0 Survey Cities of Vesuvius Booklet.docx

**Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum** **2024** **Pompeii and Herculaneum Latin Vocabulary HSC** **aedile:** town magistrate who looked after day-to-day administration 1. **ala:** side room off the atrium of a Pompeiian house. Its plural is alae. 2. **Amici:** friends and social...

**Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum** **2024** **Pompeii and Herculaneum Latin Vocabulary HSC** **aedile:** town magistrate who looked after day-to-day administration 1. **ala:** side room off the atrium of a Pompeiian house. Its plural is alae. 2. **Amici:** friends and social equals 3. **amphitheatre:** large oval, circular, or semi circular outdoor theatre with rising tiers of seats around an open playing area 4. **amphorae:** pottery vessels used to store liquids such as wine, oil, and garum. 5. **andron:** Narrow passage between Atrium and Peristylium. (for the Greeks it was a separate dining room only for men) 6. **apodyterium:** changing room for baths 7. **Apollo:** God of light and the sun; truth and prophecy; medicine, healing, and plague; music, poetry, and the arts. Depicted with a lyre and a python. 8. **arca:** Strongbox often placed in a Roman atrium 9. **Archaeology:** The study of human cultures through the recovery and analysis of material remains and environmental data 10. **atrium:** central hall of a house 11. **Augustales:** Priests of the imperial cult, usually made up of freed men 12. **Bacchus:** Earlier called Dionysus. Greek and Roman god of vegetation, wine and revelry 13. **basilica:** A civic building for civic and court proceedings; rectangular in plan with an entrance on the long side and collonaded with an aisle; podium at one end; two storeys. 14. **caldarium:** room in bathhouse containing hot bath 15. **Campania:** The area surrounding Pompeii and Herculaneum, dominated by Naples (Neapolis/Napoli) 16. **capitolium:** An ancient Roman temple honoring the divinities Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. 17. **carbonization:** Process of fossilization wherein the original organic material in a fossil has been reduced to a film of carbon looking like a black drawing 18. **cardo:** The north-south street in a Roman town, intersecting the decumanus at right angles 19. **cardo/cardini:** street which crossed a town along the northsouth axis 20. **caupona:** wineshop or tavern that also serves food; also correlated with drinking, gambling, prostitution 21. **Cavea:** Seating 22. **cella:** the chief room of a Classical temple, where the statue of the god was located and, frequently, the temple\'s treasure was kept 23. **cella:** a temple sanctuary 24. **client:** a person who owes allegiance to a more powerful citizen from whom he receives protection 25. **columbarium:** A structure, room, or space in a mausoleum or other building containing niches or recesses used to hold cremated remains. 26. **comitium:** a voting assembly; the place where an assembly meets 27. **compulvium:** central opening in the roof over an atrium 28. **Corinthian order:** the most decorative of the classical Greek architectural styles, featuring a fluted column shaft, capitals with flowers and leaves below a small scroll, and a large base 29. **cryptoporticus:** covered passageway that often supports palladio structure above ground 30. **cubiculum:** small room most commonly described as a bedroom 31. **culina:** kitchen 32. **Cumae:** Campanian town, founded by the Greeks who migrated from Chalcis from Euboea; a legendary entrance to the underworld, its cavern the favourite haunt of Sibyl 33. **curia:** town council in Roman cities 34. **decumanus:** main road on east-west axis 35. **decurion:** member of the municipal council, often former magistrates 36. **denarius:** the Silver coin of the Roman Empire 37. **Dipinti:** Written by professional sign writers on walls. For political office. 38. **domus:** one family Roman house with rooms frequently grouped around one or two open courts 39. **Doric order:** the oldest and simplest of the Greek orders of architecture, defined by fluted columns, smooth capitals and no base 40. **duumvir:** one of two Roman officers (duoviri iure dicundo) or magistrates united in the same public functions. 41. **edicta munerum:** painted notices of games, shows and events given by magistrates and the Augustales (priests of the Imperial cult). 42. **Editor:** Sponsor of the games or theatre 43. **epicureanism:** system of philosophy following Epicurus, that the highest good in life is pleasure 44. **epigraphy:** the study of ancient inscriptions 45. **epitaph:** an inscription on a tombstone or monument in memory of the person buried there 46. **equites:** In ancient Italy, landowners second in wealth and status to the senatorial aristocracy. The Roman emperors allied with this group to counterbalance the influence of the old aristocracy and used the equites to staff the imperial civil service. 47. **Eumachia:** woman with business interests in the wool trade, pottery and brick making. Also built the largest building in the forum at Pompey 48. **exedra:** A recess, usually semi-circular or rectangular in shape, which is usually set into a building\'s facade or at the rear of a peristyle garden 49. **Fauces:** Entry corridor to a house generally leading into the atrium 50. **fauces:** A small entry room of a Roman house, just as one enters the front door. Leads to atrium. 51. **Fiorelli:** Pompeii Superintendent 1863-77; used plaster casting for body cavities 52. **Forum:** A large open space used for commercial, religious and political purposes. 53. **forum:** public square of a city 54. **freedman:** a freed slave 55. **Fresco:** A wall painting made while the plaster is still wet. 56. **frigidarium:** the cold-bath section of a Roman baths 58. fullonica: laundry ====================== 59. **gartibulum:** Table often placed at rear of a Roman atrium 60. **garum:** fish sauce 61. **genius:** the spirit of a person, a family or a place 62. **gladiator:** A Roman athlete, usually a slave, criminal, or prisoner of war, who was forced to fight for the entertainment of the public 63. **graffiti:** words or drawings scratched or scribbled on a wall 64. **Haraldur Sigurdsson:** volcanologist who analysed the eruptions of Vesuvius and Mt. Saint Helens 65. **Harpocrates:** Isis and Osiris\'s son conceived after the resurrection of Osiris by Isis 66. **hellenic:** pertaining to greek culture before alexander the great 67. **hellenistic:** pertaining to greek culture after alexander the great 68. **Herakles:** Son of Zeus and Alcmena, he performed many deeds (twelve labours of Hercules) and won immortality among the gods on Olympus. Patron deity of Herculaneum 69. **Herm:** sculpture with a head, and perhaps a torso, above a plain, usually squared lower section, on which male genitals may also be carved at the appropriate height. 