Chapter 2 Personality Assessment, Measurement, and Research Methods PDF

Chapter 2 Personality Assessment, Measurement, and Research Methods 1 Personality Assessment, Measurement, and Research Methods In this chapter we will learn about: The source of personality data and the actual measures that personality psychologists use How we evalu...

Chapter 2 Personality Assessment, Measurement, and Research Methods 1 Personality Assessment, Measurement, and Research Methods In this chapter we will learn about: The source of personality data and the actual measures that personality psychologists use How we evaluate the quality of those measures? How we use these measures in actual research design? 2 Sources of Personality Data Self-Report Data (S-Data) Observer-Report Data (O-Data) Test-Data (T-Data) Life-Outcome Data (L-Data) 3 Self-Report Data (S- Data) Information provided by a person, such as through a survey or interview. The self-report is the most common method for measuring personality. Individuals have access to a wealth of information about themselves that is inaccessible to anyone else. 4 Self-Report Data (S- Data) Individuals can report about their feelings, emotions, desires, beliefs and private experiences. There are many ways to obtain data including interviews that pose questions to a person, periodic reports by a person the records of the events as they happen and questionnaires. pose questions:soru sormak 5 Self-Report Data Self-report can take a variety of forms, ranging from open-ended ‘fill in the blanks’ to forced choice or ture-false questions. Open ended items; ‘Tell me about yourself?’ Closed ended items—response options provided; ‘I am an introvert- Yes /No’ (Activity handout 2-1-Twenty statements test) 6  Activity Handout 2–1: Twenty Statements Test Instructions. Please complete the following 20 statements. There are no right or wrong answers. Please write the first things that come to mind, and try not to censor yourself. 1. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 2. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 3. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 4. I am _________________________________________________________________ _____ 5. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 6. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 7. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 8. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 9. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 10. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 11. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 12. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 13. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 14. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 15. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 16. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 17. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 18. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 19. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 20. I am ______________________________________________________________________ 7 Self-Report Data The simplest form of the structured self-report questionnaire involves a series of trait, descriptive adjectives such as, active, adaptable, affected, cheerful, dependent, disorderly, cold, clever, good-natured etc. Individual are asked to indicate whether or not each adjective describes them. 7 Self-Report Data This list contains a series of adjectives. Please read them quickly and put an X in the box beside each one you consider to be self-descriptive. __ active __disorderly __anxious __adaptable __ friendly __cold __affected __ clever __lazy __cheerful __good-natured __intravert __dependent __touchy __adventurous 8 Self-Report Data A more complex method involves requesting participants to indicate in numerical form the degree to which each trait term characterizes them, such as on a 7-point rating scale of 1 (least characteristic) to 7 (most characteristic). This is called a Likert rating scale. It is simply a way for someone to express with numbers the degree to 9 Self-Report Data Likert Rating Scale Adventurous _ 1_ 2 3 4 5 6 7_ Cold _ 1_ 2 3 4 5 6 7_ Civilised _ 1_ 2 3 4 5 6 7_ 10 Self-Report Data Self-report measure have some limitations and weakness. For the self-report data to be effective, respondents must be both willing and able to answer the questions put to them. Limitations of S-data People may not respond honestly especially when they asked about unconventional experiences such as unusual desires and sexual practicies and undesirable traits. 11 Self-Report Data People may lack accurate self- knowledge Because of these limitations, personality psychologists often use sources of data that do not rely on the honest or insight of the participants. One of those sources is observers. 12 Observer-Report Data (O-Data) We usually form impressions and make evaluations of others with whom we come into contact, so for each individual there are at least dozens and dozens of observers who form impressions. Teachers, families, friends, colleagues etc. 13 Observer-Report Data (O-Data) Through O-data, information provided by someone else about another person Key features of O-data Provide access to information not attainable through other sources Multiple observers can be used to assess a person, this improves the validity and reliability of the knowledge 14 Observer-Report Data Selecting observers: personality researchers have developed two strategies: (1)professional personality assessors and (2)people who actually know the target person (1)Professional personality assessors: they do not know the participants. Each observers provides an independent personality description of the 15 Observer-Report Data (2)Peoplewho actually know the target person: obtaining observational data is to use individuals who actually know the target person. For example: close friends, spouses, mothers, teachers, roommates provide personality data on participants Often in better position to observe target’s natural behaviors than professional personality assessors 16 Observer-Report Data (2)Peoplewho actually know the target person: Allows for assessment of multiple social personalities. Each of us displays different sides of ourselves to different people; we may be kind of friends, loving toward a spouse and conflicted toward our parents. The use of multiple observers provides a method for assessing the many aspects of an individual’s personality. 