gods revenge on a pagan society -another representation was the novel in 1834 called ‘the last days of pompeii’. the novel featured characters based on skeletons found at the cities, giving them names and relations to each other based on where they were found.  -the novel has been repeatedly adapted for musicals, opera, theatre and film, a recent example being the 2014 film ‘pompeii’ with a notably close plot to the original novel -a modern revival in interest may stem from pompeii and herculaneum being put on world heritage site listings. FOCUS STUDY Investigating and interpreting the sources for Pompeii and Herculaneum The evidence provided by the General Andrew Wallace Hadrill-“Apart from range of sources, including site -The most obvious difference between Pompeii and Herculaneum was the grid pattern of streets dividing layout, streetscapes, public and the presence of double storey buildings in Herculaneum that aren't the urban area into blocks, the first private buildings, ancient writers, found in Pompeii that was preserved by the first phase of the eruption.impression of Pompeii - and to a official inscriptions, graffiti, wall lesser extent Herculaneum - is of an paintings, statues, mosaics, Pompeii interlocking jigsaw of large, medium human, animal, and plant remains -Pompeii was enclosed by a 3.2km wall that followed the most defensive and smaller houses”. from Pompeii and Herculaneum, as line of the natural landscape. relevant for: -Pompeii was laid out in a grid system, the main axial roads (decumani) crossed by minor roads (cardini) creating blocks or insulae about 35m by 90m. Shops were lined along the Via dell'Abbondanza, the main road in Pompeii. -there were shops of all kinds as there were not parts of the city that specialised in one product -shops were often part of the house and were either rented or run by the owner -footpaths were up to 30 cm higher than the road. They would have varied in colour and decoration from each house as the owners designed them and wanted them to be as eye catching as possible  Mary Beard-”stepping down onto the -Sewage in Pompeii was terrible and along the main strip there were road surface…most likely involved stepping stones to step to the other side as feces were spread across stepping into a mixture of animal the road. dung, rotting vegetables and human -Pompeii’s main streets were paved in lava stone from Mt Vesuvius. excrement. Herculaneum -archaeologists are unable to completely excavate herculaneum as almost 3 quarters of the city still remains buried. -The decumanus superior and decumanus inferior, are cut in regular lengths by smaller roads creating insulae blocks -The presence of an extended underground sewer system meant that stepping stones were not required in herculaneum -due to little evidence of cart tracks, its been suggested that herculaneum was less of an industrial centre than pompeii - The economy: role of the General forum, trade, commerce, -Academic debate continues around how many of the items produced in *Wilhelmina Jashemski in the 1960s industries, occupations pompeii and herculaneum were consumed locally and the extent of has revealed that much of the trade in which these cities were involved. available land in the urban spaces of Pompeii was also farmed for -Some historians such as Jongman believe that pompeii was a commercial purposes. For example, in consumer city, arguing that most people lived with just enough to the garden of the House of the Ship survive off what they produced for the region. Europa in Pompeii, evidence was found of onions, cabbages, beans and -others have suggested pompeii was a producer city which exported fruit trees, as well as a stable for goods produced locally on a large scale animals. -The streets of both Pompeii and Herculaneum were lined with shops and inns, taverns and small workshops. They were built into the walls of the private residences. Columella claims that cabbage was grown throughout Campania and Pompeii was -some notable shops include: renowned for a particular type of onion, tabernae, a shop that could sell anything from pottery to food caupone, a shop that sold alcohol and some food thermopolia, a shop that specialised in the sale of food for immediate consumption, similar to modern day fast food -Many industries thrived within pompeii and herculaneum, some of which include wine and olive oil: -the regions around vesuvius are associated with wine production and extensive archeological evidence exists to support this -pliny the elder on the wine of campania- “at this place lucky -wine production took place outside of pompeii in buildings of the villas campania begins and in this valley and estates. begins wine covered hills, whose alcohol filled juice is celebrated -Girolamo de simone claims that wine was an important part of the throughout the world” export economy -Girolamo de simone- “one could -the same estates that produce wine also produced olive oil suggest a quarter or even a third of the plains around vesuvius were -Olive oil was produced for cooking, washing and massaging the skin in devoted to wine production” gymnasia and baths, in perfume production and more. fishing and garum: -Girolamo de simone- “...probably -Analysis of human bones as well as faecal remains show that fish was olive oil was widely produced but in consumed by people of all classes rather small quantities in each unit mainly for consumption in the villa -Ancient texts tell us that garum production, consumption and sale were and perhaps to supply urban needs important and almost no other liquid fetched as high a price within the region -there is no known garum production workshop within the walls of -Pliny the elder- “furthermore there is pompeii another type of choice fluid, called garum, produced from the guts of Bakeries: fish…almost no fluid except perfume -Bread was a staple food of the town, with 10 different kinds of bread fetches a higher price.” being produced. -bread was usually produced at millstones cloth manufacture and treatment: -textile manufacture and cleaning was carried out in fulleries or special laundries where clothes were washed and bleached and fabric treated after weaving to prepare it for cutting and sewing -Fullers were organised into guilds according to their specialisation. -Felix Pirson- “combination of bakery -there is evidence of 4 types of fulleries in pompeii and mill is fairly common in vesuvian 1. refinement of wool into thread cities.” 