CHAPTER 2 Understanding Leadership and Management Theories .docx

Chapter 2 Understanding Leadership and Management Theories Lecture I. Introduction A. Leadership is a complex process with multiple dimensions. 1. No universal consensus 2. Four components are central: a. Leadership is a process. b. Leadership involves influence. c. Leadership occurs...

Chapter 2 Understanding Leadership and Management Theories Lecture I. Introduction A. Leadership is a complex process with multiple dimensions. 1. No universal consensus 2. Four components are central: a. Leadership is a process. b. Leadership involves influence. c. Leadership occurs in groups. d. Leadership involves common goals. 3. "The process by which a person influences others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives." (Yukl, 2013) II\. Introduction to Leadership and Management A. Today's fire officer faces challenges: 1. Reduced municipal funding 2. Declining volunteer participation 3. Unprecedented numbers of responses to medical emergencies 4. Violent acts that create mass-casualty incidents 5. Record-breaking wildland fires 6. New elements of our built environment that are producing large-loss fires 7. Hazards that impact fire fighter health and well-being 8. The fire officer needs to expand his or her leadership "toolbox" accordingly. B. Kotter leadership process 1. Establishing direction 4. Aligning people 5. Motivating and inspiring 6. Management creates "orderly results which keep something working efficiently." C. Both leadership and management are needed for a successful organization. 1. Management looks at short time frames (a few months to a year). 2. Leaders look at longer time frames. 3. Roles and responsibilities differ. a. e. Managers do things right; leaders do the right thing. III\. Leadership and Management Theories A. Theories of leadership evolve over time. 1. It is difficult to keep track of the myriad of theories and approaches. 7. The one common component is that leadership is influence of a group toward goal attainment. B. Peter Northouse's Classification Approach 1. The Trait Approach a. FIve major leadership traits: intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability b. Does not look at the situational effects of leadership on a group c. The fire officer must adopt the appropriate style for the specific situation. 2. The Skills Approach d. Identifies skills that can be developed: technical, human, conceptual 3. Behavioral Approach e. Emphasizes what leaders do and how they act f. Two general kinds of behaviors: i. Task behaviors facilitate goal accomplishment. ii. Relationship behaviors help followers feel comfortable. g. The central purpose of the behavioral approach is to explain how leaders combine these two kinds of behaviors to influence followers in their efforts to reach a goal. C. Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid 4. Developed in the early 1960s for Exxon h. Later applied to crew management of aircraft and aerospace teams i. Adopted by the fire service as "crew resource management" to improve incident safety 5. Grid theory assumes that every decision/action is driven by people's values, attitudes, and beliefs. j. A concern for people k. A concern for results 6. Survey document with 35 questions measures a person's level of concern in each area. l. Results are plotted on an X-Y chart. m. Five behavioral models/management styles resulted. 7. Impoverished Management n. Represents the lowest level of concern for both results and people o. Neutral p. Least visible person on team; a follower who maintains distance whenever possible and only does enough to get by q. Often, this person seeks to work in isolation to carry on without being noticed. r. Relies heavily on instructions and process, avoiding personal responsibility s. Problems are often ignored or overlooked, unless instructions specify how to respond. t. Unlikely to offer a solution to problems; "not my problem" 8. Authority-Compliance Management u. Controlling manager v. Demonstrates a high concern for results but low concern for others w. Usually highly trained, organized, experienced, and qualified x. Cannot be aware of others beyond what is expected in terms of results y. Expects everyone else to keep up, often leaving others behind z. Autocratic a. This style of leadership is required when the fire company is involved in a high-risk emergency activity (no time for discussion or experimentation) or when immediate corrective supervisory action is required (control, neutralize, command). 9. Country Club Management b. Accommodating manager c. Low concern for results, high concern for people d. Heightened awareness of personal feelings, goals, and ambitions of others e. Approachable, fun, friendly, and ready to listen f. Weakness lies in overwhelming emphasis on personal feelings and preferences, avoiding concrete issues, and conversations may meander. g. Diametrically opposed to authority compliance manager 10. Middle-of-the-Road Management h. Status quo manager i. Moderate level of concern for both people and results j. Objective is to play it safe and avoid risk, following popular opinions and norms k. Emphasis on maintaining popular status l. Intelligent and informed enough to get people to settle m. Depends on being well liked, staying well informed, and effectively convincing