Decision-Making Concepts PDF

**CHAPTER 4** **Decision-Making Concepts** **Decision-making** can be seen as a problem-solving process that generates a solution that is considered to be ideal, or at least acceptable. Consequently, it is a mechanism that can be more or less logical or irrational and based on overt or implicit kn...

**CHAPTER 4** **Decision-Making Concepts** **Decision-making** can be seen as a problem-solving process that generates a solution that is considered to be ideal, or at least acceptable. Consequently, it is a mechanism that can be more or less logical or irrational and based on overt or implicit knowledge and beliefs. A significant part of decision-making involves evaluating a finite range of alternatives that are defined in terms of evaluative criteria. So the challenge would be to rate these alternatives in terms of how appealing they are to the decision-maker while considering all the criteria at the same time. The **Multiple-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA)** focuses on solving these problems. While very old, this field of decision-making has drawn attention from many researches and practitioners, and still widely debated as there are many MCDA approaches that can produce very different results when applied to exactly the same data. **ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE IN DECISION MAKING** The environment of decision makers will play a role in the decision-making process. A factor affecting cognitive performance, for example, is environmental uncertainty (Davidson, 2006) **CHARACTERISTICS OF DECISION-MAKING** ⚫ Objectives have to be set first ⚫ Requirements must be graded and placed in order of importance. ⚫ We need to build alternate acts. ⚫ The alternatives must be measured against all targets. ⚫ Tentative decision is the option which can accomplish all the objectives. ⚫ The tentative decision is evaluated for more possible consequences. ⚫ The preliminary decision is reviewed for more potential implications. ⚫ Decisive action is taken and further action is taken to avoid any negative effects from being issues and to continue all processes all over again. ⚫ There are usually followed steps leading to a decision model that could be used to assess an optimal production schedule. **THE NINE (9) CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DECISION** 1\. Decisions positively impact others. 2\. Decisions are replicable. 3\. Decisions foster opportunity. 4\. Decisions include others. 5\. Decisions are executable. 6\. Decision is systematic. 7\. Decisions are accountable. 8\. Decisions are pragmatic. 9\. Decisions involve self-awareness. **DECISION-MAKING TECHNIQUES** Decision-making techniques can be separated into two broad categories: 1\. Group Decision-Making Techniques 2\. Individual Decision-Making Techniques ** GROUP DECISION-MAKING** Also known as "Collaborative Decision-Making", is a situation faced when individuals collectively make a choice from the alternatives before them. The decision is then no longer attributable to any single individual who is a member of the group. Collaborative decision taking in workplace environments is one of the most effective models for creating buy-in from other stakeholders, building trust and promoting innovation. In keeping with the concept of cooperation, collective decisions often appear to be more successful than decisions made by a single person. Collaborative or collective decision-making would often be preferred under normal daily circumstances and will produce more benefits than individual decision making when there is room for proper deliberation, negotiation and dialogue. For certain cases, however, this approach may also have disadvantages. Certain methods of decision-making may be better in serious emergencies or crisis situations because emergency actions can need to be taken quicker, with less time for deliberation. On the other hand, additional considerations must also be taken into account when evaluating the appropriateness of a decision-making framework. For instance, the likelihood of group fragmentation may often also occur, causing certain groups to make more drastic decisions in the direction of individual inclinations than those of their individual members. **INDIVIDUAL DECISION-MAKING** In general, a person takes prompt decisions. When in group, keeping any one person responsible for a wrong decision is not easy. Human decision taking usually saves time, resources, and energy as individuals make timely and rational choices. Although taking group decision takes a lot of time, money and energy. **DECISION MAKING APPROACHES** We make the majority of the decisions, as individuals. It is important to look at the approaches that we follow in our individual decision-making in the effort to take more successful decisions. As the outcomes of the decisions are not clear, it is necessary to concentrate on how a decision is made to increase the consistency of the decision. There are variety of ways to describe decision-making methods but we will find three broad groupings for our purposes. For certain cases, we all prefer to take actions at one time or another using all of the methods. **1. RATIONAL OR ANALYTICAL APPROACH** ⚫ Exemplified by systematic decision-making ⚫ Defines upfront success factors ⚫ Looks for details and objectively explores how each solutions meets success factor ⚫ Decision-making is organized and decisions can be taken under the assumption of the desired solutions except for major unforeseeable or unpredictable incidents. ⚫ Consideration of the implications of the final decision. 