2. weaving thread into cloth 3. dyeing cloth 4. washing garments -Walter o. Moeller claims that the large number of businesses in Pompeii suggest that Pompeii was a specialist producer of cloth. pottery: -studies of household pottery have shown that the majority of it was made within pompeii brothels and prostitution: -from what is known, prostitution was tolerated and regulated by the town, however those that engaged in it were stigmatised and were called lupa or she wolf. -The 3 criteria for identifying a brothel was a masonry bed in a small room, sexual graffiti and erotic paintings. -Frescoes and statues depicting intimate details of sexual activity are some of the most famous sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum -Prostitutes were predominantly foreigners and most of their customers came from lower classes. -Pena and Mcallum-”Via di nocera facility, which manufactured lamps and common ware, is perhaps the most complete pottery production -Other types of workshops found in Pompeii and Herculaneum include facility in the roman world” metal working, iron workers, leather making, goldsmithing, tanners, and mule-drivers. Thomas McGinn-”it seems that sex Pompeii for money was almost as diffused -The forum was one of the most typically Roman features of town through the town as eating, drinking planning, serving as a centre for most aspects of life, including religion, or sleeping” the economy, government and law. -pompeii's forum had buildings that served a different array of roles these include -According to Nappo, "the Forum economic: represents a unified, functional -The Macellum was a marketplace with shops and a central columned architectural whole, in which all the pavilion which held a pool. This was used for cleaning and selling fish elements combine to display the cultural strength, economic capacity -the holitorium (granary) was a simply designed and decorated building and optimism of the town, in an area that is believed to serve an economic purpose due to its close proximity accessible by all citizens" to the Macellum and Eumachia -Building Eumachia was a large multipurpose building paid for by the priestess Eumachia and dedicated to Concordia Augusta and Pietas. religious: -temple of jupiter (capitolium) was a building dedicated to the worship of jupiter, juno and minerva -Verboven-”Money in campania was -sanctuary of apollo was a building dedicated to the worship of apollo. a primarily coinage, but to describe the sundial was also found at the temple system as a cash economy is way off the mark.” -sanctuary of the genius of augustus (temple of vespasian) built for the worship of Augustus. Government: -The comitium was a large voting hall where speeches were held and votes were cast. -civic buildings purpose was impossible to determine but may have included council chambers, an archive for documents and possibly an office for the duumviri -the basilica was seen as the most impressive in the forum and acted as a commercial hub as well as a place for legal cases to take place. It also acted as an exchange for businessmen to meet clients and sign contract Herculaneum -herculaneum does not seem to have a traditional roman style forum - The social structure: men, General women, freedmen, slaves -an average of 1.69 children per woman has been estimated -That their lifespan was found to be longer than previously expected -Robert Etiennne suggests that 20,000 people of which 8000 were -the average number of tooth loss and decay in both sexes in slaves and 4200 were adults Herculaneum was low, probably due to the heavy consumption of seafood, containing fluorides, and the fact that sugar was not in use, while honey, used as a sweetener, was expensive -There is a wide variety of evidence that demonstrates that social structure in Pompeii and Herculaneum was extremely class conscious -People were not born equal -A government notice displaying how different classes were treated-”any -Position in society was determined by birth, gender and occupation who would throw excrement in this location is warned that it is not -However, the fragmentary nature of the sources means we need to be allowed. If someone provides careful when assessing what evidence reveals about social structure information contrary to this warning, freeborn will pay a fine of…, and -The Roman household was built around the authority of the slaves will be punished with…lashes.” paterfamilias, the male head of the household who had varying degrees of legal control over the people who depended on him, including his Wallace-Hadrill explains this family, freedmen, and slaves relationship: “The ruling elite expressed their domination through -Roman society was patriarchal and elite male members had a degree of the holding of political office, the power over others, which they exerted over both legally and through local annual magistracies” influence -This influence was called patronage and underpinned social interactions -The client-patron relationship and the social standing of the patron was built on the number of clients he possessed Social Classes: -Elite freeborn - significant wealth -Non-elite freeborn including plebs media and plebs humilis -Freedmen and freedwomen known as libertus and liberta -Slaves Elite/non elite Freeborn: Epigraphic evidence suggests some -Roman citizenship was guarded carefully, and it extended a range of older Pompeiian families retained rights not enjoyed by non-citizens, including the right to