others that risk outweighs reward n. This might make the manager seem impartial, but it actually underestimates people, results, and change. o. Laissez-faire leadership: moves the decision making from leadership to the fire fighters p. Effective when working with experienced fire fighters and handling routine duties 11. Team Management q. Sound manager r. High concern for both people and results s. Leads to effective work relationships based on what's right t. Preferred model for successful fire officers u. Democratic v. Consultative approach takes advantage of group resourcefulness to determine how to achieve w. Use this style when planning a project or developing the workplace. x. Can also be used in low-risk operations y. Specialty teams may also use this when faced with complex or unusual emergencies, depending on the skills of the individuals to analyze and develop the plan. D. Situational Leadership 12. This approach stresses that leadership is composed of both a directive and supportive dimension. z. To determine needs, leaders must evaluate followers and assess how competent and committed they are. a. Leaders should change the degree to which they are directive versus supportive based on changing needs of followers. b. Effective leaders recognize what followers need and adapt their style to meet those needs. c. Direct and practical; Popular in leadership training and organizational consulting 13. Four distinct categories: d. S1 (high directive-low supportive) -- directing e. S2 (high directive-high supportive) -- coaching f. S3 (high supportive-low directive) -- supporting g. S4 (low supportive-high directive) -- delegating 14. Although popular, supported by little research; difficult to perform direct analysis 15. The fire officer needs to adopt the appropriate leadership style for the occasion. h. In non-emergencies, a participative leadership approach can develop productivity. i. In emergencies, decisions are needed quickly, and there is no time for long discourse or group consensus. j. Success using an authoritative style comes when the officer has developed the trust and confidence of his or her subordinates before the incident. k. Fire fighters do not trust the judgment of a fire officer who does not fully understand the job and has not made fire fighter safety a priority. E. Transformational Leadership 16. Gives more attention to the charismatic and affective elements of leadership l. Concerned with emotions, values, ethics, standards, and long-term goals m. Includes assessing followers' motives, satisfying their needs, and treating them as full human beings 17. Five ways to demonstrate n. Providing strong role models for the beliefs and values they want their followers to adopt o. Being charismatic leaders who appear competent to their followers p. Articulating ideological goals that have moral overtones q. Communicating high expectations for followers and exhibit confidence in the follower's ability to meet these expectations r. Arousing task-relevant motive in followers that may include affiliation, power, or esteem 18. Five fundamental practices s. Model the way t. Inspire a shared vision u. Challenge the process v. Enable others to act w. Encourage the heart 19. Utilizes a 360-degree feedback process x. Focuses on developing a compelling vision for the leader F. Authentic Leadership 20. Area of recent interest with no clear definition y. Intrapersonal perspective looks at leader's self-knowledge, self-regulation, and self-concept. z. Developmental perspective looks at leadership as nurtured by the leader. 21. Five dimensions a. Purpose b. Values c. Relationships d. Self-discipline e. Heart G. Servant Leadership 22. Leadership from the point of view of the leader and his or her behaviors; he or she should: f. Be attentive to the concerns of their followers g. Empathize with their followers h. Nurture their followers 23. Servant leaders put followers first, empower them, and help them develop. 24. A focused interest of the IAFC for fire officer development i. Dividends are realized when the leader gets buy-in from the group and provides them with a sense of belonging and ownership. j. A crew who feels their needs are addressed will perform at a higher level. k. Most valuable outcome is increased trust. 25. Listening is the most important skill. l. Do my body and face show that I am involved in the conversation and interested in what the person is saying? m. Am I interrupting or hurrying the person along? n. Am I asking appropriate, open questions to draw the person out? o. Am I using my own words to clarify the person's message and reflect his or her feelings? p. Am I not judging, criticizing, analyzing, or trying to fix the person? q. Am I responding to feedback in a non-defensive manner? H. Adaptive Leadership 26. How leaders encourage people to adapt when confronted with problems, challenges, and changes 27. Focuses on the activities of the leader in relation to the work of the followers when confronted with challenge 28. Six leadership behaviors r. Get on the balcony. s. Identify the adaptive challenge. t. Regulate distress. u. Maintain disciplined attention. v. Give the work back to the people. w. Protect leadership voices from below. 