2\. **INTUITIVE DECISION MAKING APPROACH** ⚫ Relying on emotions and feelings. ⚫ Careful planning is not possible or not desired. ⚫ People will point to a "gut feeling" or "hunch" as the cause for a choice, reflecting that explanation is not accessible through conscious thought. **3. RANDOM OR CHANCE APPROACH** ⚫ In this approach a decision is made on impulse, without thought. ⚫ Flipping a coin or using a "decision wheel" would be representative of employing this approach. ⚫ It is sometimes considered a dependent style because this approach can promote denial of responsibility. **DECISION MAKING APPROACHES A CONSEQUENCE OF PERSONALITY** Any of our emotional and thought processes can be defined by personality, so it's natural to assume that our preferred approach to decision making is a feature of our personality. There's ample proof that are personality develops over time and evolves. This may also imply changes in personality result from our approach to decision taking that contribute to improvements in our thought process. **SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT** ❖ **Rational or Analytic Decision Makers** A. Have ready a decision-making process that you know works. This help you to jump directly through a decision-making phase without having to postpone deciding the steps you will be taking. B. Gain knowledge of pitfalls and prejudices in decision taking so they can be avoided when making decision. ❖ **INTUITIVE DECISION MAKER** A. Ask or accept broad questions well in advance of a decision. It helps the unconscious mind to work behind the scenes to provide ideas and suggestions for a decision. B. Know where and when your intuition is working, and not. Intuition works best in places we have a great deal of expertise in. C. Increasing reflection. This makes insight more credible, as experiences are interpreted and applied thought to the subconscious that helps to categorize the experience more accurately. D. Play games which involve decision-making. Ga,es that stimulate life choices provide a low risk environment where patterns can be formed to improve them. ❖ **RANDOM OR CHANCE DECISION MAKER** A. Improve awareness and appreciation. Recognizing positive results as they arise increases the probability of successful outcomes. B. Apply know-how. It will increase the basis for understanding good opportunities versus bad ones. C. Know the risks and the uncertainties. Choosing where the chances are in your favor, is a smart way to maximize positive results. **SIMILAR DECISION MAKING** 1\. **GOFER** **FIVE DECISION MAKING Steps:** ⚫ **GOALS** clarification: Survey values and objectives. ⚫ **Options** generation: Consider a wide range of alternative actions. ⚫ **Facts**-finding: Search for information. ⚫ Consideration of **Effects**: Weigh the positive and negative consequences of the options. ⚫ **Review** and implementation: Plan how to review the options and implement them. 2\. **DECIDE** ⚫ **Define** the problem ⚫ **Establish** or **Enumerate** all the criteria ⚫ **Consider** or **Collect** all the alternatives⚫ Identify the best alternative ⚫ **Develop** and implement a plan of action ⚫ **Evaluate** and monitor the solution and examine feedback when necessary. 3\. **OTHER** ⚫ **SEVEN DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES** A. Outline the goal and outcome. B. Gather data. C. Develop alternatives D. List pros and cons of each alternative. E. Make the decision. F. Immediately take action to implement it. G. Learn from and reflect on the decision. ⚫ **EIGHT STAGES OF MORAL DECISION-MAKING** A. Create and nurture the relationships, norms, and procedures that will influence how problems are understood and communicated. This stage takes place prior to and during a moral dilemma. B. Recognize that a problem exists. C. Identify competing explanations for the problem and evaluate the drivers behind those interpretations. D. Sift through various possible actions or responses and determine which is more justifiable. E. Examine the competing commitments which may distract from a more moral courses of action and then prioritize and commit to moral values over other personal, institutional or social values. F. Follow through with action that supports the more justified decision. G. Reflection in action. H. Reflection on action. **DECISION MAKING MODELS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM** For criminal justice, decision-making requires more than studying the rules and applying them to individual cases. Decisions are based on discretion, that is, the exercise of human judgment in order to make decisions about alternative courses of action. Professionals in criminal justice have little time to make important decisions which may be the difference between life and death. While there is no decision-making process that is fool proof, training, conditioning and practice among criminal justice leadership can help these professionals react more rationally and strategically in the heat of the moment. **DECISION MAKING CHALLENGES FOR CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROFESSIONALS** Even of over-exposure, which are characterized as unpredictable, erratic, volatile and under conditions of stress, impair