vote and hold their status, and new families joined political office, although the right to hold office was also limited by the the elite, including freeborn children factors including wealth and profession of freed slaves -Not all freeborn people were part of the elite, and other classes of freeborn existed that farmed and operated businesses such as workshops, inns and hotels -Plebs media were relatively wealthy outside the elite -Plebs humilis were the lowest class of freeborn Freedmen and freedwomen(liberti): -Roman society allowed slaves to be freed by their owner or the capacity for slaves to buy their own freedom, sometimes from an allowance given to them by their masters. -The process of gaining freedom was called manumission) and these ex-slaves were called liberti) -Freedmen took the first two parts of their master's name as their own and tended to remain tied to their former masters in a client-patron relationship. -This continued association and identification with their former master -evidence of a freed slave achieving and his family gave freedmen the opportunity to both borrow funds and status-"To Gaius Veranius Rufus, Son share in a network of contacts, enabling them to become wealthy and of Quintu, duumvir; Veraina Clara, influential themselves. freedwoman of Quintus, to her excellent patron, for herself and her -Freed slaves were not granted the rights of citizenship and they could household." (tomb inscription) not vote, stand for office or hold state priesthoods. -Despite these limitations, children born to them after their manumission were legally freeborn. -evidence of a freed slave achieving status-”Numerius Polidius Celsinus, -What we learn from Pompeii and Herculaneum is that freed slaves son of Numerius, restored the Temple could achieve significant wealth and some status in society of Isis from its foundations, which had collapsed through earthquake, at his Slaves: own expense” -Some estimates put the number of slaves in Pompeii and Herculaneum at around 40% of the total population, although this is impossible to -archaeological evidence depicting verify slaves, lack enough context to reveal the reality of their lives. -Most households had 5-7 slaves graffiti from pompeii theatre -Slaves were fundamental to the economy, and were used as workers on regarding slaves-"Methe, slave of farms, in workshops and in households Cominia, from Atella loves Chrestus. May Pompeian Venus be good to -What we do know is that slaves were considered property and had no them both and may they always live in rights harmony." Women: M Geroge-”Violent punishment could be inflicted on a whim…Sexual -Remains reveal more about upper class women and successful coercion, moreover, of slaves at an freedwomen than they do about lower class and servile women owner's hands was common” -What becomes apparent is that women did not always hold the traditional roles associated with women in patriarchal societies -An advertisement on the front ofr the house of julia fleix shows us that -Marriage and wealth provided some women with opportunities for women could own property, it upward social mobility reads-”To let, for the term of five years, from the thirteenth day of next -They could own and inherit property and run businesses August to the thirteenth day of the sixth August thereafter, the Venus -Women also attempted to influence elections and developed bath, fitted up for the best people, patron-client relationships, despite being excluded from voting or shops, rooms over shops, and holding office. second-story apartments in the property owned by Julia Felix, -One way a woman could do this was by spending her money on building daughter of Spurius." and repairing public buildings for the people of the town. -The dedication on the building -Another way to achieve status and influence was through religion as a states: Eumachia, daughter of Lucius priestess and women were active participants in religious activities both Eumachius, a public priestess, in her inside and outside the home. own name and [in the name] of her son, Marcus Numistrius, Fronto, built Pompeii at her own expense the chalcidicum, -different estimations for the town's population have been stated. crypt and portico in honour of Augustan Concord and Piety and also -the majority of historians argue a number between 8000-10,000 dedicated to them. based on the 800 houses so far excavated in pompeii Herculaneum Herculaneum is harder to estimate, but 5000 people have been suggested based on the seating capacity of the theatre - Local political life: decuriones, General -Mary Beard notes: We must always magistrates, comitium -well established families that could trace their ancestry back many remember that many of the confident generations dominated politics in pompeii and herculaneum claims of modern scholars about how local government worked in Pompeii -However, in the 1st century AD, possibly 50% of men who attained are drawn not from the evidence public office and a lifetime position in the ordo were from families who found in, or about, the town itself, but had never, or rarely, held public office, possibly reflecting social mobility. from the documents that refer to other - albeit similar - communities. ordo decorium: -The city council or ordo decurionum was made up of freeborn males of good standing who lived in the surrounding area. -There was a minimum property qualification of 100,000 sesterces which ruled out the vast majority and these men were required to have respectable professions which ruled out actors, brothel owners, and various other trades. -there were 100 decuriones or councillors -Once a man was elected to a public office they became members of the ordo for life -The body was also responsible for raising taxes and managing the money that was raised through this taxation. -The ordo also played an important role in honouring individuals. The Magistrates: Duumviri and Aedine: -The duumviri were the two senior magistrates