29. A complex process that includes: x. Situational challenges y. Leader behaviors z. Adaptive work I. Followership 1. A process whereby an individual accepts the influence of others to accomplish a common goal a. b. 2. Fire officer has to be both a leader and follower. c. d. e. 3. Particularly important for a fire officer because subordinates are always aware of what the fire officer does f. 4. An important character trait that will serve the officer well in the future when dealing with those who do not follow rules IV\. Power as a Leadership Resource A. Power is the capacity of one party to influence another party. 1. Legitimate power a. 2. Reward power b. 3. Expert power c. 4. Referent power d. 5. Coercive power e. B. **Personal power, which includes expert and referent power, reflects the effectiveness of the individual.** C. **Positional power, in contrast, is defined by the role an individual has within the organization; includes legitimate, reward, and coercive power, as well as:** 1. Information power a. Unlike expert power, information power is based on the target person's assessment of the agent's ability to discover or obtain relevant information rapidly and efficiently, usually through a cultivated network of sources. 2. Ecological power a. Control over the physical environment, technology, or organization of work. The target person's behavior is based on perceptions of opportunities and constraints. V. Leadership Challenges A. The basic leadership concepts prevail when considering two unique challenges: the fire station as a work location and leading a volunteer fire company. B. Fire Station as Municipal Work Location versus Fire Fighter Home 1. Fire station factors create a powerful and special community that is difficult to compare with other workplaces. a. b. c. d. 2. A fire officer must balance the expectations of the employer with the realities of a fire station work environment. e. i. f. ii. g. iii. iv. 3. A fire officer should walk around the fire station at various times during working hours to observe what is going on. h. i. j. k. C. Leadership in the Volunteer Fire Service 1. Fire officers leading volunteer fire companies have to rely on their leadership skills even more than their municipal counterparts. a. Pride, group identity, and personal commitment are key factors that keep volunteers active and loyal to the organization; fire officers must be alert for issues that create conflict or frustration. b. Effective leadership is the strongest force for influencing performance and commitment. 2. Unique issues: c. Changes in employment, family situations, or child/elder care can profoundly affect the time a volunteer is able to devote to the fire department. d. Extensive training requirements can have an impact on volunteer availability. e. Interpersonal conflicts can develop between members. i. The volunteer officer must act quickly when such problems are identified. 3. Four phases of volunteer participation: f. Large loss of applicants during initial fire fighter training g. Small loss during the probationary period ii. During the first year after joining the department, members are typically consistent participants. h. Moderate to high loss of fire fighters between the third and sixth years of membership i. Recommitment between the 15th and 18th years of membership iii. Those volunteer fire fighters who never left significantly increase their time with the department, and many who left start returning. iv. This group forms the core of the volunteer fire department. 4. A special concern in volunteer organizations is the political balance that results from electing officers. j. A conscientious volunteer officer has to use strong leadership and the courage of conviction to implement an unpopular policy. VI\. U.S. Marine Corps Leadership Principles A. The fire service is a decentralized organization. 1. Fire companies respond from all corners of the community and assemble to handle emergency incident. 2. Work groups or task forces are created to handle temporary needs. 3. Conditions create unique leadership needs similar to military small group teams. 4. The U.S. Marine Corps has leadership traits that might be useful for the fire officer. B. Fourteen U.S. Marine Corps Leadership Traits 1. The 11 leadership principles a. Be technically and tactically proficient b. Know yourself and seek self-improvement c. Know your Marines and look out for their welfare d. Keep your Marines informed e. Set the example f. Ensure assigned tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished g. Train your Marines as a team h. Make sound and timely decisions i. Develop a sense of responsibilities among your subordinates j. Employ your command in accordance with its capabilities k. Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions 2. The 14 leadership traits l. Justice m. Judgment n. Dependability o. Initiative p. Decisiveness q. Tact r. Integrity s. Enthusiasm t. Bearing u. Unselfishness v. Courage w. Knowledge x. Loyalty y. Endurance 3. If demonstrated in daily activities, these help Marines earn the respect, confidence, and loyal cooperation of other Marines. VII\. Human Resources Management A. Most fire officers will find that their greatest challenge relates to managing people. 