the capacity of a criminal justice professional to make reasonable, rational decision. Criminal justice practitioners will experience a lag period in their decision-making skills during these events. Many obstacles called psychological prisons may also have an negative impact on the willingness of a police officer to take decisions. **THE CONSEQUENCES OF MAKING THE WRONG DECISION** ⚫ Loss of life. ⚫ Departmental or jurisdictional administrative costs. ⚫ Negative media attention and public opinion. ⚫ Demotion in position and/ or loss of job. ⚫ Post-traumatic stress disorder (PSTD), family problems and other psychological concerns. Due to the aforementioned consequences, it is important that criminal justice leadership provide the training needed to make reliable, ethical decisions in all circumstances. **RECOMMENDATIONS FOR AN EFFECTIVE DECISION MAKING ON THE JOB** Scenario-based conditioning and preparation are required to prepare criminal justice personnel to take critical duty-focused decisions. Simulators for police training are constantly dependent on criminal justice experts to refine the decision-making capabilities of officers as finely as possible. In a built use-of-force scenario, some simulators also require trainees to experience near-misses or an impact. This will bring a truly comprehensive experience. In addition to simulator training, there are other tips that criminal justice practitioners may apply to their decision-making process, which can save a life like: ⚫ To increase the number of options, look at a problem from multiple viewpoints and angles. ⚫ Assess the situation with a view to recognizing threats and non-threats; seek to make rational decisions about how to respond accordingly. ⚫ Visualize the way situations play out before they act. Challenge assumptions about a situation. ⚫ Seek support and advice from colleagues in circumstances that require it. ⚫ Make choices about the most important information, and seek to commit it to memory. ⚫ Be mindful of and accept the feelings before making a conscious move to make rational decisions. ⚫ Practice verbal and non-verbal communication skills with colleagues to communicate information about how to respond to a situation. **DECISION MAKING STYLES IN MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION** Many people believe that decision-making is not a rational option but a product of personality. With that, leaders, must understand that personality cannot stand in the way of critical decision making. Good leaders will adapt their decision-making strategy to match the demands of various circumstances. The most influential leaders learn how to tailor their decision-making style to suit specific circumstances. Different contexts and situations call for individual management responses, and sometimes multiple decision-making approaches. Leaders can learn how to make informed choices in a variety of diverse situations by understanding the different ways of decision-making and being mindful of warning signs. **FOUR STYLES OF DECISION MAKING** 1\. **DIRECTIVE DECISION-MAKING** Usually a policy decision-maker sorts out the pros and cons of situation based on what they already know. Decision-makers in the directive are very rational and have a little tolerance for uncertainty. Instead of going to others for more detail, their decisions are rooted in their own experience and reasoning. The upside to this style is that decision-making is fast, ownership is transparent, and no extra communication is needed. **When to use Directive Decision-Making** In situations characterized by continuity, repeated patterns and predictable events, this style of decision-making is fine. For situations where there is a straight forward and unchallenged cause and effect relationship, reserve guideline decisions; in other words, a correct response exists and is collectively understood. **A leader's role in Directive Decision-Making** A leader has to sense the situation, categorize it as a scenario that calls for a clear decision and an appropriate response. Ensure best practices are in place for ongoing procedures. Remember to ask yourself when classifying the situation: Is this my decision to make, and do I have all the details necessary to make this decision? Where appropriate, delegate but remember to communicate in simple, direct language. It's the role of a leader to realize when there's no need for intensive interpersonal contact and to make clear decisions based on the knowledge they already have. **Sign you need to use a different approach** Once operations run smoothly it is easy for leaders to become victims of complacency. Leaders must be mindful of the changing complexity of specific situations. When you start making complicated jobs simply by using simple decisions, you need to change your approach. Understand that changing circumstances demand changing styles of decision making. 