70. **Hortus:** Garden 71. **hortus:** Roman garden or park 72. **hospitium:** hospitality; metonymically, a guest-chamber, inn, quarters. 73. **hypocaustum:** small narrow spaces under the floor through which hot air circulated 74. **Ianconium:** Sweating room 75. **Ima Cavea:** Distinguished Citizen seats 76. **Imperial cult:** the practice in ancient Rome of offering sacrifice to the Emperor to express loyalty to him and Rome 77. **impluvium:** rainwater basin in the centre of an atrium 78. **ingenui:** freeborn Roman citizens 79. **inscription:** something written, carved, or engraved on a surface such as a monument, statue, pottery shard, gravestone or coin 80. **insula:** an apartment house or a city block 81. **insulae:** Tenements for middle and lower class Romans constructed of wood and rubble. 82. **inventio Osiris:** Cult of Isis festival to celebrate the resurrection of Osiris 83. **Ionic order:** classical Greek architectural style that features a fluted column shaft, capitals with volutes (spiral scroll-like ornaments) and a large base 84. **Isis:** She was the wife of Osiris and the mother of Horus; the most famous family in Egyptian mythology. 85. **Jupiter:** Roman supreme ruler among the Olympians; lord of the skies (Zeus) 86. **laconicum:** sweating room in a Roman bathing facility 87. **Lanista:** Head of a gladitorial school 88. **lapilli:** Pebble sized bits of pyroclastic material that vary between 2 and 64mm in diameter. 89. **lararium:** household shrine to the lares 90. **lares:** deities worshipped as protectors of doorways and crossroads 91. latrine: toilet =================== 92. **lectio:** A census of the Senatorial or decurional rolls by a Roman magistrate called a Censor or Quinquennales 93. **lex Iulia Municipalis:** The law establishing the constitutions of towns and cities in Italy. 94. **libertinus:** freed slave 95. **libertus:** a term us to discribe a freedman; former slave who has been manumitted (given or purchased their freedom). 96. **lupanar:** brothel 97. **macellum:** public market building with a central yard surrounded by rows of shops for the daily sale of fresh perishable produce, especially meat and fish 98. **magistrate:** elected official 99. **manumission:** A grant of legal freedom to an individual slave. 100. **Media Cavea:** Men\'s seats 101. **megalogography:** pictorial genre featuring monumental figures within architectural spaces including doors and windows 102. **mensa ponderaria:** measuring table found in Pompeii outside the Temple of Apollo 103. **Mosaic:** A picture made out of small tiles or pieces of stone. Normally on the floor. 104. **munera:** public works or games financed by private weathy individuals in contrast to ludi which are financed by the state 105. **municipium:** a city or town with its own local government 106. **natatio:** The swimming pool in a Roman bathing establishment 107. **Navagium Isidis:** Roman religious festival in honor of the goddess Isis associated with the beginning of the sailing season 108. necropolis: cemetary ========================= 109. **nuee ardente:** a superheated, incandescent cloud of gas and volcanic ash that flows swiftly down a volcanic slope as an avalanche. 110. **nymphaeum:** A classical building or room with fountains, statues, and plants, used for relaxation and dedicated to nymphs. 111. **odeon:** small theatre in pompeii 112. **oecus:** The main living room of a Greek house, introduced to Roman architecture along with the peristyle. Often used for dining. 113. **officina:** workshop 114. **Olitorium:** granary and market for cereals located close to the forum in Pompeii 115. **ordo decurionum:** those eligible to be elected to the town council. 116. **Oscans:** Italic tribes occupied Italy at the time of Etruscan ruling over Rome. First to settle at Pompeii 117. **Osiris:** Egyptian god of the underworld, husband of Isis and judge of the dead 118. **palaestra:** An ancient Greek and Roman exercise area, usually framed by a colonnade 119. **papyri:** Comes from a reed like plant that would be split, left to dry, creating a soft smooth side on which to write. 120. **pater familias:** Roman term for the \"father of the family,\" a theoretical implication that gave the male head of the family almost unlimited authority. 121. **patricians:** wealthy people 122. **patronus:** a patron: a person who gave help and protection to others who performed services for him in return. 123. **Patronus coloniae:** A leading citizen who represented the town in dealings with Rome. 124. **penates:** Roman divinities of the cupboard in a Roman house; protect food and implements of the household. 125. **peristyle:** an atrium in a roman house usually with a garden surrounded by columns 126. **piscina:** Term loosely applied to fish ponds and swimming pools, whether heated or not. 127. pistrina: bakery ===================== 128. **plebs:** common people 129. **plebs humilis:** the most humble strata of plebeian 130. **plebs media:** the well-off strata of plebeian 131. **Pliny the Elder:** Roman author of an encyclopedic natural history. Died during eruption of Vesuvius which was recorded by his nephew, Pliny the Younger. 132. **Pliny the Younger:** AD62 -118. Wrote letters to Tacitus about the eruption of Vesuvius and uncle, Pliny the elder. Suffectconsul in 100. 133. **podium:** a platform raised above the surrounding level to give prominence to the temple placed upon it 134. **pontifex:** a member of the highest council of priests in ancient 135. **posticum:** A house\'s second, or tradesman\'s entrance, often at the rear leading out of the peristylum 136. **Praefectus iure dicundo:** Magistrate with praefectural authority appointed by the Curia in an emergency for a short and temporary period. 137. **Priapus:** god of male procreative power and guardian of gardens and vineyards 138. **programmata:** political advertisements painted on walls 139. **Prosopography:** The study of persons or characters, especially their appearances, careers, personalities within a historical, literary, or social context. 140. **pumice:** a volcanic rock that is a light, sponge-like rock usually found at the surface of a lava flow with a mass of gas bubbles 141. **purgatorium:** a place in a Roman shrine for ritual cleansing 142. **pyroclastic flow:** A hot, high-velocity mixture of ash, gas and pumice that flows like a liquid down slopes and over terrain. 