Social Psychology PDF - 2020 Cengage

13 Social Psychology © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. module 13.1 Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior After studying this module, you should be able to: Evaluate Kohlberg’s approach to moral reasoning. Describe the prisoner’s dilemma task. Explain how logical considerations can lea...

13 Social Psychology © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. module 13.1 Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior After studying this module, you should be able to: Evaluate Kohlberg’s approach to moral reasoning. Describe the prisoner’s dilemma task. Explain how logical considerations can lead to cooperation. Describe bystander apathy and social loafing. List factors that correlate with aggressive behavior. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. What influences your opinions? Modern industry has established the world market, for which the discovery of America paved the way. This market has given an immense development to commerce, to navigation, to communication by land. Declaration of Independence Communist Manifesto Mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, to throw off such government. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Morality: Logical or Emotional? Lawrence Kohlberg argued that we should evaluate moral reasoning on the basis of the reasons people give for a decision rather than the decision itself. Limitations of Kohlberg’s approach: – Ordinarily, people make quick moral decisions intuitively and emotionally, rather than reasoning them out logically. – Kohlberg assumed that all moral decisions are based on seeking justice and avoiding harm to others; however, most of the world’s people also consider such matters as group loyalty, respect for authority, and spiritual purity. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Altruistic Behavior Altruistic behavior – helping others without a benefit to ourselves Explanations for altruistic behavior: – People want a reputation for being fair and helpful. – People who do cooperate punish those who don’t. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Figure 13.1 ▲ Figure 13.1 In the prisoner’s dilemma, each person has an incentive to confess. But if both people confess, they suffer worse than if both had refused to confess. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. Win-Lose or Win-Win or Lose-Lose Trust_game © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Accepting or Denying Responsibility toward Others Bystander Helpfulness and Apathy Diffusion of responsibility – the tendency to feel less responsibility to act when other people are equally able to act Pluralistic ignorance – a situation in which people say nothing, and each person falsely assumes that others have a better-informed opinion BystanderEffect Social Loafing Social loafing – the tendency to work less hard (“loaf”) when sharing work with other people Most people work less hard when they are part of a group than when they work alone, except when they think they can make a unique contribution or if they think others are evaluating their contribution. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Causes of Anger and Aggression Frustration-aggression hypothesis – theory in which the main cause of anger and aggression is an obstacle that stands in the way of doing something or obtaining something Frustration or discomfort of any kind increases the probability of anger and aggression, especially if one perceives that others have caused their frustration intentionally. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. Individual Differences in Aggression Studies show little to no relationship between aggressiveness and low self-esteem, playing video games, and mental illness. – Only mentally ill people who are also alcohol or substance abusers are more prone to violence. Factors associated with a tendency toward violent behavior: – Growing up in a violent neighborhood – Having parents with a history of antisocial behavior – Having a mother who smoked cigarettes or drank alcohol during pregnancy – Poor nutrition or exposure to lead or other toxic chemicals early in life – A history of head injury – Not feeling guilty after hurting someone – Weaker than normal sympathetic nervous system responses – High levels of testosterone coupled with low levels of cortisol – A history of suicide attempts © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. Violent Crime & Mental Illness © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Cognitive Influences on Violence People sometimes justify cruel or uncooperative behavior by lowering their opinion of the victims. – Deindividualization – perceiving others as anonymous, without any real personality – Dehumanization – perceiving others as less than human People also decrease their own sense of personal responsibility. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Sexual Aggression Rape – sexual activity without the consent of the partner Characteristics of rapists: – Hostile – Distrustful – History of other acts of violence and criminality – High users of pornography, especially violent pornography – Extreme self-centeredness © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. module 13.2 Social Perception and Cognition After studying this module, you should be able to: Define the primacy effect in social psychology and give an example. Describe how the implicit association test measures prejudices. Discuss methods of overcoming prejudice. Distinguish among three main influences on attributions. Describe the actor-observer effect and the fundamental attribution error. Discuss cultural differences in attributions. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  First Impressions Primacy effect – the tendency for the first information we learn about someone to influence us more than later information does We form first impressions quickly and more accurately than we might guess. Self-fulfilling prophecies – expectations that increase the probability of the predicted event Wonder © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Stereotypes and Prejudices Stereotype – a belief or expectation about a group of people Prejudice – an unfavorable attitude toward a group of people Discrimination – unequal treatment of different groups of people © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Implicit Measures of Prejudice Implicit association test (IAT) – procedure that measures reactions to combinations of categories, such as “flowers” and “pleasant” – The implicit association test finds evidence of subtle prejudice, even among many people who deny having such prejudices. However, most people are aware of their prejudices, even if they don’t like to admit them. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Overcoming Prejudice People who work together for a common goal can overcome prejudices that initially divide them. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Decreasing Prejudice by Increasing Acceptance A goal of treating everyone the same sometimes backfires by implying that everyone should act the same. A goal of multiculturalism is generally a better goal. – Multiculturalism – accepting, recognizing, and enjoying the differences among people and groups and the unique contributions that each person can offer – Wonder2 © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Attributions (slide 1 of 3) Attribution – the set of thought processes we use to assign causes to our own behavior and that of others Internal versus External Causes Internal attributions – explanations based on someone’s attitudes, personality traits, abilities, or other characteristics External attributions – explanations based on the situation, including events that would influence almost anyone We make an internal or external attribution based on the following: 1. Consensus information – how a person’s behavior compares with other people’s behavior 2. Consistency information – how a person’s behavior varies from one time to the next 3. Distinctiveness – how a person’s behavior varies from one situation to another © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Attribution I/E I/E Consensus - how a person’s behavior compares with other people’s behavior (the girl’s behavior w that of lazy students) Consistency - how a person’s behavior varies from one time to the next (how often the girl submit last assignment) Distinctiveness - how a person’s behavior varies from one situation to another (how rare the girl does) © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Actor- Attribution Observer Fundamental Effect Attribution Error Consensus Consistency Distinctiveness © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Attributions (slide 2 of 3) The Actor-Observer Effect Actor-observer effect – the tendency to be more likely to make internal attributions for other people’s behavior and to be more likely to make external attributions for one’s own behavior The Fundamental Attribution Error Fundamental attribution error – the tendency to make internal attributions for people’s behavior even when we see evidence for an external influence on behavior © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Attributions (slide 3 of 3) Cultural Differences in Attribution and Related Matters People in Asian cultures are less likely than those in Western cultures to attribute behavior to consistent personality traits and more likely to attribute it to the situation. – Perceptual environment can influence patterns of attention Using Attributions to Manage Perceptions of Ourselves Self-serving biases – attributions that people adopt to maximize credit for success and minimize blame for failure Self-handicapping strategies – techniques for intentionally putting oneself at a disadvantage to provide an excuse for failure © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Self-serving Bias & Self Handicapping Strategies Be aware. Think objectively. Accept self imperfection. Be thankful. Consider feedback. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. module 13.3 Attitudes and Persuasion After studying this module, you should be able to: Explain how psychologists measure attitudes. Define cognitive dissonance and describe an experiment that demonstrates it. Distinguish between the peripheral and central routes to persuasion. List some important techniques of persuasion. Discuss the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of fear messages. Describe why coercive persuasion leads to unreliable information. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Attitudes and Behavior Attitude – a like or dislike that influences behavior Attitude Measurement People’s reported attitudes do not always match their behaviors. Cognitive Dissonance and Attitude Change Cognitive dissonance – a state of unpleasant tension that people experience when they hold contradictory attitudes or when their behavior contradicts their stated attitudes, especially if the inconsistency distresses them © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Mechanisms of Attitude Change and Persuasion Peripheral route to persuasion – use of superficial factors to persuade people, such as repetition of a message or prestige of the speaker Central route to persuasion – process in which people who take a decision seriously invest enough time and effort to evaluate the evidence and reason logically © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. Special Techniques of Persuasion (slide 1 of 2) Liking and Similarity Someone you like or consider similar to yourself is more persuasive than other people are. Social Norms Being told that most people favor some idea or action makes it appealing. Reciprocation You may feel obligated to perform a favor for someone who did a favor for you or gave you something. Contrast Effects An item may appear more desirable because of its contrast to something else. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. Bait & Switch – Insurance Coverage © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. That’s not all Fear Messages © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. Special Techniques of Persuasion (slide 2 of 2) Foot in the Door Foot-in-the-door technique – method of eliciting compliance whereby someone starts with a modest request, which you accept, and follows with a larger request Bait and Switch Bait-and-switch technique – method of eliciting compliance whereby a person first offers an extremely favorable deal, gets the other person to commit to the deal, and then makes additional demands That’s Not All! That’s-not-all technique – method of eliciting compliance whereby someone makes an offer and then improves the offer before you have a chance to reply Fear Messages Messages that appeal to fear are sometimes effective, unless the message is too extreme or if it suggests that the problem is hopeless. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Delayed Influence The Sleeper Effect When people reject a message because of their low regard for the person who proposed it, they sometimes forget where they heard the idea and later come to accept it. – Sleeper effect – delayed persuasion by an initially rejected message © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Delayed Influence Minority Influence Although a minority may have little influence at first, it can, through persistent repetition of its message, eventually persuade the majority to adopt its position or consider other ideas. Climate change Minority- Influence_Thunberg © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. Differences in Resistance to Persuasion Forewarning effect – phenomenon that informing people that they are about to hear a persuasive speech activates their resistance and weakens the persuasion Inoculation effect – tendency for people to be less persuaded by an argument because of first hearing a weaker argument © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Coercive Persuasion Coercive techniques increase confessions by both guilty and innocent people, and therefore make the confessions unreliable evidence. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. module 13.4 Interpersonal Attraction After studying this module, you should be able to: Explain theoretically why people and other animals care about physical attractiveness when choosing a mate. List some factors that increase the probability of forming a friendship or romantic relationship. Distinguish between passionate and companionate love. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Establishing Relationships (slide 1 of 2) Proximity and Familiarity Proximity – the tendency to choose as friends people with whom we come in frequent contact Mere exposure effect – principle that the more often we come in contact with someone or something, the more we tend to like that person or object Physical Attractiveness Theoretically, physical attractiveness should be a cue to someone’s health and therefore desirability as a mate. Someone with approximately average features is attractive, presumably because average features have been associated with successful breeding in the past. ButterflyLovers_ViolinConcerto © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Establishing Relationships (slide 2 of 2) Similarity In the early stage of romantic attraction, physical appearance is the key factor, but similarity of interests and goals becomes more serious later. The Equity Principle Exchange (or equity) theories – the idea that social relationships are transactions in which partners exchange goods and services Relationships are most likely to thrive if each person believes that he or she is getting about as good a deal as the other person is. Dating and Modern Technology The Internet has added a new dimension to dating. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Marriage and Long-Term Commitments Marriage and similar relationships often break up because of problems that were present from the start, such as displays of anger. The best predictor of long-term satisfaction is much display of genuine affection between newlyweds. Psychologists have maintained that a romantic relationship begins with passionate love and gradually develops over many years into companionate love. – Passionate love – stage in a relationship when sexual desire, romance, and friendship increase in parallel – Companionate love – stage in a relationship marked by sharing, care, and protection For many people, love fades over a lifetime, but for a substantial number of people, it remains strong and passionate even after decades of marriage. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Sternberg’s (1986) Triangular Theory of Love © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. module 13.5 Interpersonal Influence After studying this module, you should be able to: Describe Asch’s classic experiment demonstrating conformity. Discuss cultural differences in conformity. Evaluate Zimbardo’s prison experiment. Describe Milgram’s study on obedience. Give examples of group polarization and groupthink. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Social Influence People influence our behavior by setting norms and by offering information. We also follow others’ examples just because they suggested a possible action. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Conformity Conformity – altering one’s behavior to match other people’s behavior or expectations Conformity to an Obviously Wrong Majority Asch'sConformity Many people conform to the majority view even when they are confident that the majority is wrong. An individual is as likely to conform to a group of three as to a larger group, but an individual with an ally is less likely to conform. Variations in Conformity Although some cultures tend to be more collectivist or conforming than others, it is an overgeneralization to regard all Asian cultures as collectivist or to assume that all members of a society are equally collectivist. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. Group size © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. Unanimity © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. Variations in Collectivism Hofstede_culturaldimension © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Obedience to Authority Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues performed a study in which they paid and randomly assigned college students to play the roles of guards and prisoners. Stanford_Prison_Experiment_movie Documentary_PrisonExperiment – Within six days, the researchers had to cancel the study because many of the guards were physically and emotionally bullying the prisoners. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Obedience to Authority Stanley Milgram conducted an experiment to find out if normal people would follow orders that might hurt someone. Milgram’sExperiment – In the experiment, a “teacher” was asked to deliver shocks to a “learner” who made mistakes. The result was that a majority of the people delivered shocks all the way to the maximum voltage. © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. Variables affecting the results © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.  Group Decision Making Group decisions are generally better than individual decisions, but the outcome depends on circumstances. Groups sometimes interact in unfavorable ways that stifle dissent or rush to a judgment. – Group polarization – the tendency for people who lean in the same direction on a particular issue to become more extreme in that position after discussing it with one another GpPoloarization – Groupthink – the tendency for people to suppress their doubts about a group’s decision for fear of making a bad impression or disrupting group harmony Gpthink © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved. Group Polarization vs Groupthink © 2020 Cengage. All rights reserved.