2\. **ANALYTIC DECISION-MAKING** Before taking action, strategic decision-makers analyze a lot of details. Analytic leaders, for example, rely on direct observation, data and facts to back their decisions. Like decisions-makers in the guideline, however, an analytic decision maker may seek information and advice from others to affirm or refute their own expertise. These decision-makers have a high degree of uncertainty tolerance and are extremely adaptable but they prefer to monitor certain aspects of the decision process. This style is a well-rounded decision-making strategy that can be time-consuming. **When to use Analytic Decision-Making** In situations where there may be more than one right answer, analytic decisions are helpful. Use this decision-making style to solve issues where the relationship between cause and effect is discover-able but not immediately apparent. You use this approach mainly to evaluate multiple options or approaches, and to use fact-based management to direct effective action. **A leader's role in Analytic Decision-Making** Unlike decision-making directives, before agreeing on a course of action, leaders must evaluate all the details they have available. Assembling a team of experts to assist with analytical decisions is advantageous; Leaders must therefore freely consider contradictory advice and ideas. At the same time, to make the most of the analytical decision-making process, leaders need to consider non-expert perspectives. **Signs you need to use a different approach** Decision paralysis is the most important warning sign of overuse of the logical decision form. When you find yourself living in a state of over-analysis or over-thinking without taking action or aking a decision, this strategy must be removed. 3\. **CONCEPTUAL DECISION-MAKING** Compared by the guideline or empirical approaches, the relational decision-making process takes a more collaborative approach. Conceptual decision-makers promote innovative thinking and team work and take a wide variety of viewpoints into consideration. These decision-makers are based on success and want to look well into the future when it comes to making critical decisions. **When to use Conceptual Decision-Making** Apply logical decision taking to issues involving several conflicting ideas. This decision style is ideally suited to circumstances that are marked by unpredictability and tailored to creative and inventive approaches. You see no immediate solution in these situations but trends emerge over time. The use of a conceptual decision-making style accounts for long term planning and the unknown variables. **A leader's role in Conceptual Decision-Making** To be successful in analytical decision taking, leaders need to create an atmosphere that fosters experiments designed to uncover instructive trends over time. Leaders will need to make a point of growing coordination and interaction. Build groups of people who can share new ideas and assist with difficult decision taking and execution.Patience is the key and leaders need to take the time to reflect. **Signs you need to use a different approach** If the decision you need to make includes a situation that needs structure and established outcomes, a conceptual approach should not be employed. Often, decisions that need to determine immediate consequences and situations in which there is no space for error are not subject to logical decision taking. 4\. **BEHAVIORAL DECISION-MAKING** Behavioral decision-seek to make sure that everyone is working together well. Like the conceptual method, behavioral decision-is-group-oriented; however, the community is given the choices available to them, rather than brainstorming alternative solutions. From there the community will discuss each choice's pros and cons. This decision-making method takes into account several different viewpoints and views int he process. **When to use behavioral decision-making** The behavioral style requires proactive communication, as with conceptual decision-making. This style takes a more introspective approach by discussing solutions that have worked in the past, rather than attempting to disclose new patterns. **A leader's role in behavioral decision-making** Leaders in this style of decision-making need to open lines of communication. Again, build groups of people who can contribute their opinions and promote democratic debate. Don't only impose a course of action when using the behavioral decision-making method. Consider what decision generates the most unity within the company, instead. **Signs you need to use a different approach** If group discussion sessions cannot reach a resolution, a new strategy will need to be considered. Conversely, if new ides never come up or no one questions views, then behavioral decision-making might not be the best choice. **TRAITS AND VALUES IN DECISION-MAKING** **Decision-making and Personality Traits** Personality characteristics have a much greater role to play in decision taking than you would expect. Some people are indecisive, because of their very existence. They find most decisions quite difficult to make. These people I also find very committed to the decision when they do. **A successful decision is made with the alignment of the three eyes, heart and gut** or as defined in the holistic decision-making strategy, when three are finally in harmony. It's all tough decisions. There is no way this gets out. However, by getting an approach and knowing how our attitude influences our decision we can make them a little easier. **HOW TO FACTOR YOUR PERSONALITY INTO YOUR DECISION-MAKING** As much logic as you bring in your choices the way you make a choice will always affect your personality. Individual personality is an unavoidable consideration combined with maturity and experience but constructive self-awareness can help you weigh how much your intuition impacts your decision-making process. What is