Ancient Rome: Pompeii Notes (Year 12)
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These notes provide a geographical overview of Pompeii, focusing on its location, natural resources, and the devastating eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. The text explores the impact of the eruption on Pompeii and Herculaneum, and various details regarding the causes of death. It also touches upon the changing nature of excavations, and the economic activities (trade, commerce, etc.) of the city.
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City Of Vesuvius **Geographical Setting** ======================== +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Pompeii:** | **Campania:** | **Mount Vesuvius:** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | → Built...
City Of Vesuvius **Geographical Setting** ======================== +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Pompeii:** | **Campania:** | **Mount Vesuvius:** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | → Built on volcanic | → Campania felix | → Dominates the plain | | plain | (fortunate/happy) is | | | | a region in | → volcanic spurs and | | → Between Sarno River | south-west Italy | mounds | | in the south and | formed by volcanic | | | slopes of Vesuvius in | processes from | → Mineral rich | | the north | Volturno to Sarno | fertile volcanic soil | | | Rivers | which supports | | → Strategic | | agricultural | | significance as it is | → Unstable volcanic | production | | the only route | area = subject to | | | linking north and | earth tremors | → vines, olives, | | south and connects | | fruit, sheep | | the seaside area with | → hot, dry summers | | | the fertile | and mild, wet | → volcanic rock = | | agriculture in land | winters= | pumice, tufa, lithics | | | Mediterranean climate | | | | | | | | → Coastline of the | | | | Bay of Naples had | | | | sheltered harbours, | | | | safe anchorages for | | | | trading/fishing | | | | fleets | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **Natural features** ==================== - **Sources for geographical location & natural resources:** Bacchus and Mt Vesuvius - Wall painting from the lararium in the House of the Centenary![](media/image7.png) - - - - - " A region blessed by fortune" - Pliny the Elder - - - **The eruption of 79 AD and its impact on Pompeii and Herculaneum** =================================================================== **MT VESUVIUS ERUPTION** → Cloud of volcanic ash, gas and stones rose to heights of up to 30 kms → molten rock and pumice ejected at a rate of 1.5 million tonnes a second → thermal energy released was 100 000 times greater than the atomic bomb of Hiroshima → Possibly thousands of people died → Settlements of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis and Stabiae were completely buried **PLINIAN ERUPTION** → Umbrella shaped cloud → ash, pumice, earth tremors and electrical storms → Pumice fallout over Pompeii, Oplontis and Stabiae → Called Plinian because Pliny the Younger said 'umbrella pine' **PYROCLASTIC SURGES AND FLOWS** - - **SURGES OF THE ERUPTION** **Cause Of Death** ================== +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Pompeii:** | **Herculaneum:** | +===================================+===================================+ | →Those who fled immediately had a | →Herculaneum not affected by | | chance of survival if they got | crush injuries and early stages | | far enough. Those who stayed | of eruptions due to wind | | inside were doomed. Around **600 | conditions | | people** in Pompeii died as roofs | | | collapsed from the weight of ash | sources : Bodies in the boat | | and rocks. Some who escaped to | sheds (thermal shock) | | rooftops were hit by a | | | pyroclastic surge and died from | | | **asphyxiation**, others of | | | **thermal shock.** While many | | | escaped the city, some likely | | | died nearby, not realising they | | | needed to go farther to be safe. | | | | | | → also had crush injuries from | | | flying rocks (lithics) | | | | | | sources : Priests at Temple of | | | Isis with crush injuries | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Sources for cause of death** Bodies in the boat sheds (thermal shock)![](media/image1.png) - - Priests at Temple of Isis with crush injuries - - - - ![](media/image6.png) In the bakery of the horse in Regio XI, insula 10 - - **Date of eruption** ==================== - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Summer Date (Jun-Aug) | Autumn Date (Sep-Nov) | +===================================+===================================+ | - - | - - - | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Sources for date of eruption** Charcoal **inscription** = ephemeral: **Early Discoveries & the Changing Nature of Excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries** +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Archaeologist | when? | Acherlogy | Contributions | | | | method | | | | | used/developed | | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | Guiseppe | 19th century | - - | - - | | fiorelli | | | | | | - | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Vittorio | 1910 -1924 | Interested in | Discovered many | | spinazzola | | the towns | commercial | | | | planning rather | | | | | than just | buildings such | | | | excavating | as the fullery | | | | | of | | | | Focused on | | | | | the southern | Stephanus | | | | region | | | | | | | | | | - - | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Amedeo Mauri | 1924-1961 | Excavated below | Advanced | | | | one destruction | knowledge | | | - | level | | | | | | 0f pre eruption | | | | Destroyed the | | | | | destruction | Pompeii | | | | level to | | | | | investigate | | | | | life before the | | | | | eruption | | | | | | | | | | - - | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ **Representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time** **Source A The Last Day of Pompeii**![](media/image5.png) - - **Site Layout and Streetscapes** ================================ **Site layout ( map of pompeii)** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Streetscapes** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Pompeii:** | **Herculaneum:** | +===================================+===================================+ | - - - - - | - - - - - - - - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Economy** =========== ### **Forum** → Centre of public life → The Forum was the political, economic and religious centre of Pompeii. **REPS** Religion: - - - - - Economic - - - - Political - - - - - Social: - - - - - ### Trade, Commerce, Industries and Occupations ### - - **Trade** → Pompeii's position , near the sea and the navigable river Sarno suggests it was a trading hub trade **Source**: 20 maritime warehouses + Painting of Cargo Boats and ported loading products onto Vessels Supports that import + export was a major apart of Pompeii economy Supported by position near the Sarno River Most likely used to send trade boats along the river **Primary Production** - - **Agriculture:** - - ![](media/image12.png) **Sunken dolia at villa rustica at boscoreale** - **Frieze from the house of the Vettii** - **Grape cultivation Wine production** - **Bacchus and Vesuvius fresco:** This fresco reveals Bacchus(god of wine) endorned with grapes showcasing the importance as well as evidence of the cultivation of natural resources (grapes). Mount Vesuvius right next to it showcases where the grapes were prominently found. The snakes symbolise fertility of campania revealing how plenty of grapes and wine are being produced **House of the ship Europa :** The excavations of the garden in the house revealed many grape cultivations of up to 2000 vines near the amphitheatre by Jashmenski. There is also evidence of a room set up for wine pressing and a shed with embedded dolia , each able to fill up to 40 amphorae. **The house of Neptune and Amphitrite** Wine is poured in large pots called amphorae and this is seen through the house of Neptune and Amphitrite. Many amphorae have been found in the back of the house showcasing the significance of wine and the way they were poured. **Oil pressing** - - - - - - - **Garum** - - - - - **Secondary Production** - - **Wool & textile production** - - - - - **Source -** 18 laundries **Bread production** - - - - **Source -** - - - **Tertiary production** - - - - - - - - - Graffiti evidence - List of occupations at Pompeii gathered from frescoes, painting and graffitis: - Evidence of trade and commerce: - - - - - **Social Structure** ==================== - ![](media/image21.png) **The elite:** → TOP OF SOCIAL PYRAMID (MADE OF SENATORIAL AND LOCAL ELITE) LOCAL ELITE: wealthy landowners and merchants who dominated political positions **Source** E.g Marcus Nonius Balbus at Herculaneum. Wealthy, magistrate, approximately 10 statues of him at Herculaneum, large contributions to town as financed basilica restoration, financed statue of emperor Vespasian linking to imperial cult He was praetor, consul and proconsul of Crete and Cyrenaica and a military tribune He built the basilica, the Suburban baths and the walls of Herculaneum There are 12 statues of him, many erected by the council in his honour. His funerary altar, which marked the place where he was cremated, was erected as a special honour. **Freeborn:** → born free males and females (free from slavery) → males had a right to vote → various layers of wealth in this class → many had businesses and slaves **Freedman:** → Former slaves who had been freed by their masters → Could own businesses and property, could vote but could not participate in local elections → Can be wealthy enough to own their own slaves e.g Freedwoman Poppaea Note owned her own slaves → Manumission: owner freed a slave → Manumitted slave took the name of their former master as their own but if they had children they had to