Chapter 3 - Infancy and Toddlerhood.pptx

Chapter 3: Infancy and Toddlerhood Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective By Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French In this chapter:  Physical development   Cognitive development   Growth, reflexes, sleep, nutrition Piaget’s theory, memory, language Psychosocial developmen...

Chapter 3: Infancy and Toddlerhood Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective By Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French In this chapter:  Physical development   Cognitive development   Growth, reflexes, sleep, nutrition Piaget’s theory, memory, language Psychosocial development  Temperament, attachment, self-awareness Learning objectives: Physical development in infancy and toddlerhood          Summarize overall physical growth during infancy Describe the growth of the brain during infancy Explain infant sleep Identify newborn reflexes Compare gross and fine motor skills Contrast development of the senses in newborns Describe the habituation procedure Explain the merits of breastfeeding and when to introduce more solid foods Discuss the nutritional concerns of marasmus and kwashiorkor Physical growth     Average newborn in U.S. weighs 7.5 lbs and is 20 inches long Typically lose 5% of weight soon after birth Birth weight doubles by 4 months, triples by 1 year Change in proportions – At birth, head is 25% of our length, by adulthood it’s 20% of our length Figure 3.1 Changes in proportions Brain development in infancy: Neurons  Parts of a neuron      Cell body Dendrites – Receive information Axon – Sends information Myelin sheath – Insulates axon Synapses - Connections Figure 3.2 Components of the neuron Brain development in infancy: Neurons (continued)  Changes in neurons  Synaptogenesis – Formation of connections    Synaptic blooming – Period of rapid neural growth Synaptic pruning – Reduce unused neural connections to increase brain efficiency   Caused by proliferation of dendrites Experience determines what’s maintained and lost Development of myelin sheath Parts of the brain  Cortex    Thin outer covering of the brain Involved in voluntary activity and thinking Two hemispheres, each divided into four lobes     Frontal lobe – Thinking, planning, memory, and judgment Parietal lobe – Processing information about touch Occipital lobe – Processing visual information Temporal lobe – Processing auditory information and language Figure 3.3 The two hemispheres Processes of brain maturation   Lateralization – Different functions become localized primarily on one side of the brain Neuroplasticity  Brain’s ability to change, both physically and chemically Environmental stimulation  Hormonal processes/medications    Enhance its adaptability to environmental change Compensate for injury Infant sleep  Newborns typically sleep 16.5 hours per day    Polyphasic – Several sleep periods throughout day About 50% of sleep time in REM stage Time spent in sleep and in REM decrease with age Sudden unexpected infant deaths   Death of infant under 1 year old, no obvious cause Most common types:    Unknown causes (due to lack of thorough investigation) Sudden Infant Death Syndrome – Possibly caused by brainstorm abnormalities Accidental suffocation and strangulation in bed Sudden unexpected infant deaths (continued)    About 3500 deaths per year Overall rate declined after 1990s “Back to Sleep” campaign Rate of accidental strangulation/suffocation increased starting in late 1990s   Possible risks of co-sleeping? Cultural factors Figure 3.5 Breakdown of sudden unexpected infant death by cause, 2013 Figure 3.6 Sudden unexpected infant death by cause, 1990-2013 Infant reflexes   Reflexes - Involuntary movements in response to stimulation Some related to feeding   Some replaced by voluntary behaviors later   Rooting, sucking Grasping, stepping Indicate functioning of nervous/sensory system  Eyeblink, Babinski, Moro, tonic neck Motor development   Progress from reflexes to voluntary movement Cephalocaudal pattern (head to tail)   Proximodistal pattern (from the center out)   Example: Gain head control before ability to walk Example: Grasp with whole hand first, then fingers later Average age as well as range of typical ages  Example: Average sitting age 7 months (range 59) Motor skills   Ability to move bodies and manipulate objects Fine motor skills     Muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes Enable coordination of small actions Palmar grasp (4 months) – Use fingers and palm, but not thumb to grasp objects Pincer grasp (9 months) – Use thumb and forefinger to grasp object Motor skills (continued)  Gross motor skills    Large muscle groups that control our head, torso, arms, and legs Larger movements Generally develop before fine motor skills Sensory capacities  Vision – Poorly developed at birth     Newborn range of vision – 8-16 inches Prefer large patterns, contrasting colors Depth perception present by 6 months Experience very important for proper development Sensory capacities (continued)  Hearing – Almost fully developed at birth  Present by 7th month of prenatal development    “Cat in the Hat” study Recognize familiar voices and sounds Can initially differentiate between many language sounds, but this ability disappears* Sensory capabilities (continued)   Touch and pain – Fully developed at birth Smell and taste – Fully developed at birth   Newborns prefer sweet tastes Newborns recognize and prefer their mother’s scent Habituation    Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations Used to test cognitive and perceptual processes Predictive of later cognitive ability Nutrition  Breast