interesting about the choices is that they are all yours. No other being on earth will make precisely he same choices that you do, using the same exact procedure. It's because personality keeps every decision you make updated. **How Your Brain Makes Decisions** Decision is multiply-determined. **Your personality characteristics and influences blend with your beliefs, your desires and your inspiration** as you navigate the decision-making process every day. Your "style" informs whether you rationally or emotionally, impulsively or cautiously, spontaneously or deliberately approach decisions. Personality tests provide a self-discovery process involving very useful applications. The more you are conscious of yourself, the more consistently your opportunities, preferences and perceptions increase. Not only does self-awareness unblock us, but it also opens up possibilities that would otherwise remain unconscious or unknown. **CULTURAL INFLUENCES IN DECISION MAKING** Decision-making is a mental process that is an important part of preparing and taking action in a variety of ways and at a wide range of levels, including, though not limited to, budget preparation, educational preparing, policy making and career building. Such events include people all over the world. The underlying cross-cultural disparities in decision-making can be a major contributing factor in cross-cultural communication, negotiation and conflict resolution performance. **DECISION-MAKING MODELS** Based in the perspective the researcher takes on the role that culture plays in decision-making, one of the following models is used to think about and forecast behavioral trends in decision-making in a given community: 1\. **The Universal Model.** Typically, the scientists who use this model believe there is only a small difference in how people from different cultures make their choices. The findings obtained from one party are usually related to humans. 2\. **The Dispositional Model**. The adherents of the dispositional view recognize that decision-making differences are cross-cultural and support the cause of cross-cultural study. They assume that the variations found in the studies reflect the omnipresence of cultural inclinations in individuals 'minds' and are expected to appear in all situations. 3\. **The Dynamic Model.** Adherents of this view often consider cross-cultural variations. They view cultural knowledge not as a monolithic construct that is continuously present, but as a collection of discrete knowledge that is operational as a function of the situation. **THE EFFECT OF CULTURE ON DECISION MAKING** ⚫ **CROSS CULTURAL VARIANCES** Western theories are known for the systematic use of logical analysis, a methodical approach to solving complex problems by splitting them into their constituent parts and defining the patterns of cause an effect of the constituent parts; while oriental philosophies are well known for their focus on holism. The culturally normative communication style also enhances people's responsiveness to the transmitted message and influences the perception of the communicator. It influences hiring decisions. HR agents are more likely to recruit direct, assertive and even aggressive applicants in culture of low background, whereas the reverse trend is found in cultures of high background. **THE CONDITIONS ACCELERATING OR HINDERING THE SALIENCE OF CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN DECISION MAKING** 1\. **Priming** The automatic cognition literature indicates behavior is influenced by exposure to elements of the social environment in a manner that occurs below consciousness or purpose. We know from the common schematic representations of a certain society, the stereotyped behaviors that later affect our decisions. When a person, is prepared with a definition, others through an implied order to think about it, it stimulates all forms of relevant knowledge and affects decision taking. 2\. **Time Pressure** Cultural and personal information is accessible to all through cultures. Cultural knowledge appears to represent a broad sampling of the events in life, whereas personal knowledge is more based on individual or atypical experiences. The other difference between their accessibility is the cultural and personal awareness. Cultural community participants are prepared day after day with a collection of values, behaviors and behavioral habits that contribute to building up and storing cultural awareness. 3\. **Peer Pressure** Individuals in collectivist societies are less likely to behave when they do not encounter social pressure according to their cultural values. **The Pressure to Provide Reasons for the Decision** When individuals need to offer reasons for their decision, cultural awareness is recruited. The need to include explanation evokes an information-processing approach focused on top-down application of rules and standards, rather than bottom-up processing based on personal experience. **The Individual Tolerance for Cognitive Ambiguity** Widespread common cultural awareness offers a validated context for individuals to view potentially ambiguous interactions, providing their followers with a sense of epistemic protection and protecting against ambiguity and unpredictability. **The Universal Effects of situational Demands on Decision Mode Selection across Cultures** Culture shapes the prevalence of cultural factors-nature of decisions, motivations for decisions and situational demands and affordances- and shapes how functional factors are converted into decision-making modes-modes of measurement, acknowledgement, law, position and impact -based decision making. CHAPTER 5 **What is Administration?