17 Observer-Report Data (2)Peoplewho actually know the target person: Because of relationship to target, however, observer may be biased. A participant’s mother, for example, may overlook the negative and emphasize the positive features of her child. In addition to deciding what type of observers to use, personality researchers must determine whether 18 Observer-Report Data (O-Data) Naturalistic observation: Observers witness and record events that occur in the normal course of lives of the participants. Naturalistic observation has the advantage of being able to secure information in realistic context, but at the cost of not being able to control events and behavioral samples witnessed. Artificial observation: Occurs in artificial settings or situations. Artificial observation has the advantage of controlling conditions and eliciting relevant behavior, but at the cost of sacrificing realism of every day life. (Activity handout 2-3; How accurately can you describe____________?) Sacrifice: gözden çıkartmak 20  Activity Handout 2–2: How Accurately Can You Describe Yourself? Instructions: Please read the following pairs of characteristics and circle the number that best describes you, in general. For example, for #1, if you see yourself as more passive than active, you should circle a number closer to “ passive.” If you see yourself as more active than passive, you should circle a number closer to “active.” 1.) passive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 active 2.) cold 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 warm 3.) undependable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 reliable 4.) emotionally 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 emotionally stable unstable 5.) uncultured 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 cultured 6.) energetic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 unenergetic 7.) agreeable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 disagreeable 8.) negligent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 conscientious 9.) secure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 insecure 10.) ignorant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 knowledgeable 11.) dominant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 submissive 12.) critical 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 lenient 13.) careless 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 careful 14.) at ease 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 nervous 15.) stupid 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 intelligent 16.) timid 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 bold 17.) flexible 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 stubborn 18.) disorganized 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 well organized 19.) high-strung 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 relaxed 20.) perceptive 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 imperceptive 21.) conforming 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 independent 22.) trusting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 suspicious 23.) hardworking 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 lazy 24.) even- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 temperamental tempered 25.) uncreative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 creative 26.) proud 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 humble 27.) unfair 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 fair 28.) traditional 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 untraditional 29.) emotional 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 unemotional 30.) simple 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 complex 31.) quiet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 talkative 32.) selfless 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 selfish 33.) liberal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 conservative 34.) not envious/ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 envious/ not jealous jealous 35.) curious 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 uncurious 36.) sociable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 retiring 37.) stingy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 generous 38.) practical 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 impractical 39.) subjective 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 objective 40.) analytical 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 unanalytical 21  Test-Data (T-Data) Information provided by standardized tests or testing situations. __________________________________________________________________ In this measures, participants are placed in a standardized testing situation. The idea is to see, if different people behave differently in identical situations. Situation designed to elicit behaviors that serve as indicators of personality variables. Elicited behavior “scored” without reliance on inference. 22  Test-Data (T-Data) Information provided by standardized tests or testing situations. ___________________________________________________ Limitations: Participants might try to guess what trait is being measured and then alter their behavior to create certain impressions. Difficult to know if participants define testing situation as intended by experimenter. An experiment designed to test for ‘obeidence for authority’ might be misinterpreted as a test for ‘intelligence’ perhaps rasing anxiety, distort subsequent responses. 23  Test-Data (T-Data) Information provided by standardized tests or testing situations. ___________________________________________________ Limitations: Researcher might influence how participants behave. A researcher with an outgoing and friendly personality may elicit more cooperation than a cold or aloof experimenter. Despite the limitations, T-data remain a valuable and irreplaceable source of personality information. 24 Test-Data (1)Mechanical recording devices: Personality psychologists have been enterprising in adapting technological innovations for the study of personality. 23 Test-Data Mechanical recording devices: “Actometer” used to assess children’s activity. Actometer is essentially a modified self-winding watch, which can be strapped to the arms or legs of participants (typically, children). Movement activates the winding mechanism registring the person’s activity on the hands of the dial. 24 27 28 Test-Data Mechanical recording devices: Strengths Not hampered by biases of human observer May be used in naturalistic settings Disadvantage Few personality dispositions lend themselves to mechanical assessment There is no mechanical devices, to directly measure introversion or 27 Test-Data (2)Physiological data: Provides information about a person’s level of arousal, reactivity to stimuli, speed at which a person takes in new information—all potential indicators of personality Symphatic nervous system activity, blood pressure, heart rate and muscle construction can be measure using physiological data. 28 Test-Data (2)Physiological data: Brain waves such as reactivity to stimuli also can be assessed. Even physiological changes associated with sexual arousal can be measured via instruments such as a penile strain (enlargement) gauge or a vaginal blood flow meter. 