milk considered ideal diet    Easier to digest than formula Contains antibodies that reduce illness risk Helps moms too    Helps uterus regain pre-pregnancy size Lower rates of breast/ovarian cancer, diabetes It’s free! (Though pumping equipment isn’t) Challenges for breastfeeding moms  USDHHS recommendations:    Exclusively breastfeed for first 6 months Supplement diet with breast milk during first 2 years However, most moms stop by 6-8 weeks   Many workplaces not supportive Many health care providers not supportive Introducing solid foods     Usually around 4-6 months old Start with semi-solid foods (rice/oatmeal cereal) Introduce one new food at a time (allergy check) Finger foods by 10-12 months Types of malnutrition  Marasmus – Starvation due to lack of calories and protein   Lose fat and muscle until bodies can’t function Kwashiorkor – Protein-deficient diet   Often occurs when another child starts breastfeeding Loss of appetite and abdominal swelling Malnutrition rates   2014 – 50 million children under age 5 (World Health Organization and UNICEF) 1 in every 13 children in the world   Most live in Asia (34.3 million) and Africa (13.9 million) Caused by:    Severe food shortages Regional diets that lack certain proteins and vitamins Infectious diseases that inhibit appetite Possible effects of malnutrition     Death Lower IQ scores Behavioral and attention problems Early malnutrition has worst effects Learning objectives: Cognitive development in infancy and toddlerhood      Compare the Piagetian concepts of schema, assimilation, and accommodation List and describe the six substages of sensorimotor intelligence Describe the characteristics of infant memory Describe components and developmental progression of language Identify and compare the theories of language Piaget’s theory of cognitive development     Children continuously trying to make sense of world Schema – Framework for organizing information Assimilation – Fitting new information into an existing schema Accommodation – Expanding schema to incorporate new information Figure 3.13 Assimilation and accommodation Piaget’s sensorimotor stage     Use sensory input and motor skills to explore world Reflexes (birth-1 month) Primary circular reactions (1-4 months) – Repeated actions involving body Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months) – Repeated actions involving objects/environment Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (continued)  Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months) – Combine actions to achieve goals    Object permanence develops by 8 months Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months) – Explore world in trial-and-error manner Beginning of representational thought (18-24 months) – Can use symbols to represent ideas (pictures, words, make-believe) Table 3.2 Infant ages for the six substages of the sensorimotor period Substage 1 Substage 2 Substage 3 Substage 4 Substage 5 Substage 6 Reflexes (0–1 month) Primary Circular Reactions (1–4 months) Secondary Circular Reactions (4–8 months) Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8–12 months) Tertiary Circular Reactions (12–18 months) Beginning of Representational Thought (18– 24 months) Criticisms of Piaget’s theory  Infants understand concepts earlier than he thought   Experience not always required Possible vs. impossible events Infant memory  Infantile amnesia – Inability to recall memories from first few years    Deferred imitation – Imitation after delay   Lack of language skills? Lack of understanding of “self”? Present by 6 months of age Infant memory is context-dependent Language   System of communication using symbols to create meaning Includes oral, written, and signed communication Components of language      Phoneme – Smallest unit of sound in a language Morpheme – Smallest unit of meaning in a language Semantics – Rules we use to determine meaning Syntax – Rules for constructing sentences Pragmatics – Rules for communicating  Contextual information helps determine meaning Language development   2 months – cooing (vowel sounds)* 7 months – babbling (simple syllables)*   Gets more conversational over time* Add gestures, intonation, facial expression Language development (continued)  12 months – first word     Holphrasic speech – One word implies entire thought First words differ by culture 18 months – naming explosion By 2 years – putting words together Aspects of language use  Receptive language – What we understand    Always more than we actually say First name is often recognized early Language errors   Underextension – Thinking a word can be used for only that particular object (e.g., “doggie” is the specific animal at my house) Overextension – Thinking a label applies to all objects that are similar to the original object (e.g., calling all animals “doggie” Infant-directed speech     Used by adults with babies Exaggerated vowel and consonant sounds High-pitched voice Exaggerated facial expression Theories of language development: Learning theory   We learn language through reinforcement (Skinner) and imitation (Bandura) But:    Children learn too fast for reinforcement Children say things they’ve never heard before Language development looks similar across cultures Theories of language development: Nativism   Language is a biologically-based ability Chomsky – Language acquisition device    Hard-wired knowledge of grammar in brain Deep structure – How an idea is represented in universal grammar Surface structure – How an idea is represented in any one language Theories of language development: Critical period and social pragmatics  Critical period – Must learn language