** Administration refers to actions which are concerned with coordinating and managing an organization or organization's work. There is also administration of government, charities and many other forms of organizations. "Administration" is the performance of tasks needed to operate an agency for general purposes. It can have a function of course, or of policy. For example, as companies change their plan, it is the duty of administrative personnel to make the appropriate communication adjustments to end the the previous policy and begin enforcing the new direction. Typically, the administration is defined by the person representing the organization appointed or elected to an position and is responsible for the administrative functions and policy decisions of the organization they are appointed or elected to manage. **The Basic Functions of Administration** A. Planning B. Organizing C. Directing D. Controlling **Principles of Administration (Henri Fayol)** 1\. Planning 2\. Organizing 3\. Unity of Command 4\. Hierarchical transmission of Orders 5\. Separation of powers, authority, subordination, responsibility and control 6\. Centralization 7\. Discipline and Order 8\. Meetings and Reports 9\. Accounting **Difference between Administration and Management** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- **ADMINISTRATION** **MANAGEMENT** Is an act of administering the whole organization by a group of people. Is a systematic way of managing people and things within the organization. Administration is a high-level activity. Is an activity of business and functional level. Policy formulation is performed by the administration. **Focuses on implementation.** Functions include legislation and determination. Functions of management are executive and governing. Administration takes all the important decisions of the organization. Management makes decisions under the boundaries set by the administration. Administration role is decisive in nature. Management plays an executive role in the organization. Administration is concerned with framing policies and setting objectives. Management is all about plans and actions. Administrator is responsible in the administration of the organization. The manager looks after the management of the organization Administration focuses on making the best possible utilization of the organization's resources. Management focuses on managing people and their work. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- **What is an Administrator?** An administrator is a person who make sure an organization is running at full capacity. Their particular roles depend on the form of company, organization, or agency they operate in. An administrator may be someone assigned to oversee an organization for its affairs. **An Administrator as an Organizer** Administrators formulate short and long term strategies that set specific priorities and objectives. To put it another way, they strive to get the organization where it needs to go. To ensure that these plans work, the planner must above all understand how, where and who of the program as a whole. The functions of the administrators are essential to the organization they operate. Their roles usually involve a wide variety of duties including filing and administration. **Clerical Level Administrator** An administrator may be someone in charge of the smooth and effective operation of a single office. Their responsibilities include handling all the paperwork and will typically report inside the office to all individuals. Their role is likely to depend upon what duties of other colleagues are. It is the responsibility of most office administrator to manage o distribute all posts within an office. Duties can include opening all letters that come and ensuring that they meet the people concerned. **WHAT MAKES A GOOD ADMINISTRATOR?To be a good administrator, a person must be:** a\) Deadline-driven and possess a high level of organization.b) Capable of balancing multiple tasks simultaneously and delegate when appropriate. c) Capable of planning and have the ability to think strategically. d) An excellent communicator, both in person and writing.e) Always looking for opportunities to improve productivity in the organization. **SKILLS OF AN EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATOR** Ability implies a capacity that can be created, not inherently inborn, and that is expressed in output, not mere potential. Therefore, the main ability requirement must be successful action under various circumstances. Although good administrators are widely recognized for their selection and training, there is surprisingly little agreement among executives or educators on what makes a good administrator. This subject indicates what could be a more useful approach in manager selection and growth. This is not based on what good executives are but on what they do. **Three Basic Develop-able Skills of Administrators** It is assumed here that an administrator is one who: A. Directs the activities of other persons and B. Undertakes the responsibility for achieving certain objectives through these efforts. Within this