143. **quinquennales:** Census takers who revised the town council roll every 5 years 144. **radiocarbon dating:** a chemical analysis used to determine the age of organic materials based on their content of the radioisotope carbon-14 145. **regio:** areas or districts for dividing the sites of Pompeii and 146. **regio:** a quarter in a Roman town composed of several blocks 147. **sacellum:** Chapel in the Basilica (great hall) , housing the Legions standard or aquila. 148. **sacrum/sacellum:** Sacred triangular space within a Roman home or temple for religious worship and veneration. 149. **salutatio:** visit of client to patron\'s house usually during the morning 150. **Samnium:** mountainous region of south-central Italy east of 151. **scriptores:** professional scribes who wrote wall notices 152. **senator:** Someone who was elected to certain magistracies and thereafter became members of the senate. They also gave advice to the consuls\'. They proposed laws to the praetors. They could also hold debate and approve building projects. 153. **Seneca:** Roman statesman, writer and philosopher who was an advisor to Nero 154. **sistrum:** Ancient musical instruments like rattles. They were often used in religious ceremonies by followers of Isis 155. **situla:** a bucket containing Nile water and used for ritual purposes in the cult of Isis 156. **Social War:** War 91-89 BCE between Rome and most of the Italian allies. As a result of this civil war, the Senate granted citizenship to Rome\'s Italian allies. 157. **Socius:** Latin for \'ally\' 158. **Sparsiones:** Showers of perfumed water in the theatre or ampitheatre 159. **Strabo:** Greek geographer (64 CE-21 AD) 160. **Stratigraphy:** Study of the sequential layering of geological and cultural deposits. 161. **Suetonius:** A Roman historian of the early second century C.E., best known for a multi-volume work giving biographies of the Roman emperors, The Lives of the Caesars. 162. **Sulla:** Roman general, consul and dictator (138-78 BC) 163. **Summa Cavea:** Women\'s seating 164. **taberna:** shop at the front of the house with an opening on to the street 165. **tablinum:** main reception area off the atrium, originally the main bedroom but later the office 166. **tabularium:** a civic building, or room, used for storing official records 167. **Tacitus:** Senator and historian of the Roman Empire, wrote the Annals and the Histories. 168. Tepidarium: Warm bath ========================== 169. **tepidarium:** warm room in a bathhouse equipped for oil and massage 170. **tesserae:** the small piece of stone, glass, or other object that is pieced together with many others to create a mosaic 171. **Thermae:** public baths 172. **thermoluminescence:** A chronometric dating method that uses the fact that certain heated objects accumulate trapped electrons over time, which allows the date when the object was initially heated to be determined 173. **thermopolium:** bar serving warm snacks and drinks 174. **Tribunus militum a populo:** A military tribune appointed by the people through its town council 175. **tribus Menenia:** Pompeians were enrolled in this voting tribe at the end of the Social War 176. **triclinium:** dining room 177. **tufa:** volcanic ash stone 178. **ureaus:** an egyptian cobra, one of the emblems of pharaonic kingship and Isis 179. **Velarium:** Awning over the theatre or ampitheatre to provide shade during summer. 180. **vestibulum:** entrance lobby of a Roman house between the street and the front door 181. **Villa Rustica:** Country estates perhaps owned by the local aristocracy 182. viridaria: garden ====================== 183\. **Vitruvius:** Great Roman architect of the time of Augustus (27BC - 14 AD) who wrote 10 books on architecture de Architectura - the geographical setting and natural features of Campania (ACHAH365, ACHAH371)  - the eruption of AD 79 and its impact on Pompeii and Herculaneum (ACHAH367, ACHAH372) - early discoveries and the changing nature of excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries (ACHAH369)  - representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time (ACHAH383) - the evidence provided by the range of sources, including site layout, streetscapes, public and private buildings, ancient writers, official inscriptions, graffiti, wall paintings, statues, mosaics, human, animal and plant remains from Pompeii and Herculaneum, as relevant for: - the economy: role of the forum, trade, commerce, industries, occupations - the social structure: men, women, freedmen, slaves (ACHAH375) - local political life: decuriones, magistrates, comitium (ACHAH373) - everyday life: housing, leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water supply, sanitation (ACHAH377) - religion: household gods, temples, foreign cults and religions, tombs (ACHAH376) - the influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art and architecture (ACHAH378) - changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies (ACHAH381, - issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and responsibilities (ACHAH370) - ethical issues: excavation and conservation, study and display of human remains - value and impact of tourism: problems and solutions (ACHAH370)  +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **LOW** | **MEDIUM** | **HIGH** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Describe:** Provide | **Contrast:** Show | **Propose:** Put | | characteristics and | how things are | forward(for example a | | features | different or opposite | point of view, idea, | | | | argument, suggestion) | | | | for consideration or | | | | action | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Define:** State | **Determine:** To | **Deduce:** Draw | | meaning and identify | find out, use | conclusions | | essential qualities | information to | | | | discover | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Clarify:** Make | **Select:** Given a | **Justify:** Support | | clear or plain | variety of | an argument or | | | information, choose | conclusion | | | the best. No reason | | | | needed. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Compare:** Show how | **Apply:** Use, | **Construct:** Make; | | things are similar or | utilise, employ in a | build; put together | | different | particular situation | items or arguments | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Classify:** Arrange | **Explain:** Relate | **Assess:** Make a | | or include | cause and effect; | judgement of value, | | classes/categories | make the relationship | quality, outcomes, | | | between things | results or size | | | evident, provide why | | | | and/or how | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Account:** Account | **Calculate:** | **Evaluate:** Make a | | for; state the | Ascertain/determine | judgement based on | | reasons for, report | from given facts, | criteria, determine | | on | figures | the value of | | | | | | 2\. Give an account | | | | of; narrate a | | | | series of events | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Outline:** Sketch | **Interpret:** Draw | **Analyse:** Identify | | in general terms; | meaning from | components and the | | indicate the main | | relationship between | | features of | | them; draw out and | | | | relate implications | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Recall:** Present | **Extract:** Choose | **Critically | | remembered ideas, | relevant and/or | Analyse/Evaluate:** | | facts or experiences | appropriate details | Add a degree or level | | | | of accuracy depth, | | | | knowledge and | | | | understandings, | | | | logic, questioning, | | | | reflection and | | | | quality to (analysis | | | | /evaluation) | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **List:** Write down | **Relate:** To | **Investigate:** | | phrases only without | discuss one object by | Plan, inquire into | | further explanation | comparison to another | and draw conclusions | | | | about | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Summarise:** | **Recount:** Retell a | **Predict:** Suggest | | Express, concisely, | series of events | what may happen based | | the relevant details | using past tense and | on available | | | correct terms | information | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Name:** State the | **Demonstrate:** Show | **Recommend:** | | label of a particular | by example | Provide reasons in | | item or concept | | favour | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Identify:** | **Illustrate:** 1. | **Discuss:** Identify | | Recognise and name | Draw a diagram to | issues and provide | | | explain | points for and/or | | | | against | | | 2.Show, using | | | | examples | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **The Geographical Setting and Features of Campania (highlight the key points)** **Geographical setting**\ Pompeii and Herculaneum are in **Campania**: a volcanic plain which stretches from the Voltuno R. in the north to the Sorrentine Peninsula in the south. The plain divided by **Mt Vesuvius** into two regions, the northern region drained by the **Volturno R**. and the southern region drained by the **Sarno R**. Campania is a large region in Italy known for its fertile soil, hot springs, agricultural land and volcanic plains. The region is highlighted in redon the map (Figure 1) map of Italy and is found south of Rome. Mt Vesuvius, the largest of mountains/volcanoes in the area, lies inward from the coast and is surrounded by multiple cities, the most relevant to our study being Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae. Figure 2 shows the area impacted by the volcanic eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 AD. It is important for us to understand what else happened in the region prior to the eruption of Mt Vesuvius in 79 AD. In 62 AD (17 years earlier) a major earthquake occurred in the region which caused widespread damage to the cities surrounding Mt Vesuvius. When the volcano erupted 17 years after the earthquake, many of the buildings covered in ash were still not fixed from the major earthquake years before. **The earthquake of 62 AD was the long-term cause of the eruption at Mt** **Vesuvius in 79 AD.** The earthquake weakened the magma chamber in the depths of the volcano, and over the following 17 years, sea water slowly entered the volcano and caused pressure to build up underground. This eventually caused the catastrophic volcanic eruption in 79 AD. **Pompeii** was built on a volcanic spur, 25-40m above sea level, overlooking the mouth of the Sarno River. **Pompeii** was at a crossroads from North to South and to the east. **Herculaneum** was built on a steeply sloping spur which ended in a cliff, bounded on both sides by deep ravines. Its views and moderating maritime influence made it an ideal resort town. Strabo commented on Herculaneum.  The main Roman naval station was at **Misenum**. *The next town is Herculaneum, which occupies a cape jutting out into the sea, where it feels the southwest wind to such an amazing extent that the settlement is a healthy one.*\ **Strabo** [Geography] 5.4.8\ \ It is an area "incredibly favoured by nature."\ **Michael Grant** *Cities of Vesuvius* p.15\ \ *How \[to describe\] the Campanian coast and its happy, indeed blessed delightfulness, plainly the handiwork of Nature in her favourite spot!*\ **Pliny the Elder**, [Natural History] Bk III 40\ \ The **climate** is Mediterranean -- hot dry summers and mild wet winters. *Campania\'s coastal area is the finest, not only in Italy but in the entire world. Nowhere is the climate gentler. Spring comes with its flowers twice a year there.*\ **Florus** [Brief History], 1.11.3 6 1. What happened in 62 CE?............................................................... 2. Outline the location of Campania.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3. Describe where Pompeii is located............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4. Outline where Herculaneum is located............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5. State the climate of the area............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. The dominant natural feature is **Mt. Vesuvius**, 1277m. high. The crater circumference is 11 km. (partly encircled by 1110m ridge of Mt Somma). ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Diodorus** (on Mt Vesuvius) [Bibliotheca Historica] Book IV, 21\ *Heracles then moved on from the Tiber, and as he passed down the coast of what now bears the name of Italy he came to the Cumaean Plain. Here, the myths relate, there were men of outstanding strength the fame of whom had gone abroad for lawlessness and they were called Giants. This plain was called Phlegraean (\"fiery\") from the mountain which of old spouted forth a huge fire as Aetolia did in Sicily; at this time, however, the mountain is called Vesuvius and shows many signs of the fire which once raged in those ancient times.* ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6. Describe what Diodorus is saying about Mount Vesuvius............