1. Fire officers: a. Direct and coordinate workers' efforts b. Provide necessary tools and resources c. Ensure that outcome meets standards 2. Fire department operations are labor-intensive, requiring skilled workers. d. To be effective, fire officer must develop skills directly related to managing human resources. B. Human resources management focuses on the task of managing people using physical, financial, and time assets. 3. Emerged during the Industrial Revolution 4. HRM functions include: e. Human resources planning f. Employee (labor) relations g. Staffing h. Human resources development i. Performance management j. Compensation and benefits k. Employee health, safety, and security C. Human resources planning is the process of having the right number of people in the right place at the right time who can accomplish a task efficiently and effectively. 5. Includes: l. Forecasting future staffing needs m. Determining how those needs can be met 6. Typically not conducted at the company level other than when developing an incident action plan D. Employee relations include all activities designed to maintain a rapport with the membership. 7. Most often associated with working with labor organizations 8. Fire officers must: n. Know and understand all agreements between labor and the fire department o. Be aware of the vast number of laws regulating the relationship between employees and employer 9. Fire officers who violate the law may quickly find themselves faced with a federal complaint. E. Staffing is the process of attracting, selecting, and maintaining an adequate supply of labor. 10. Traditionally, the fire service has attracted good applicants. 11. However, recruitment is becoming more difficult. 12. Some fire departments have developed programs to seek out qualified women and minorities. 13. Also includes labor force reductions p. Most fire department start with furloughs and attrition rather than terminations. q. Focus is on increasing work hours without increasing pay. 14. Staffing function is typically accomplished at the organizational level. F. Human resources development includes all activities to train and educate the employees. 15. Heavily dependent on company-level fire officer 16. Development begins when employees first arrive at the department. VIII\. Utilizing Human Resources A. Mission Statement 1. Fire officer must know and understand the fire department's mission. 2. The mission statement is a formal document that outlines the basic reason for the organization's existence and states how it sees itself. a. Designed to guide the actions of all employees B. Getting Assignments Completed 3. Fire officer must make effective use of time. 4. Competing demands include: b. Conducting public education c. Doing inspections d. Other fire prevention efforts e. Training and education f. Routine duties g. Emergency calls 5. Some of these activities are known months in advance; others require immediate response. h. Daily schedule is in constant flux based on call volume. 6. No matter what the situation, the fire officer can ensure maximum efficiency by applying good time-management skills. 7. Determine: i. What needs to get done j. When activities must be completed k. How long it will take to complete said activities l. What needs to be done during shift/week/month/year 8. Items that must be completed during the shift are a higher priority. 9. Occasionally, there is insufficient time to complete all of the required tasks during the shift. m. Determine the fire department's priorities. n. E.g., timesheets are more important than oil changes. 10. Fire officer must plan ahead and expect interruptions. o. Do not wait until the last minute for important items such as inspections. p. The sooner a scheduled activity is completed, the more flexibility you have. 11. Next, lay out a plan for accomplishing activities. q. Some may require the entire company. r. Having many tasks can become overwhelming. s. A monthly calendar can help; it provides a visual method for tracking. t. A "daily" file can help; a page describes each activity and when it should be completed, organized from earliest to latest. 12. Delegation: u. Allows subordinates to accomplish tasks they are capable of v. Allows the subordinate to grow w. Allows fire officer to focus on tasks that cannot be delegated x. Fire officer must provide follow-up and feedback. C. Effective Company Officer Delegation 1. Seven steps: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. 2. Step 3 involves 5 options: h. i. j. k. l. 3. Delegation is challenging for new fire officers. m. n. IX\. Origins of Crew Resource Management A. Crew resource management (CRM) is a behavioral approach to reducing human error in high-risk or high-consequence activities. 1. Requires: a. Focused attention b. Openness to concerns and time-sensitive information 2. Developed by NASA in response to a plane crash (United Airlines Flight 173 in 1978) during a workshop examining the role of human error in aviation accidents c. Resistance to mandatory CRM training continued until United Airlines Flight 232 experienced catastrophic engine failure but pilots were able to bring the plane down thanks to CRM training. X. Researching and Validating CRM Concepts A. Eighty percent reduction in the aviation industry's accident rate is attributed to the development, refinement, and system-wide adoption of CRM. 1. Designed to train team members how to achieve maximum mission effectiveness in a time-constrained environment under stress a. b. B. CRM was developed by Prof. Helmreich and staff at University of Texas 1. Demonstrated dramatic value for aerospace, aviation, military, maritime, and medical professions XI\. Human Error A. Dupont's "Dirty dozen": a comprehensive list of reasons and ways that humans make mistakes 1. Lack of communication 2. Complacency 3. Lack of knowledge 4. Distraction 5. Lack of teamwork 6. Fatigue 7. Lack of resources 8. Pressure 9. Lack of assertiveness 10. Stress 11. Lack of awareness 12. Norms B. Dr. Reason's systems approach to human error management 1. High technology systems have many defensive layers. a. Engineered b. People-powered c. Procedures and administrative controls 2. Function is to protect from hazards. d. There are always weaknesses. 