definition, successful administration appears to rest on three basic skills, which we will call: **1. Technical** **2. Human and** **3. Conceptual** Asserting that these skills are not interrelated may be impractical, but there may be real value in evaluating each person separately and improving them independently. **Technical Skill** Technical skills require an understanding and expertise of a particular form of operation, particularly one involving methods, processes, procedures, or techniques. It requires advanced expertise, analytical skill within that field, and facility in the use of the particular discipline's methods and techniques. **Human Skill** The person with highly developed human ability is aware of his own emotions, opinions and perception about other individuals and groups; he can see the importance and weaknesses of those feelings. Human skill is the ability of the executive function efficiently as a member of the community and create cooperative effort within the team which he leads. Human performance can't be a "sometime thing." strategies can't be implemented randomly, nor can personality characteristics can be placed on or removed as overcoats. **Conceptual Skill** This competence is the unifying, organizing, component of the administrative process, and of overwhelming ultimate significance because the overall performance of an organization depends on the strategic capacity of its executives to formulate and execute policy decisions. Conceptual competence requires the ability to see the organization as a whole; it includes understanding the organization's different functions depend on one another, and how all the others are influenced by changes in any component. **RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL, HUMAN AND CONCEPTUAL SKILLS** We may recognize that analytical ability represents understanding of the organization's technological as well as human aspects in a very real sense. However, the definition of skill as the ability to turn information into practice will allow one to differentiate between the three skills of conducting the technical tasks (technical skills), knowing and motivating individuals and groups (human skills), and organizing and combining all of the organization's tasks and objectives towards a common purpose (conceptual skills). **At Lower Levels** Technical expertise is responsible for many of modern organizations and enterprise's great advances. Effective activity is indispensable. Even at the lower levels of government it is utmost importance. When the administrator ventures farther away from the actual physical activity, thus need for technological expertise is less important, given that he has professional subordinates and can help them solve their own problems. **At every Level** Human skill, the skill to collaborate with others, is important for successful management at all levels. A current research study has shown that human capacity at the supervisory level is of greatest importance, finding out that the supervisor's chief role as an administrator is to attain the cooperation of people in the working group. Another study supports this finding and applies it to the middle-management community, adding that the main concern of the administrator is to promote cooperation with the organization. And yet another report, specifically dealing with top management, highlights the need for executives at that stage to be self-aware and sensitive to human relationships. **At the Top Level** As demonstrated in the preceding article, analytical capacity is increasingly important in more accountable executive roles where its effect are maximized and easiest to observe. Nevertheless, recent research results lead to he conclusion that this analytical capacity is the most essential attribute of all the highest level of administration. As the president ofBridgeport Brass Company Herman W. Steinkraus said: "One of the most important lessons which I learned on this job (the presidency) is the importance of coordinating the various departments into an effective team, and secondly, to recognize the shifting emphasis from time to time of the relative importance of various departments to the business". **Developing the Skills** This approach indicates that executives should not be recruited on the basis of their apparent possession of a variety of habits, attributes or personalities, but on the basis of possessing the necessary skills for the particular degree of responsibility involved. Many people have argued for years that the capacity to lead is innate in those individuals chosen. We're thinking about "born leaders" and "born administrators". it's definitely true that certain men, inherently or innately, have greater aptitude or ability in certain skills. But studies in Psychology and Physiology will also suggest, first, that those with good skills and abilities can enhance their ability through practice and preparation, and second, that even those without natural talent can boost their performance and overall quality. **Technical Skill** Creation of technical skills has been attracting tremendous attention from industry and educational institutions for many years, and much progress has been made. **Human Skills** Nevertheless, human ability was much less known and systematic progress has only recently been made in proving it. Today through organizations and experts are following several different