by puberty    Environmental input is crucial Applies primarily to first language acquisition Social pragmatics – Focus on social aspects of language   Language is tool to communicate and connect Language is tool to understand others and be understood Brain aspects of language use  Broca’s area – Left frontal lobe near motor cortex   Responsible for motor aspects of language production Wernicke’s area – Left temporal lobe near auditory cortex  Responsible for understanding and creating meaning Figure 3.21 Drawing of brain showing Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas Learning objectives: Psychosocial development in infancy and toddlerhood    Identify styles of temperament and explore goodnessof-fit Describe the early theories of attachment Contrast styles of attachment according to the Strange Situation Technique Temperament   Innate characteristics of the infant, including mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity Chess and Thomas’ temperament styles    Easy – Easily soothed, adaptable, generally positive mood Difficult – Reacts negatively to new situations, cries frequently, generally negative mood Slow-to-warm-up – Low activity level, adjusts slowly to new situations, often negative in mood Temperament (continued)  Temperament may influence social interactions   Goodness-of-fit – How well infant and parent interaction styles match Social interactions are bidirectional Temperament vs. personality  Temperament – How people react to environments   Relatively stable but change with brain development Personality – An individual’s consistent pattern of feeling, thinking, and behaving   Caused by interaction of temperament and experience Include things like selfconcept, responsibility, motivation Infant emotions  Shown through behaviors     At birth: Attraction and withdrawal 2 months: Social smile 3-5 months: Laugh to express pleasure By 8 months: Fear, sadness, anger differentiated Anger – Response to being prevented from doing something  Sadness – Response to absence of caregiver  Fear – Response to absence of caregiver (separation anxiety) or presence of stranger (stranger wariness)  Types of emotions  Basic emotions    Happiness, anger, fear, surprise, sadness, and disgust Appear early in infancy Self-conscious emotions    Envy, pride, shame, guilt, doubt, and embarrassment Appear between 1 and 2 years Require self-awareness, social understanding Regulation of emotions  Social referencing – Look to others for cues on how to act    Facial expressions are important clues Visual cliff studies Emotional self-regulation – Strategies we use to control our emotional states to attain goals   Initially requires assistance from others Control improves with experience and brain maturation Attachment     Close bond associated with security Infant-caregiver attachment is basis for future relationships Influence confidence and curiosity as toddlers Influence self-concept Theories of attachment  Freud – Infants are oral creatures   Will become attached to mother through feeding Harlow disagreed    Infant monkeys raised with wire or cloth mother Preferred cloth mother “Contact comfort” is basis for attachment Theories of attachment (continued)  Bowlby – Attachment important for survival     Infant behaviors (e.g., crying) promote attachment Secure base – Parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety Caregivers must be responsive to the child’s needs Caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions Theories of attachment (continued)  Erikson – Trust vs. mistrust    Most important goal of infancy: Developing a basic sense of trust in one’s caregivers Caregivers need to be responsive to infant’s needs Situations that impair responsiveness can create mistrust  Example: Premature birth, parental stress Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation”  3 main elements*     Unfamiliar environment Stranger present Mother absent Examine infant reactions to these things  Also examine infant reaction to reunion (most important) Ainsworth’s attachment styles  Secure – Trusts caregiver     Explores environment while caregiver present Engages with caregiver and possibly stranger Likely upset when the caregiver departs, but happy to see caregiver return Ambivalent (sometimes called resistant) – Shows mistrust through uncertainty   Wary about the situation and stranger Distressed when caregiver leaves but ambivalent when caregiver returns Ainsworth’s attachment styles (continued)  Avoidant – Shows mistrust by avoiding caregiver    Avoids or ignores caregiver Shows little emotion when caregiver departs or returns Disorganized/disoriented - Inconsistent coping  The child may cry during the separation, but avoid caregiver upon return Parental behaviors and attachment styles     Secure – Caregiver meets child’s needs in a responsive and appropriate manner Insecure ambivalent – Caregiver responds inconsistently to child’s needs Insecure avoidant – Caregiver does not respond to child’s needs Insecure disorganized/disoriented – Caregiver behaves erratically or abuses child Consequences of poor attachment    Non-organic failure to thrive – Infants do not grow, develop, or gain weight on schedule Reactive attachment disorder – Disturbed and inappropriate attachment behavior But some children are resilient – Can overcome challenges and successfully adapt Erikson: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt  Most important goal of toddlerhood: Developing a basic sense of independence    Caregivers need to be encourage appropriate independence Negative reactions/restrictions will prevent independence May affect self-esteem and initiative later