29 32 33 Test-Data E.g. Men in prison who have committed serious crimes against other people, do not have the normal fear or anxiety response that most people have. Things that might make most people anxious may not make the psychopath anxious. To test this idea researcher used a technique called the ‘eye blink startle reflex’. When a loud noise occurs we exhibit the startle reflex, which consist of blinking our eyes. 34 Two electrical sensors taped under the eye record the muscle contractions of each blink. 35 Test-Data Researchers found that psychopaths who were in prison for violent crimes, did not exhibit the faster eye blink response while viewing the anxiety-producing photographs. 36 Test-Data A more recent physiological data source comes from Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Functional neuroimaging is the use of neuroimaging technology to measure an aspect of brain function, often with a view to understanding the relationship between activity in certain brain 37 Test-Data Brain Imagining Techniques It is primarily used as a research tool in cognitive neuroscience, cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and social neuroscience. PET, fMRI and NIRSI can measure localized changes in cerebral blood flow related to neural activity. These changes are referred to as activations. Regions of the brain which are activated when a subject performs a 38 Test-Data Functional magnetic resonance imaging, or fMRI, is a technique for measuring brain activity. It works by detecting the changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occur in response to neural activity – when a brain area is more active it consumes more oxygen and to meet this increased demand blood flow increases to the active area. fMRI can be used to produce activation maps showing which parts of the brain 39 40 41 42 Test-Data Physiological data Advantages: Key benefit is that it is difficult to fake responses Disadvantages Often used in artificial laboratory settings. Accuracy of recording hinges on whether participant perceives situation as experimenter intended. 41 Test Data (3)Projective Techniques Person presented with ambiguous stimuli and asked to describe what she/he sees; assumption is that person “projects” personality onto ambiguous stimuli 42 Test Data In psychology, a projective test is a type of personality test in which the individual offers responses to ambiguous scenes, words or images. 43 Test Data This type of test emerged from the psychoanalytic school of thought, which suggested that people have unconscious thoughts or urges. These projective tests were intended to uncover such unconscious desires that are hidden from conscious awareness. 44 Test Data The most famous projective technique for assessing personality is the set of inkblots developed by Rorschach. There are others, for example the TAT, in which the person is given different pictures and is asked to make up a story about that picture. 45 46 47 50 49 52 Test Data Projective Techniques Strengths: May provide useful means for gathering information about wishes, desires, fantasies that a person is not aware of and could not report. Disadvantages: Difficult to score, uncertain validity, and reliability. 51 Life-Outcome Data (L- Data) Information that can be gleaned from events, activities, and outcomes in a person’s life that is available for public scrutiny—e.g., marriage, whether she/he owns a handgun. Can serve as important source of “real life” information about personality. Glean :toplamak 52 Life-Outcome Data (L- Data) Driving records, credit card usage, and patterns of internet usage have become sources of L-data. E.g.: driving records are used by insurance companies to determine how much a person pay for car insurance. L-data can serve as an important source of real life information about personality. 53 Issues in Personality Assessment Using two or more data sources in one personality research. Links among different data sources: What are the links among the various sources of personality data, if using two or more data sources within a personality study? 54 Issues in Personality Assessment Links among different data sources: How closely the findings obtained from one data source correspond to findings from another data source? The interpretation of links among the sources of personality data depends heavily on the research question being posed. 55 Issues in Personality Assessment Links among different data sources: Strong agreement between two sources of data leads researchers to be confident that their alternative measures are tapping into the same personality phenomenon. Lack of agreement does not necessarily signify an error of measurement (although it certainly might). It may instead signify that observers are basing their conclusions on different behavioral samples. 56 Issues in Personality Assessment Fallibility of personality measurement: All sources of data have limitations. Results that replicate through “triangulation” are most powerful. Triangulation is often used to indicate that more than two methods are used in a study with a view to double (or triple) checking results. This is also called "cross 57 Issues in Personality Assessment Fallibility of personality measurement Triangulation is a powerful technique that facilitates validation of data through cross verification from more than two sources. In particular, it refers to the application and combination of several research methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon. 58 Evaluation of Personality Measures In order to determine how good the measures scientist use three measures: Reliability Validity Generalizability 61 Reliability Degree to which measure represents “true” level of trait being measured. Reliability is used to describe the overall consistency of a measure. A measure is said to have a high reliability if it produces similar results under consistent 60 Reliability Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. A test is considered reliable if we get the same result repeatedly. For example, if a test is designed to measure a trait (such as introversion), then each time the test is administered to a subject, the results should be approximately the same. 61 Reliability Unfortunately, it is impossible to calculate reliability exactly, but it can be estimated in a number of different ways. Types of reliability Test-retest reliability Inter-rater reliability Internal consistency reliability Parallel-forms reliability 62 Reliability Test-retest reliability: To measure test-retest reliability, the test is administered twice at two different points in time. This kind of reliability is used to assess the consistency of a test across time. This type of reliability assumes that there will be no change in the quality or construct being measured. 