decided by election each year in March, when Roman citizens or the populus voted. The held their position for one year and during this time presided over court cases as judges probably in the basilica for murders, inappropriate behaviour in elections and civil cases up to 15,000 sesterces. -During their year in office, any public works carried out in this time would bear their name -Although they were not paid, they were also expected to provide Cuspius, son of Titus and spectacles and other forms of entertainment which they partially Marcus Loreius, son of Marcus, funded. duumvirs, [by decree] of the town councillors, saw to the -Every five years the duumviri held a census to revise the electoral roles construction of the wall and and those that held this role were called five-year officials or duumvir tower and also approved it. quinquennalis. -reviewed the council and could remove any man they were found to be unsuitable through disgrace or bankruptcy. -Informal positions could also exist, and we know Marcus Holconius Rufus was 'Patron of the Colony' in Pompeii and had connections and influence in Rome, and if someone, or even the city, needed assistance they asked him to intercede on their behalf. -The two aediles elected each year were younger men beginning their public career at about the age of 25 or 30. They were responsible for the day-to-day running of the town and supervised markets and granted permits for stall holders near the amphitheatre. -This allowed them to place an inscription on the building advertising that they had paid for it which was a powerful investment in a future political career. Pompeii -there are a number of buildings in pompeii which were associated with the running of local government -this includes the commitium and basilica (law courts) located in the forum -The comitium was an open-air colonnaded building built during the 2nd century BC, but its actual purpose is not clear. -On the southern side of the building was a small speaking platform Mary Beard proposes that about 1.5 metres high accessed by a flight of stairs. there were about 12,000 inhabitants in Pompeii and a -It is most widely believed that the building was where votes were cast further 24,000 in the in public elections. countryside and this number includes women and children -Some scholars have proposed that the comitium served as a who would also not be courthouse, however, due to the political graffiti on its walls, it is more permitted to vote. likely that it played some part in the elections. Beard argues that the number of voters would have only been important political buildings: 2,500 in Pompeii and an -The Curia-City council believed to have met additional 5,000/from the countryside. The Comitium -A roofless building used for the People's Assembly to vote and for members of the public could question the members of government. The Basilica -some cases were tried The Tabularium-the acts of and tax records of the municipal government were notarised (sign document) and filed. political campaigning: -The aedileship, however, had many more candidates revealed by the number of inscriptions that urged citizens to vote for them in elections. -One of the things that makes Pompeii unique is the political graffiti, or programmata, written on the walls in the public spaces of the city. -They were mostly written by professional signwriters who seemed to have lived in the area. -Most of the graffiti was from the final year before the eruption, as after each annual election walls were whitewashed. -Most of the inscriptions were requesting citizens to vote for their candidate for specific reasons such as because they made good bread or were 'dignified' (dignus) the most common attribute given to candidates in graffiti -Many inscriptions also attack the qualities of a candidate to discourage others from voting for them, either directly or indirectly an example of citizens advertising -Campaigning would have happened largely as it did in Rome. who they want to win- “I beg you to elect Gaius Julius Polybius aedile. He -In the morning, candidates would go to the forum or other large public brings good bread” spaces with all their clients, friends and family, greeting as many people as they could. -They wore the toga candida, a toga specially whitened to make it stand out from others. -The number of residents eligible to vote is likely to have been small as only freeborn male citizens were permitted to vote. prominent politicians: -Two significant political personalities were Marcus Nonius Balbus of the Nonii clan in Herculaneum, and Marcus Holconius Rufus of the Holconii in Pompeii. Herculaneum - Everyday life: housing, leisure General activities, food and dining, -Houses in Pompeii and Herculaneum were generally of a Roman style, clothing, health, baths, water, described by the writer Vitruvius and sanitation -Houses opened directly onto the raised pavements of busy streets and because they were built to face inward, their facades were rather austere. -The red tiled roofs were usually flat or gently sloping and there were few windows on the street side. -As well as being decorated with brilliant paintings and decorative architectural pieces, the floors were often covered in black-and-white mosaics in geometrical patterns, and the ceilings – although few have survived in Pompeii – probably featured painted and decorated stucco and massive wooden beams in oak or beech, which in the more gracious homes may have been gold plated. -Once visitors entered the house they walked into the entrance hall or vestibulum, and in some houses there was a small room to the side for the doorkeeper and possibly his dog. -The atrium was the decorated central hall of a Roman house blazed with colours of red, black, white and yellow, although blues, greens and oranges were used as well. -However, a compluvium became an important feature of the atrium which was an opening in the roof where sunlight shone into a shallow pool or