purchase them from their former master → Children of freed slaves were able to become citizens that allowed for legal and political rights → still tied to former master through business or patron-client relationship **Source** The Temple of Isis at Pompeii was rebuilt after the 62 AD earthquake by freedman Numerius Popidius Ampliatus in the name of his 6 year old son Celcinus. Shows Numerius' great wealth and promoting future prospects of his son. This is an example of euergetism → SHOWS THEY CAN BECOME WEALTHY + SOCIAL MOBILITY ![](media/image13.png) Vetti Brothers from Pompeii who were freedmen and wealthy businessmen. Owned House of the Vettii, one of the richest in Pompeii. → SHOWS THEY CAN BECOME WEALTHY + SOCIAL MOBILITY Publius Vesonius Phileros, Freedman of Gaia, Augustalis, built this monument during his lifetime for himself and his own. For Vesonia, daughter of Publius, his patron, and Marcus Orfellius Faustus, freedman of Marcus, his friend. Because Publius Vesonius Phileros, a freedman, couldn\'t hold office, he attempted to hold the title of a priest which elevated his rank in society which is portrayed through the **inscription** "Augustalis" → SHOWS SOCIAL MOBILITY + ROLE OF WOMEN ( DAUGHTER OWNING SLAVE + PATRON CLIENT RELATIONSHIP) **Patron-Client Relationship** → The patron was the protector, sponsor, and benefactor of the client → Support for a client could include legal representation, loans of money, influence in business deals or marriages, and support for a client\'s candidacy for political office or a priesthood. → In return for these services, the clients were expected to offer their services to their patron, such as supporting him or his preferred candidates during political campaigns, as needed. Source here **Slaves** - - - - - - - source s **Women-** **Elite Freeborn -** - - **Source** **Eumachia-** - - - - - - - **Mamia-** Mamia was from an important, old Pompeian family and was elected as a public priestess of Venus. She paid for the construction of a temple, the Temple to the Genius of Augustus (also called the Temple of Vespasian). To honour her role and generosity, the city council gave her a large burial plot just outside the Herculaneum Gate. **Julia Felix-** Julia Felix was a wealthy businesswoman in Pompeii with a likely background as a former slave, suggested by her name *Felix*. She owned the *House of Julia Felix*, a large property with apartments, gardens, baths, and shops. Located near the amphitheatre, her property had a prime location, making it a successful streetfront business. **Inscriptions** on her building tell us about the amenities she offered ( bathroom) , showing her significant role in Pompeii's economy and her social mobility as a freedwoman. **Freedwomen** **Source:** Naevoleia Tyche was a freedwoman married to Gaius Munatius Faustus, who constructed a simple house tomb near the Nuceria Gate. After his death she inherited his property and business and, perhaps, continued to develop it. She built a second tomb in a much more prestigious position near the Herculaneum Gate, that displayed Faustus' achievements. → shows how freedmen can still perform in community acts and engage in euergetism to help contribute to the city. His contributions were so valued it even portrays how the council honoured him, where it expresses how freedmen can gain high status,despite their inability to hold public office. Moreover, it illustrates the social status of women, as it depicts how navalica, being a freedwomen , was able to accumulate wealth and construct a tomb in the most prestigious places, the herculaneum gate, ![](media/image9.jpg). **Women-Slaves** - - - **Source** There are instances of attachment between a master and his slave. A gold bangle recovered from Pompeii bears the **inscription** *"From the master to his slave girl"* **Tombs** ========= **Tomb of Naevoleia Tyche** - - - - - **Tomb of Publius Vesonius Phileros** - - - - **Tomb of Vestorius Priscus** - - **Tomb of Eumachia** - - - **Tomb of Mamia** - - - **Local Political Life** ======================== - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Everyday life** ================= **Water** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Baths → Important in everyday life as it was used to socialise, exercise and relax. Only very wealthy had private baths e.g House of Menander → 5 public baths at Pompeii: Stabian, Forum, Suburban, Central and Sarnus Baths → 3 public baths in Herculaneum: The suburban baths, the central baths and the south-western baths → Rooms: - - - - → Hypocaust: heating system - **Housing** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Source**: house of the tragic poet - - - - - **Leisure Activities** - - - - - **Drama and Musical Performances** - - - - **Games at the Amphitheatre** - - - - **Drinking and gambling** - - - - - - - - **Brothels** - - **Exercise** - - - - **Everyday Life: Food and Dining** **Food** - - - \- University of Oxford, 