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Strabo** [Geography] Book V, 4\ *Next after Neapolis comes the **Heracleian Fortress**, with a promontory which runs out into the sea and so admirably catches the breezes of the southwest wind that it makes the settlement a healthful place to live in\... **Pompaia**, on the River Sarnus --- a river which both takes the cargoes inland and sends them out to sea --- is the **port-town** of Nola, Nuceria, and Acherrae\... Above these places lies **Mt. Vesuvius**, which, save for its summit, has dwellings all round, on **farm-lands that are absolutely beautiful**. As for the summit, a considerable part of it is flat, but all of it is unfruitful, and looks ash-coloured, and it shows pore-like cavities in masses of rock that are soot-coloured on the surface, these masses of rock looking as though they had been eaten out by fire; and hence one might infer that in earlier times this district was on fire and had craters of fire, and then, because the fuel gave out, was quenched. Perhaps, too, this is **the cause of the fruitfulness of the country** all round the mountain; just as at Catana, it is said, that part of the country which had been covered with ash-dust from the hot ashes carried up into the air by the fire of Aetna made the **land suited to the vine**; for it contains the substance that **fattens both the soil** which is burnt out and that which **produces the fruits**; so then, when it acquired plenty of fat, it was suited to burning out, as is the case with all sulphur-like substances, and then when it had been evaporated and quenched and reduced to ash-dust, it passed into a state of fruitfulness.* --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *Observe Vesuvius. Not long ago it was covered with the grapevine\'s green shade, and a famous grape wet, nay drowned the vats here. Bacchus loved the shoulders of this mountain more than the hills of Nysa \[his birthplace\], satyrs used to join their dances here. Here was a haunt of Venus, more pleasant than Lacedaemon to her, here was a place where Hercules left his name. It all lies buried by flames and mournful ash. Even the gods regret that their powers extended to this.*\ **Martial** [Epigram] 4.44 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *With reference to Strabo and Martial, explain the reason why people settled around Mount Vesuvius.*................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................\...\ **Resources**\ Volcanic soil was very fertile.\ A wide variety of crops grown: Vines on slopes of Mt Vesuvius - a fresco from House of the Centenary (right) shows Bacchus wrapped in grapes, Vesuvius as it appeared before the eruption, and *Agathodemone*, the bearded snake which represents good fortune. Pliny wrote: \"It has been observed that Pompeian wines are rather dangerous as they may cause a headache which lasts till noon on the following day.\" (Pliny the Elder, *Natural Histories*XIV 70). Also see the wine press with the reconstructed ram\'s head beam, below, from the Villa of the Mysteries - Olives (see the olive press below) - flowers for perfume - fruit - vegetables Describe different crops and fruits that are grown...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................\... ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Sheep for wool. There is much evidence of textile production, especially the number of fullonicas (e.g. the [Fullonica of Stephanus] in Pompeii and the [House of the Fullery] in Herculaneum), and the [Building of Eumachia] which may have been a wool market and the headquarters of the fullers\' guild. Seneca writes that 600 sheep were killed in the earthquake of AD 62 (Seneca, *Natural Questions* VI. Being on the coast, seafood was plentiful. See the mosaic from the House of the Faun, below. Garum, a fish sauce, was a famous product of Pompeii. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *Next comes Campania, a region blessed by fortune. From this bay onwards you find vine-growing hills and a noble tipple of wine famed throughout the world. Over this area the gods of wine and grain fought their hardest, or so tradition tells us... These shores are watered by warm springs; they are famed beyond any other for their shellfish and their fine fish. Nowhere do olives produce more oil -- the production strives to match the demands of human pleasure.*\ **Pliny the Elder**, [Natural History] Bk III 60 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- List the resources of Campania as described by Pliny the Elder...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................\...\ \ Volcanic stone for building, olive presses and millstones. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ |  | | +===================================+===================================+ | A mosaic from the House of the | Wine press, *torcula*, from the | | Faun showing the variety of\ | Villa of the Mysteries | | sea life abundant in the area. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ |  | Garum residue (in the Antiquarium | | | at Boscoreale) | | Olive press (in the Antiquarium | | | at Boscoreale) | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *There is a naturally occurring powder that produces remarkable results. It is found near Baiae, in the territories of the municipalities that surround Mt. Vesuvius. When mixed with lime and gravel it produces a strong building material, especially useful for piers built out into the sea, as the mixture hardens even under water.*\ **Vitruvius** [On Architecture] 2.6.1 2. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- With references to the sources above describe the different resources and technology that was used in the region...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................\.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................\.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................\.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................\.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... **The Eruption of 79 CE and its impacts on Pompeii and Herculaneum**  Figure 5 Using figure 5, describe the eruption of Vesuvius...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................\.............................................................................................................\.............................................................................................................\... Pompeii and Herculaneum suffered different fates on account of their geographical location in accordance with Mt Vesuvius. Herculaneum was upwind of Mt Vesuvius, therefore the pumice fall in the first few hours of the eruption was moderately light. However, Herculaneum bore the full brunt of the succession of pyroclastic surges. The first reached temperatures of over400o C and would have instantaneously killed all the inhabitants of Herculaneum. Subsequent surges and flows destroyed buildings and carbonised organic matter.  ### EVIDENCE FOR THE ERUPTION OF VESUVIUS +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **TIME PHASE | **DESCRIPTION** | | | | PLACE** | | | | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | Late morning to | **'PLINIAN' | Vesuvius | An enormous | | early | PHASE** | | umbrella shaped | | | | | eruptive column | | 24 | | | like a pine | | | | | tree rose 20-30 | | August, | | | km into the | | | | | air. Pumice and | | 79 AD | | | ash carried by | | | | | wind. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | | Pompeii | Rain of white | | | | | frothy pumice | | | | (9km downwind | discharging | | | | of | 50,000-80,000 | | | | | tonnes/sec | | | | Vesuvius) | accumulating on | | | | | rooftops. Day | | | | | turned dark. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | | Herculaneum | Received only a | | | | (upwind of | light dust of | | | | | ash. | | | | Vesuvius) | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | | Pompeii | Pumice | | | | | accumulated, | | | | | 25-30 cm/hr. | | | | | Buildings began | | | | | to collapse. | | | | | People began to | | | | | flee or take | | | | | refuge. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 8pm | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Early hours of | Relative quiet | | A layer of grey | | | between two | | ash. People may | | 25 | phases | | have ventured | | | | | out and found | | August | | | way barred by | | | | | metres of | | | | | pumice. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 1am -- | **PHASE** | Vesuvius | Volcano vent | | | | | collapses and | | 25 | This phase was | | lethal | | | made up of 6 | | avalanches of | | August | | | red-hot | | | pyroclastic | | volcanic debris | | | | | and gases start | | | (S1-S6) | | erupting from | | | | | the volcano | | | | | (pyroclastic | | | | | surges). | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | S1 and S2 | Herculaneum 5 | S2 was hotter | | | | km from | and more | | | | | powerful than | | | | Vesuvius' | S1 and | | | | crater | destroyed most | | | | | buildings. | | | | | | | | | | Pompeii was not | | | | | exposed to S1 | | | | | and S2. | | | | | | | | | | Grey pumice | | | | | falls and | | | | | column rises | | | | | again to 30km. | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | 6.30pm - 8pm | S3 to S6 | Pompeii | S6 was the most | | | | | severe covering | | | | | the city with | | | | | 90-110cms of | | | | | material and | | | | | knocking down | | | | | walls of | | | | | highest | | | | | buildings. | | | | | | | | | |  | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ 1. What was the date of the Mt Vesuvius eruption? 2. What are the names of the two phases of the eruption of Mt Vesuvius? 3. Describe what the initial eruption of Mt Vesuvius would have looked like to a passer-by. 4. Explain why Pompeii experienced heavier pumice fall during the first stage of the eruption. 5. How many pyroclastic surges were there during the second stage of the eruption, and at which times did they occur? 6. Identify and explain THREE reasons why Surges 1 and 2 were so dangerous for Herculaneum. 7. Explain why Surges 4-6 were so deadly to the occupants of Pompeii. 8. Describe what Pompeii and Herculaneum would have looked like at the conclusion of the eruption. Mt Vesuvius Michael Grant Cities of Vesuvius AD 62: earthquake 5 February: damage reported at Nuceria and Neaopolis; Herculaneum almost complete ruin; equally severe damage at Pompeii Evidence: (i) Relief in house of Lucius Caecilius Jucundus (ii) Seneca: 600 sheep killed by the fumes Reconstruction rapid in this prosperous area 24 August 79 Pompeii Festival of divine Augustus in progress at the time Had been earth tremors for several days Springs dried up: steep rise in pressure in subterranean passages of the mountain Pliny's account Pliny the elder received message about 2pm: letter written almost as soon as first eruption: would have taken a couple of hours to get to Misenum: - would have been tremendous noise, bellowing of mountain as it split (force of internal gases being liberated) - red hot boulder vomited out: thousands of metres into the air - continuous rushing upward blast of stones, cinders, ash and dust: cloud like an umbrella - accompanied by electrical storms (known from 1779 eruption): excavations have shown evidence of lightning strikes - also lethal fumes: at first sulphurous, then impregnated with hydrochloric acid and other chlorides - by 4pm when Pliny reached Stabiae Pompeii buried for several hours: 2 successive layers: (i) pumice stone 2-3 metres above ground (ii) layer of ash: another 2 -- 2 ½ metres. This was then overlaid with 2 metres of solid earth meaning that excavators had to dig through 6 metres - an effective preservative: eggs and fish on table at temple of Isis; 81 carbonised loaves at bakery of Modestus; pots in House of Vettii still contained meat bones; Macellum: fruit in glass containers Herculaneum: a different fate - no layer of ash but mud - in addition to the rain of solid projectiles; a torrent of steam at 930˚: in scorching local downpours: churned up the lava surface of the mountain into a boiling mass: to a depth of between 15 and 18 metres - this mud bulldozed the buildings of the town but mud preserved many things better than in Pompeii eg mud filled one room without disturbing the position of a cradle in nursery, or pots on kitchen stove - carbonized the wood - scorched cloth and papyrus but cooling meant it was not destroyed Casualties at Pompeii - 1^st^ deaths caused by pieces of lava crashing down from great height - People suffocated as they hid or ran in panic or killed by falling columns - Many trapped - House of Menander: 10 slaves who may have been trying to escape out the upper windows: borne down by the pumice and ashes: leader had bronze lantern;\ in the office e the doorkeeper and daughter retreated to office by the door (had master's seal and purse: 2 gold coins and thirteen brass and copper coins): covered themselves with pillows - Many of the victims were carrying valuables - 60 gladiators in barracks - Many victims at gates and walls of the city 6 other towns blotted out: - Oplontis - Taurina - Tora - Sora - Cossa - Leucopetra **Ancient Writers about the Eruption** **An excerpt from Dio Cassius, *History of Rome,* 66.22** -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **People fled, some from their houses into the streets, others from outside indoors, some from the sea to the land, others from the land to the sea. In their panic people regarded any place where they were not, as safer than where they were. All the while an inconceivable quantity of ash was being blown out; it covered both sea and land and filled all the air. Wherever it went it did a great deal of damage, especially to men and farms and sheep, and it destroyed all fish and bird life. Furthermore, it buried two entire cities, Herculaneum and Pompeii; in the latter the people were seated in the theatre.** -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Highlight the key writings where Pliny Talks about the different stages of the eruption.