impluvium, which collected the run-off water from the roof gutters. - According to Vitruvius, the garden was an essential feature for the homes of people holding -A stairway often led from the atrium to the rooms on the upper level of public office and there appears the house, although sometimes they were reached by external stairs. to be evidence of many of the -At the end of the atrium, was the tablinum or main reception room finer houses transforming where the owner conducted daily business and where the family and peristyles into ornamental commercial documents were held. gardens and covered walkways with ornamental beds of -In most houses, the peristyle – a colonnaded portico or large flowers and medicinal herbs cloistered area overlooking a garden –was where vegetables and fruits and trees were cultivated and even wine and oil produced for the family. -While modest houses had one fountain, more luxurious residences had many such as the House of the Vettii had 14 interconnected fountains in the peristyle. -A separate dining room or triclinium (‘three couches’) was introduced for formal dining to some of the grander houses, after the Roman adoption of the Greek practice of reclining while dining. -Smaller rooms called cubicula had many uses such as storage but are generally thought to have been rooms for sleeping. -The kitchen or culina in most houses was quite pokey, often only large -According to Vitruvius, the garden enough for one or two slaves was an essential feature for the homes of people holding public office -The latrine rather unhygienically was directly adjacent to or opened off and there appears to be evidence of the kitchen. many of the finer houses transforming peristyles into -Its paved floor sloped towards a pit covered with a wooden seat with a ornamental gardens and covered hole in it. walkways with ornamental beds of flowers and medicinal herbs and villas: -Villas were luxury houses that gave the wealthy an opportunity to show -the villa of papyri in herculaneum is that they understood how to appreciate a life of luxury, as well as an excellent example of blending this business and politics. opulence with agricultural output…it -Villas originally served a more agricultural purpose referred to as the is thought to of had belonged to the villa rustica. Pisone family who were aristocratic -The growth of the luxury villa or the villa urbana, was were a wealthy -the house contained the largest man could enjoy indulgent leisure and show their Hellenic outlook and number of papyri scrolls their good taste. -The Philodemus Project is leisure activities: attempting to unroll and read the -Culturally, Romans enjoyed a number of activities in common such as charred papyrus scrolls. They had the theatre, gladiatorial events and bathing, as well as more success reading the unrolled papyri commonplace activities such as drinking, gambling and feasting. with multispectral imaging. the Ampitheatre: -inscription of what dedicatory -One of the most important spectacles in the amphitheatre were inscription tells us of wealthy gladiatorial contests. individuals-”titus atullius celer, son of gaius, duumvir, instead of games and -as part of their responsibility of office aediles were required to put on lights saw to the construction of a games and examples of what they offered the people can be found in seating sector graffitis and inscriptions -Brennan and Lazer highlight “the -games were held all year round with no evidence of games being in theatre, divided as it was by class, september acknowledge the hierarchical structure of society... citizens would theatres: learn to take their correct place in the -theatres were a popular form of entertainment for all levels of society, theatre, and by implication, in Roman the large theatre in pompeii could seat around 5000 people. life.” Mary Beard points out that ‘we have little hard, direct information about -Musical instruments were found in the building next to the theatre, what was performed in either of these indicating the musical accompaniment that accompanied theatres (at Pompeii), nor how often performances. performances in them would have taken place’. -There were a variety of performances in the theatres. Greek tragedies as well as mimes, comedies and a local form of theatre, Atellan farces (satirical performances) were performed. Mary Beard reveals: We do not know -The problem is that there are no public advertisements for plays like exactly what game the men in the there were for games at the amphitheatre. paintings were playing. Roman board games, like our own, came in many bars: different varieties with different -Bars, Generally called a caupona or a taberna by the people, were a titles. ‘Little Robbers’, or perhaps, ‘Little Soldiers’ (latrunculi) was one of place where someone could buy a meal, drink, or even arrange lodgings the favourites and was certainly for the night. played at Pompeii -Thermopolium, though this seems to have been an uncommon name at the time, is the name given to a bar that primarily sold ready food, often determined by the presence of a likely cooking surface. this was similar to modern day fast food stores -It is difficult to determine the actual business run in a taberna unless there was dolia, remains of food, or inscriptions found, hinting at their purpose. -There is a rich array of evidence that shows the range of food available at Pompeii and Herculaneum. -the sheer number of bars found in Pompeii indicate how normal it was for people to go out to eat meals and they were an important social - These studies found that venue, particularly for men. approximately 30% of the diet food and dining: of people in Herculaneum was -There is a rich array of evidence that shows the range of food available comprised of seafood, with at Pompeii and Herculaneum. men eating significantly more seafood than women. -People generally ate a lot of bread which was primarily made from emmer, an ancient form of wheat. - In