2014-2015 \- Reveals foods they ate \- Found 45 types of fish and 53 shellfish \- Indicates the frequency of certain fish types- the rarity of deep water fish suggests that it may have been more expensive \- Found fig and grape pips, seeds, eggshells and few bones \- Pepper, which would have been imported from India - \- Using Fiorelli's techniques, she utilised plaster casts to discovery the impressions of plants' roots: evidence of 2000 vines (commercial vineyard) next to the amphitheatre \- Found that peristyles grew fruit too, and weren\'t simply for aesthetic value. \- Conservation= used discoveries to replant plants in parts of Pompeii - - - - - - - **Dining** Theremoplia - - - - Kitchen and tricillium ( dining area) - - - - - - - - **Religion** ============ → temples the fact that there's so many shows they're polytheistic - - - - - - - - - - - - Household gods → Most houses had a lararium in which the Household god - Lares would be worshipped every day. The ceremony was led by the paterfamilias and the rest of the family (Including slaves) would worship behind him, offerings of food were often left for the Lares. The Lares were believed to have protected the family. **Greek & Egyptian Influence** ============================== +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Greek** | **Egyptian** | +===================================+===================================+ | **Greek Art** | **Egyptian Art** | | | | | - - - - | - - | | | | | **Greek Architecture** | **Egyptian Architecture** | | | | | - - - - - - | - | | | | | **Greek Religion** | **Egyptian Religion** | | | | | - - - - - | - - - - - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies** ===================================================================== Scaffold - - - 1. **Pompeii** - - - - Bone and collagen analysis - **Herculaneum** Cardo V caropilte study - - - - 2, Heath **Pompeii** House of Julius Polbius - - - Estelle lazer - - - - - - **Herculaneum** Luigi Capasso: - - - - - 3\. New discoveries and everyday life **Pompeii** - → preserved carvings and gold details on the roof House of the gilded cupid - → analysis of mosaics → building materials from volcanic rock **Herculaneum** Virtual Reconstructions - → persevere houses House of the telephus relief - - Villa of papyri - - - - - - - - **issues of conservation and reconstruction - Italian and international contributions and responsibilities** ============================================================================================================ **Part 1: Issues of conservation and reconstruction** **Pompeii** - - - - Source: - - Villa of mysteries: - - - - **Part 1: Issues of conservation and reconstruction** **Herculaneum** - Source: Villa of Papyri: - - - - House of the Bicentenary - **Part 2: italian and international contributions** **Pompeii** Greater pompeii project: - - Villa of the mysteries: - - - - - Italian contributions - source : - - **Part 2: italian and international contributions** **Herculaneum** Herculaneum conservation project (HSP) - - Villa of the Papyri: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **ethical issues: excavation and conservation, study and display of human remains** =================================================================================== - **Excavation and conservation** **→** 1990s Pietro Giovanni Guzzo said no excavations until site is not under threat of destruction = ethical decision to preserve site for future generations Education part **Luigi Capasso 1992 (Herc):** \- Luigi Capasso worked on 162 skeletons found at Herculaneum. His findings showed : \- Presence of tuberculosis and brucellosis from milk products made from infected animals. \- At least 1 out of every 5 people had lice. \- 11% of the skeletons exhibit signs consistent with individuals having respiratory problems in life which could be caused by the pollution present in Herculaneum. \- Signs of occupational stress. \- Evidence that food was contaminated (eg salmonella) \- Evidence of pleurisy in some bodies. Pleurisy is the inflammation of the lining of the lungs which could then lead to respiratory problems. **Estelle Lazer (Pompeii):** \- Estelle Lazer worked on over 300 disarticulated bodies as mostly concentrated on skulls, teeth, pelvis, leg and arm remains. \- Studies of teeth showed an overall bad dental health for the citizens of Pompeii. \- These included cavities, gum disease, early tooth loss and thick deposits of calcified plaque. This however could tell historians nothing of a person\'s status in society. \- The study of teeth also showed Lazer the Pompeian staple food. \- They ate bread mostly, made from flour impregnated with tiny fragments from lava millstones. **value and impact of tourism: problems and solutions** ======================================================= **Main issues affecting pompeii** - - - - - - - - - - - - solution → conversation - - - - - - - - - - - - - More problems - - - - - - - - - - -