** **Pliny writes to Tacitus about the AD 79 eruption** **To Cornelius Tacitus** Thank you for asking me to send you a description of my uncle\'s death so that you can leave an accurate account of it for posterity; I know that immortal fame awaits him if his death is recorded by you. It is true that he perished in a catastrophe which destroyed the loveliest regions of the earth, a fate shared by whole cities and their people, and one so memorable that it is likely to make his name live for ever: and he himself wrote a number of books of lasting value: but you write for all time and can still do much to perpetuate his memory. The fortunate man, in my opinion, is he to whom the gods have granted the power either to do something which is worth recording or to write what is worth reading, and most fortunate of all is the man who can do both. Such a man was my uncle, as his own books and yours will prove. So you set me a task I would choose for myself, and I am more than willing to start on it. My uncle was stationed at Misenum, in active command of the fleet. On 24 August, in the early afternoon, my mother drew his attention to a cloud of unusual size and appearance. He had been out in the sun, had taken a cold bath, and lunched while lying down, and was then working at his books. He called for his shoes and climbed up to a place which would give him the best view of the phenomenon. It was not clear at that distance from which mountain the cloud was rising (it was afterwards known to be Vesuvius); its general appearance can best be expressed as being like an umbrella pine, for it rose to a great height on a sort of trunk and then split off into branches. I imagine because it was thrust upwards by the first blast and then left unsupported as the pressure subsided, or else it was borne down by its own weight so that it spread out and gradually dispersed. Sometimes it looked white, sometimes blotched and dirty, according to the amount of soil and ashes it carried with it. My uncle\'s scholarly acumen saw at once that it was important enough for a closer inspection, and he ordered a boat to be made ready, telling me I could come with him - if I wished. I replied that I preferred to go on with my studies, and as it happened he had himself given me some writing to do. As he was leaving the house he was handed a message from Rectina, wife of Tascus whose house was at the foot of the mountain, so that escape was impossible except by boat. She was terrified by the danger threatening her and implored him to rescue her from her fate. He changed his plans, and what he had begun in a spirit of inquiry he completed as a hero. He gave orders for the warships to be launched and went on board himself with the intention of bringing hope to many more people besides Rectina, for this lovely stretch of coast was thickly populated. He hurried to the place which everyone else was hastily leaving, steering his course straight for the danger zone. He was entirely fearless, describing each new movement and phase of the portent to be noted down exactly as he observed them. Ashes were already falling, hotter and thicker as the ships drew near, followed by bits of pumice and blackened stones, charred and cracked by the flames: then suddenly they were in shallow water, and the shore was blocked by the debris from the mountain. For a moment my uncle - wondered whether to turn back, but when the helmsman advised this he refused, telling him that Fortune stood by the courageous and they must make for Pomponianus at Stabiae. He was cut off there by the breadth of the bay (for the shore gradually curves round a basin filled by the sea) so that he was not as yet in danger, though it was clear that this would come nearer as it spread. Pomponianus had therefore already put his belongings on board ship, intending to escape if the contrary wind fell. This wind was of course full in my uncle\'s favour, and he was able to bring his ship in. He embraced his terrified friend, cheered and encouraged him, and thinking he could calm his fears by showing his own composure, gave orders that he was to be carried to the bathroom. After his bath he lay down and dined; he was quite cheerful, or at any rate he pretended he was, which was no less courageous. Meanwhile on Mount Vesuvius broad sheets of fire and leaping flames blazed at several points, their bright glare emphasized by the darkness of night. My uncle tried to allay the fears of his companions by repeatedly declaring that these were nothing but bonfires left by the peasants in their terror, or else empty houses on fire in the districts they had abandoned. Then he went to rest and certainly slept, for as he was a stout man his breathing was rather loud and heavy and could be heard by people coming and going outside his door. By this time the courtyard giving access to his room was full of ashes mixed with pumice-stones, so that its level had risen, and if he had stayed in the room any longer he would never have got out. He was wakened, came out and joined Pomponianus and the rest of the household who had sat up all night. They debated whether to stay indoors or take their chance in the open, for the buildings were now shaking with violent shocks, and seemed to be swaying to and fro as if they were torn from their foundations. Outside on the other hand, there was the danger of falling pumice-stones, even though these were light and porous; however, after comparing the risks they chose the latter. In my uncle\'s case one reason outweighed the other, but for the others it was a choice of fears. As a protection against falling objects they put pillows on their heads tied down with cloth. Elsewhere there was daylight by this time, but they were still in darkness, blacker and denser than any ordinary night, which they relieved by lighting torches and various kinds of lamp. My uncle decided to go down to the shore and investigate on the spot the possibility of any escape by sea, but he found the waves still wild and dangerous. A sheet was spread on the ground for him to lie down, and he repeatedly asked for cold water to drink. Then the flames and smell of sulphur which gave warning of the approaching fire drove the others to take flight and roused him to stand up. He stood leaning on two slaves and then suddenly collapsed, I imagine because the dense fumes choked his breathing by blocking his windpipe which was constitutionally weak and narrow and often inflamed. When daylight returned on the 26th - two days after the last day he had seen - his body was found intact and uninjured, still fully clothed and looking more like sleep than death. Meanwhile my mother and I were at Misenum, but this is not of any historic interest, and you only wanted to hear about my uncle\'s death. I will say