Pompeii, 26% of men's diets was comprised of seafood, -Staple food included olives, cheese, fish, and shellfish. fruit including while only 17% of the women's apples, pears, grapes, olives, figs, quinces, and pomegranates and diets was seafood. vegetables including cabbage, broccoli, lettuce, endive, onions, leeks, asparagus, radishes, turnips, parsnips, carrots, beets, and cucumbers. -In both cases, little protein was consumed, indicating that most of the food came from other sources, primarily bread. Meat was however occasionally eaten, usually wild game and poultry. -Butchered meat, such as beef, lamb, and pork, was usually associated with rituals or dinner parties of the elite. -most of the population did not eat at home regularly but bought food from thermopolia -when wealthy people wanted to impress, they might hold a dinner party, which was a way of showing wealth and style to friends, business associates and political allies -Entertainment at these dinner parties may include music, poetry or even dance clothing: -Clothing in Roman cities was often used as a marker to indicate your association with Rome -The toga was not worn everyday -Men and women who had more physical work would have worn a simple tunic -Men who wanted themselves to look more important would wear long tunics and a full toga on special occasions -When a man was campaigning he would wear the toga candida (bleached bright white) -Upper class women would mark themselves as matrona (mother of the house) by wearing the traditional long gown -Simple strapped shoes were worn most of the time by all classes, -The skulls of the skeletons of though covered shoes would have been worn if a person needed to walk Herculaneum, studied by Dr Sara long distances Bisel, confirmed a widely diverse genetic inheritance. She also found Health: evidence to support the idea of low -Robust immune systems birth rate: a mean of 1.69 children per woman. Bisel concluded that their -Males 167-169 cm on average lifespan was found to be longer than previously expected -Women 154-155 cm on average -Estelle Lazer shows the tooth loss -Teeth are the hardest and most chemically stable remains, as well as and decay in both sexes in being highly mineralised. Herculaneum was low, probably due to the heavy consumption of seafood, -Oral hygiene was not practised and only one tooth extraction was done. containing fluorides, and the fact that sugar was not in use, while honey, -The presence of high levels of tartar and dental problems such as gum used as a sweetener, was expensive. disease indicate cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and gastric and Some of Bisel's findings include: respiratory disorders.  - A 48 year old female, either a slave -Unfortunately, some of Bisel’s original conclusions were problematic. or from the lower class, possibly a She originally based her analysis on the assumption that girls normally prostitute, 155.3cm tall. Her pelvic married between 12 and 14, whereas the historian D. Shaw thinks it was abnormality is similar to that found in more likely to have been in late teens, modern prostitutes baths: -A 37-year-old male soldier found -bathing was the most typical of roman activities and a common place with a bronze military belt and sword; to relax and stay clean 174.5 cm tall. His bones showed that he was big, tough, well-exercised and -there were several of these in pompeii but only two have been found in nourished. There was evidence of herculaneum some form of stab wound in the left leg and teeth missing but not from -there were several of these bathhouses, including: decay. Evidence from his knees the forum baths indicate that he spent a career on central baths horseback. suburban baths sarno baths stabian baths -bathing was seen as a social event. men would gather to discuss business, politics or just to meet friends. patrons would usually gather around noon -patrons would undress in the apodyterium, begin in the tepidarium (steam room) then move into the caldarium (hot plunge room) they might also enter the laconicum (dry sweat room) and finish in the frigidarium (cold plunge room) -slaves would be present to rub oil into skin, then scrape it off with a strigil -the women's sections were significantly smaller than the mens. water supply: -The aqueduct in pompeii delivered water into the castellum aque, from which it flowed into large lead pipes that ran underground -water from the aqueducts supplied most people with drinking water on a regular basis connected to fountains around the city. 42 have been found in Pompeii and three in herculaneum. -romans preferred spring or rainwater to aqueduct water so the houses of wealthier people had rainwater tanks -bathhouses were also connected to aqueduct water, particularly as more people expected to see large water features such as pools in bathhouses. sanitation: -Pompeii and herculaneum were very different cities in regards to sanitation. -pompeii was a relatively old city, and lacked a sewer system. In contrast herculaneum had a very well developed sewer system, which in some places was 3m high. -only the wealthiest and oldest houses have toilets built into the house -most people went to the toilet in a chamber pot that was kept under the bed. In herculaneum this was disposed of in a drain whilst in pompeii the contents were thrown onto the street -public baths sometimes had a public toilet. the overflow water from the baths was used to flush the waste away -the best known latrines were found in the forum which could seat up to 16-18 people -flooding could be a problem in pompeii so the city built raised stepping stones to allow people to cross without getting wet Pompeii Herculaneum - Religion: household gods, General temples, foreign cults and religion: religions, tombs -the most common religious act by individuals was a vow made to a deity followed by a sacrifice or offering as it was a common belief that the gods supported and protected the place you lived