approaches to the development of human skills. Many of these methods find their application in "applied psychology", "human engineering" and a host of other forms that involve professional technicians to support the businessman with his human problems. However, as a practical matter, the executive must develop his own interpersonal skills, instead of relying on others' advice. To be effective, he must develop his own personal point of view toward human activity, so that he will: A. Recognized the feeling and sentiments which he brings to a situation;B. Have an attitude about his own experiences which will enable him to re-evaluate and learn from them;C. Develop ability in understanding what others by their actions and words are trying to communicate to him; andD. Develop ability in successfully communicating his ideas and attitudes to others. **Conceptual Skill** Conceptual ability was not generally understood, as was human abilities. A variety of methods have been attempted, with varying results, to help improve this skill. Some of the best outcomes were often obtained by superior "coaching" of subordinates. One way a superior can support his subordinate "coach" is by assigning a specific task, and then by asking for feedback or thoughts instead of providing answers if the subordinate needs assistance. Conceptual skills were also tested with reasonable effectiveness in the classroom by providing a set of comprehensive explanations of real, complex situations. In these, the person being examined is asked to formulate a course of action that reacts to the fundamental forces operating in each situation and that considers the effects of this action on the various roles and parts of the company and its overall environment. **ADMINISTRATIVE CHALLENGES** Administrative professionals are the organization leaders who keep operations running smoothly. Therefore, losing a member of the administrative staff or witnessing unexpected changes in workload will pose tough administrative challenges. **HOW TO HANDLE TYPICAL ADMINISTRATIVE CHALLENGES** 1\. **Vacations** Once people get a chance to relax and refresh, productivity and satisfaction increase. Yet worker absences may create vacancies that can spread out too far t cover other workers. 2\. **Leaves of Absence** Covering an absence leave can seem overwhelming, but those specialized staffing agencies may help you solve those administrative challenges. Organizations should pre-evaluate applicants who are willing to fill before the full-time employee returns for a few weeks or several months. 3\. **Busy Seasons and Special Projects** When you encounter seasonal peaks or land a special project at your company or organization, bringing in part-time employees will help alleviate core working people at these instances. 4\. **The** **Unexpected Loss of an Employee or Personnel** If an employee quits suddenly , you will be saddled to get a handle on in progress work concurrently and find a replacement\-\-- perhaps with as little as two weeks notice. In addition to recruiting skilled applicants looking for temporary-to-full-time jobs, a professional staffing agency will even have applicants ready to meet you the very next day. **Administrative Theory (Henri Fayol)** Henri Fayol's developed the administrative philosophy is also known as 14 management principles. Henri Fayol was born into a french family in the year 1841. he was a prolific writer on *technological, science, and management matters.* The Financial and General Management was his most excellent writing. He named to a Mining firm as an engineer. By 1888 he had risen to the company's position of *Managing Director.* He retired from the Executive position in 1918. He was the company's managing director until his death. Henri Fayol was an accomplished management practitioner. **The Fourteen Managerial Concepts are:** 1\. **Division of Work**: this principle the same as Adam Smith's "Division of labor" 2\. **Authority**: manager must be able to give the order. Authority gives this right. 3\. **Discipline**: employees must obey and respect the rules and regulations which governs the organization. 4\. **Unity of Command:** every employee should receive the order or direction from only one immediate superior. 5\. **Unity of Direction:** each group of the organization should be directed by one manager using one plan. 6\. **Subordination of Individual Interests to General Interest:** the management must see that the aims of the businesses are always supreme. 7\. **Remuneration of Personnel:** the labors must be paid a reasonable salary for their work. 8\. **Centralization**: the process of transforming assigning decision-making authority to a higher level of an organizational hierarchy, it is centralization that should follow this. 9\. **Scalar chain:** line of authority from top management to lower ranks represent he hierarchy or scalar chain. 10\. **Order**: people and materials should be in the right place at the right time. 11\. **Equity**: in running a business, a combination of kindness and justice is needed. 12\. **Stability of Tenure of Personnel:** staffs work is well if job safety and career improvement are guarantees to the team. 13\. **Initiative**: allowing all personnel to show their initiative in some way is a source of stretch for the organization. 14.**Esprit de Corps**: promoting team spirit will build unity and harmony within the organization.