no more, except to add that I have described in detail every incident which I either witnessed myself or heard about immediately after the event, when reports were most likely to be accurate. It is *for* you to select what best suits your purpose, for there is a great difference between a letter to a friend and history written for all to read. From: *The Letters of the Younger Pliny, Book 6.16*, (1974) Penguin Classics, Great Britain, pp166-168. **Again, Pliny writes to Tacitus about the eruption** **To Cornelius Tacitus** So the letter which you asked me to write on my uncle\'s death has - made you eager to hear about the terrors and hazards I had to face when left at Misenum, for I broke off at the beginning of this part of my story. "Though my mind shrinks from remembering... I will begin." After my uncle\'s departure I spent the rest of the day with my books, as this was my reason for staying behind. Then I took a bath, dined, and then dozed fitfully for a while. For several days past there had been earth tremors which were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania: but that night the shocks were so violent that everything felt as if it were not only shaken but overturned. My mother hurried into my room and found me already getting up to wake her if she were still asleep. We sat down in the forecourt of the house, between the buildings and the sea close by. I don\'t know whether I should call this courage or folly on my part (I was only seventeen at the time) but I called for a volume of Livy and went on reading as I had nothing else to do. I even went on with the extracts I had been making. Up came a friend of my uncle\'s who had just come from Spain to join him. When he saw us sitting there and me actually reading, he scolded us both - me for my foolhardiness and my mother for allowing it. Nevertheless, I remained absorbed in my book. By now it was dawn, but the light was still dim and faint. The buildings round us were already tottering, and the open space we were in was too small for us not to be in real and imminent danger if the house collapsed. This finally decided us to leave the town. We were followed by a panic-stricken mob of people wanting to act on some-one else\'s decision in preference to their own (a point in which fear looks like prudence), who hurried us on our way by pressing hard behind in a dense crowd. Once beyond the buildings we stopped, and there we had some extraordinary experiences which thoroughly alarmed us. The carriages we had ordered to be brought out began to run in different directions though the ground was quite level, and would not remain stationary even when wedged with stones. We also saw the sea sucked away and apparently forced back by the earth-quake: at any rate it receded from the shore so that quantities of sea creatures were left stranded on dry sand. On the landward side a fearful black cloud was rent by forked and quivering bursts of flame, and parted to reveal great tongues of fire, like flashes of lightning magnified in size. At this point my uncle\'s friend from Spain spoke up still more urgently: \'If your brother, if your uncle is still alive, he will want you both to be saved; if he is dead, he would want you to survive him - why put off your escape?\' We replied that we would not think of considering our own safety as long as we were uncertain of his. Without waiting any longer, our men rushed off and hurried out of danger as fast as he could. Soon afterwards the cloud sank down to earth and covered the sea; it had already blotted out Capri and hidden the promontory of Misenum from sight. Then my mother implored, entreated and commanded me to escape as best I could - a young man might escape, whereas she was old and slow and could die in peace as long as she had not been the cause of my death too. I refused to save myself without her, and grasping her hand forced her to quicken her pace. She gave in reluctantly, blaming herself for delaying me. Ashes were already falling, not as yet very thickly. I looked round: a dense black cloud was coming up behind us, spreading over the earth like a flood. \'Let us leave the road while we can still see,\' I said, \'or we shall be knocked down and trampled underfoot in the dark by the crowd behind.\' We had scarcely sat down to rest when darkness fell, not the dark of a moonless or cloudy night, but as if the lamp had been put out in a closed room. You could hear the shrieks of women, the wailing of infants, and the shouting of men; some were calling their parents, others their children or their wives, trying to recognize them by their voices. People bewailed their own fate or that of their relatives, and there were some who prayed for death in their terror of dying. Many besought the aid of the gods, but still more imagined there were no gods left, and that the universe was plunged into eternal darkness for evermore. There were people, too, who added to the real perils by inventing fictitious dangers: some reported that part of Misenum had collapsed or another part was on fire, and though their tales were false they found others to believe them. A gleam of light returned, but we took this to be a warning of the approaching flames rather than daylight. However, the flames remained some distance off; then darkness came on once more and ashes began to fall again, this time in heavy showers. We rose from time to time and shook them off, otherwise we should have been buried and crushed beneath their weight. I could boast that not a groan or cry of fear escaped me in these perils, had I not derived some poor consolation in my mortal lot from the belief that the whole world was dying with me and I with it. At last the darkness thinned and dispersed into smoke or cloud; then there was genuine daylight, and the sun actually shone out, but yellowish as it is during an eclipse. We were terrified to see everything changed, buried deep in ashes like snowdrifts. We returned to Misenum where we attended to our physical needs as best we could, and then spent an anxious night alternating between hope and fear. Fear predominated, for the earthquakes went on, and several hysterical.individuals made their own and other people\'s calamities seem ludicrous in comparison with their frightful predictions. But even then, in spite of the dangers we had been through and were still expecting, my mother and I had still no intention of leaving until we had news of my uncle. Of course these details are not important enough for history, and you will read them without any idea of recording them; if they seem scarcely worth putting in a letter, you have only yourself to blame for asking for them. From: *The Letters of the Younger Pliny*, Book 6.20, (1974) Penguin Classics, Great Britain, p170173. -- --