63 Reliability Test-retest reliability: Test-retest reliability is best used for things that are stable over time, such as intelligence. Generally, reliability will be higher when little time has passed between tests. 64 Reliability Inter-rater reliability This type of reliability is assessed by having two or more independent judges score the test. The scores are then compared to determine the consistency of the raters estimates. One way to test inter-rater reliability is to have each rater assign each test item a score. For example, each rater might score items on a scale from 1 to 10. Next, you would calculate the correlation between the two ratings to determine the level of inter-rater reliability. 65 Reliability Inter-rater reliability Another means of testing inter-rater reliability is to have raters determine which category each observation falls into and then calculate the percentage of agreement between the raters. So, if the raters agree 8 out of 10 times, the test has an 80% inter-rater reliability rate. 66 Reliability Internal consistency reliability : This form of reliability is used to judge the consistency of results across items on the same test. Essentially, you are comparing test items that measure the same construct to determine the test’s internal consistency. When you see a question that seems very similar to another test question, it may indicate that the two questions are being used to measure reliability. 67 Reliability Internal consistency reliability : Because the two questions are similar and designed to measure the same thing, the test taker should answer both questions the same, which would indicate that the test has internal consistency. 68 Reliability Parallel-Forms Reliability: Parallel -forms reliability is gauged/measured by tests that were created using the same content. comparing two different This is accomplished by creating a large pool of test items that measure the same quality and then randomly dividing the items into two separate tests. The two tests should then be administered to the same subjects at 69 Validity Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted. Validity isn’t determined by a single statistic, but by a body of research that demonstrates the relationship between the test and the behavior it is intended to measure. 70 Validity Types of validity Face validity Predictive or criterion validity Convergent validity Discriminant validity Construct validity 71 Validity Face validity : Refers to whether the test, on the surface appears to measure what is measures what it is supposed to measure. (Handout 2.4, Multiple choice questions) 72 Validity Predictive or criterion validity: Predictive validity occurs when the criterion measures are obtained at a time after the test. Examples of test with predictive validity are career or aptitude tests, which are helpful in determining who is likely to succeed or fail in certain subjects or occupations. 73 Validity Convergent validity : Convergent validity refers to the degree to which scores on a test correlate with (or are related to) scores on other tests that are designed to assess the same construct. For example, if scores on a specific form an aggressiveness test are similar to people's scores on other aggressiveness tests, then convergent validity is high (there is a positively correlation 74 Validity Discriminant validity : Discriminant validity is a concept in psychometrics. It is validity obtained when we measure two things that are thought to be dissimilar and our measures can discriminate between them. For instance, to show the discriminant validity of a test of math skills, we might correlate the scores on our test with scores on tests of verbal ability, 75 Validity Construct validity: A test has construct validity if it demonstrates an association between the test scores and the prediction of a theoretical trait. Intelligence tests are one example of measurement instruments that should have construct validity. 76 Generalizability Degree to which measure retains validity across different contexts, including different groups of people and different conditions Generalizability subsumes reliability and validity Greater generalizability not always better; what is important is to identify empirically contexts in which a measure is and is not 77 Research Designs in Personality There are three basic research designs in the field of personality psychology. Experimental Methods Correlational Studies Case Studies 78 Experimental Methods Used to determine causality— whether one variable causes another Two key requirements: Manipulation of variables Ensuring that participants in each experimental condition are equivalent to each other 79 Experimental Methods The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis. 80 Experimental Methods An experiment is a methodical procedure carried out with the goal of verifying, falsifying, or establishing the validity of a hypothesis. Experiments provide insight into cause and effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated. 83 Correlational Studies Correlation is a statistical procedure for determining whether there is a relationship between two variables Designed to identify “what goes with what” in nature, and not designed to identify causal relationships Major advantage is that it allows us to identify relationships among variables as they occur naturally 82 Correlational Studies Correlation coefficient varies from –1 (perfect negative relationships) through 0 (no relationship) to +1 (perfect positive relationship). Correlation does not indicate causation. 83 Case Studies In-depth examination of the life of one person. Researchers can find out about personality in great detail, which rarely can be achieved if the study includes a large number of people. Case studies also can be useful in studying rare phenomena, such as a person with multiple personalities- cases for which large samples would 84 Case Studies Advantages Can find out about personality in great detail Can give insights into personality that can be used to formulate a more general theory that is tested on a larger sample. Can provide in-depth knowledge about an outstanding figure, such as a political or religious figure. 85 Case Studies Disadvantage Resultsbased on the study of single person cannot be generalized to others 86 When to Use Experimental, Correlational, and Case Study Designs Each design has strengths and weakness; strength of one is weakness of another. Which design a researcher uses, depends on the research question and the goal of research. Taken together, three designs provide complementary methods for exploring personality. 87 When to Use Experimental, Correlational, and Case Study Designs Decisions about data source and research design depend on the purpose of study. There is no perfect data source or research design. Some data sources and some methods are better suited for some purposes than for others. 88 91 90 91 HAPPY END 