if they were worshipped appropriately. -religion at pompeii and herculaneum was greatly influenced by the greeks and two of pompeii's patron deities, Apollo and venus were originally from greek culture. -The foundation god of herculaneum was heracles or hercules. -other Greek gods known to be worshipped included dionysus, hermes and demeter religious buildings: temple of apollo: -temples are the most public symbol of religion and the cult of apollo was one of the most important as he was the protector god of the city -outside the temple was a tall marble altar where sacrifices would have been made. Votive offerings were set up in the precinct, including bronze statues of apollo and his sister diana temple of venus: -venus also had a cult following in pompeii as venus was the official protector god of the city -in herculaneum, the sanctuary to venus had a prominent position looking out to sea. Because women couldn’t become political officials, women of influential families became priestesses instead. Eumachia was a priestess of venus temple of jupiter: -officially jupiter was the protector of the state, juno was the protector of women and minerva was the patroness of workers. state religion: -worship of each emperor was included as part of the state cult. -worship of Augustus included an organised college of priests in pompeii known as ‘Augustales’ -this group comprised 21 priests who initially came from wealthy and influential members of society and as such were expected to use their own funds to promote the cult. -in pompeii, augustas was worshipped at the temple of genius or temple of vespasian private worship: -private religion took the form of household gods or lares who protected the household and the family. -they were usually depicted as a pair of dancing youths holding a drinking horn in one hand and a ‘patera’ (dish) in the other -in the middle of the lares would be the genius which was a guardian spirit of the family -underneath the lares was a snake known as an agathodemon which was regarded as a guardian spirit and bringer of peace to the home -shrines or aedicules depicted the lararium which was the picture inside the aedicule -prayer was led by the paterfamilias (male head of family) each day as well as on special occasions an example of a common household shrine -the paterfamilias would gather with his family and slaves and make an offering of a wreath or some food and say prayers for protection and prosperity. On special occasions an animal such as a lamb may be sacrificed. -other gods such as Bacchus (god of wine) Mercury (god of commerce) were also worshipped in the home foreign mystery cults; -people throughout the roman empire incorporated gods from other lands, these gods were adapted and worshipped alongside the roman pantheon of gods -Louise Zarmati suggests it came -there is extensive evidence of egyptian gods such as isis osiris and with a foreign woman, since dionysus being worshipped prostitutes, many of whom were foreign, worshiped the goddess -the cult of isis is associated with worshipping the egyptian deity of -Historian ling states that “alongside fertility who was also linked to healing the ill all the old greco-roman deities a relative newcomer was the egyptian goddess isis whose cult spread across the mediterranean during the third -isis offered happiness, salvation and consolation from suffering whilst and second centuries bc after the her husband osiris promised resurrection and anubis, sometimes greek conquest of egypt integrated with mercury guided the soul to the next life -”the cult offered an escape from worldly reality into mystic communion -Dionysus was the greek god of wine, agriculture and fertility and his with the god and a promise of a cult transformed in italy into the cult of bacchus blessed life after death.” -Zarmati in reference to the cult of Bacchus -the roman senate believing that the secret and excessive nature of the cult of bacchus was a threat to public order and provided opportunities -livy-”the cult spread like a contagious disease. for political conspiracy, issued a decree authorising senators to suppress Bachicc societies - Pamella bradley suggests- “because the cult was a celebration of tombs: everything that was outside societal -Death brought pollution, so the Romans buried their dead outside the restraints…for all were regarded as town's walls even though they had a constant reminder of death when equal in the cult” they left the city. -In Pompeii the dead were buried along the roads that radiated out from the city and these necropolises have been uncovered around -One such tomb inscription Herculaneum, Vesuvius, Noerca, Stabiae and Nola gates. reads-”Mamia daughter of Publius -some groups such as freedmen/freedwoman and the elite are public priestess a place for burial is overrepresented whilst slaves and lower class citizens are under given by decree of the town council” represented as they probably couldn’t afford a tomb -another inscription on a wealthy tomb-”to the memory of Gaius -Inscriptions on the tombs called on passers-by to remember the Calventius Quietus, member of the deceased, and some were equipped with seats for the people to sit and brotherhood of augustus” contemplate the tomb owner. -when somebody died, a cyprus branch was placed above the door to warn others opf the pollution of death.  -all family members took part in funerary preparations and women from the household laid out the body and washed it, anointing it with oil -death masks were made which relatives or actors wore -almost all bodies were cremated and placed in urns in a tomb or in the ground beneath a grave marker -incorrectly buried bodies were thought to of become ghosts Pompeii Herculaneum - The influence of Greek and General Egyptian cultures: art and Greek: architecture -Greek influence came directly to greek colonies established in southern Italy and Sicily -Greeks began to settle in Italy and Sicily -Greek influences were evident with the gods worshipped including Apollo, Venus and Herakles as well as Dionysus -architecture as well as mosaics and paintings confirm cultural influences and greek statues found in the palaestra -both theatres follow a typically greek design, with the seating terraces in a horseshoe shape and separated from the stage -there are three styles, known as Doric Ionic and Corinthian orders -doric was the simplest style, with a fluted shaft and simple square shaped capital.  -Ionic columns also feature a fluted shaft, with more ornate capital made of a pair of scrolls called volutes. -The corinthian column was the most ornate, featuring a capital decorated with acanthus leaves -A fresco from the house of psoriasis in Pompeii shows the Greek legend of the Trojan hero Aeneas. This story was adopted by the Romans and is told by the roman writer virgil. Egyptian: -the house of the faun contains aspects of both greek and egyptian influence -The subject matter is Egyptian, with the scene depicting flora and fauna from the nile. This includes a hippopotamus, crocodile,cobra, ducks, ibises and indian lotus flowers. Pompeii Herculaneum Reconstructing and conserving the past Changing interpretations: impact General of new research and technologies impact of new research and tech: -as new discoveries are made and new technologies are used on the material, our understanding of life in pompeii and herculaneum is shifting -for instance the eruption of 79AD was initially recorded as august 24th and 25th but scholars have questioned the reliability of this date because the letter written by Pliny the younger to tacitus was written many decades after the eruption and does n ot fit with archeological evidence -A sydney based team including dr laser, focused on x ray and ct scanning of plaster casts and where possible, studying the remains inside, as part of the pompeii cast project -(remember) -conventional x-ray techniques have been unable to distinguish the ink used by the ancient writers from papyrus fibres of the scrolls found in the villa at herculaneum known as papyri scrolls -recently scientists have been able to virtually unroll and read the scrolls using a technique called x-ray phase contrast tomography -the use of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of bone collagen helps reveal the dietary patterns of a person from their remains. -in 2021, the analysis of 340 different bodies from the beach in Silvia soncin-”Our research builds on herculaneum showed they ate relatively little seafood, however men had what we know that males had more 50% more in their diet than woman, which may imply that access to access to marine fish in herculaneum food was differentiated according to gender and more broadly in Roman Italy. Males were more likely to be engaged -Using their new approach they were more accurately able to quantify in fishing and marine activities…” ancient diets compared with recent nutritional records. -the team suggests that fish and seafood made up a greater quantity of the people's diet in herculaneum compared to the average mediterranean diet -Archeologists have used state of the art equipment to create photo mosaics of the entire 900m of the via dell ‘Abobondanza -A team from the university of Texas has created a fully navigable 3D model of the Villa of poppaea in what is called the oplontis project-(remember) New research: -Eric E Poehler proposed a theory on -New research is characterised by re-examining what is already known traffic organisation in pompeii-”on the and reconsidering problems from a different light largest streets.. drivers were required to use the right side of the road but -sometimes new technology is used but sometimes its simply revisiting whenever possible, stay in the middle old theories of the road.” -It was once believed that a pompeiian houses decoration would -Interdisciplinary modelling from the indicate the status of its owner, however more recent archeological university of Bari, has suggested that discoveries indicate this was not necessarily the case the inhabitants of Pompeii were hit by clouds of gases minutes after the -a new theory suggests it could either have been inherited or eruption and “that the current had low accumulated over time. flow strength and temperature, which is confirmed by the absence of -Analysis of fish remains in a garum shop analysed bone fragments physical trauma on the taken from amphorae found in the garum shop in Pompeii to determine bodies…instead our calculations the species of fish used and methods of production. measure a flow duration of 17min, long enough to kill anyone breathing -The fish species used was Picarel, a common fish in the mediterranean in the current.” sea -it was once thought that the eruption of vesuvius took the population of pompeii by surprise, however this view is challenged by dr penelope Allison. who believes the people of pompeii were aware of the impending eruption and that the rich had already departed. -This is backed by dr Allison's discovery of 30 excavated houses in Pompeii.  New finds: -the discovery of an intact roman chariot was announced in March 2021 -The thermopolium uncovered in 2029 by the great Pompeii project is one of the oldest in Pompeii. -The rediscovery in 2017 of a long funerary inscription on a large tomb outside the stabian gate has revealed new information about benefactions given by a previously unknown local man. -The inscriptions of this tomb seem to convey that the man who organised the games, as well as his family were exiled from the city by decree of the Roman senate. This is previously unknown information about a well known event. Pompeii Herculaneum Issues of conservation and General reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and Pompeii responsibilities Herculaneum Ethical issues: excavation and General conservation, study and display of human remains Pompeii Herculaneum Value and impact of tourism: General problems and solutions Pompeii Herculaneum