3. Each layer of defense is more like swiss cheese; when holes align, a bad outcome is likely. C. Active Failures and Latent Conditions 4. Active failures are the unsafe acts committed by people who are in direct contact with the situation or system. e. Direct effects on integrity of defenses f. E.g., not wearing a seatbelt 5. Latent conditions are the inevitable "resident pathogens" within the system. g. Can translate into error-provoking conditions i. E.g., understaffing h. Can create long-lasting weaknesses ii. E.g., design deficiencies i. May lie dormant for years before combining with active failures and local triggers to create an accident D. Error Management Model 1. CRM is an error management model that involves three activities: 2. Avoidance a. b. 3. Entrapment c. 4. Mitigating consequences d. XII\. The CRM Model A. Everyone must recognize: 1. No one is infallible. 2. Humans create technology; therefore, technology is fallible. 3. Catastrophes are the result of a chain of events. 4. Everyone has an obligation to speak up when they see something wrong. 5. People who work together effectively are less likely to have accidents. 6. For the team to become more effective, every member of the team must participate. B. Communication Skills 7. The successful transfer and understanding of a thought from one person to another 8. Miscommunication includes: a. Misinterpretations of instructions b. Poor team mentality c. Lack of assertiveness d. Distractions 9. Reducing miscommunication involves: e. Developing standard language f. Teaching assertive behavior 10. The CRM-enriched environment generates a climate where the freedom to question is encouraged. g. Speak up respectfully. h. Use clear, concise questions and observations. 11. A discrepancy between what is going on and what should be occurring is often the first indication of an error. 12. Inquiry is the process of questioning a situation that causes concern. 13. Advocacy is the statement of opinion that recommends what the person believes is the proper course of action under a specific set of circumstances. 14. These skills require practice and patience. i. Communication should focus on what is right, not who is right. 15. Assertive Statement Process j. Use an opening/attention getter k. State your concern. Use an owned emotion. l. State the problem as you see it. m. State a solution. n. Obtain agreement or buy-in. 16. The inquiry and advocacy process and the assertive statement are essential components of the communication segment of CRM. o. Often the toughest lessons to impart due to interpersonal dynamics p. Mastery can enhance performance, prevent mishaps, and save lives. 17. Effective listening is an important CRM skill. q. Refrain from making any response or counterargument until the other individual has trained his or her emotional bubble. C. Teamwork 18. Achieving cohesion involves developing effective teams via buy-in. 19. Leaders will always be in charge, but they must be open to feedback. 20. The ICS provides a formal structure for CRM. 21. Leadership r. A combination of rank and authority s. Triangle of leadership i. Effective leadership ii. Trust and respect iii. Leadership skills t. Respect is based on: iv. Personal competence: internal strengths, capabilities, and character v. Technical competence: ability to perform tasks using specific knowledge vi. Social competence: a person's ability to interact effectively with others u. Effective social skills do not require deference. vii. Speak respectfully no matter what. 22. Mentoring v. CRM provides an effective way for leaders to impart knowledge and skill. w. Leading by example; admired traits are a major influence x. The crew sees more than the leader might think; leading by example requires constant effort. y. Leaders must be willing to admit mistakes. viii. Accept responsibility and focus on moving forward. ix. Fosters open communication, promotes safety, and encourages trust z. Mentoring requires sharing knowledge. x. Closely associated with power xi. Leaders who are insecure withhold knowledge. xii. Results in repeated mistakes 23. Handling Conflict a. Focus on what is right, not who is right. xiii. Allows leader to focus on best, safest outcome b. Fire officer needs to establish an open climate for error prevention. c. The leader who perceives feedback as a threat is part of the problem. d. Keep your ego in check. e. Leading by intimidation will win arguments but ultimately lose to the situation. 24. Responsibility f. CRM does not advocate management by committee. g. For decision making to be efficient, someone has to be in charge. xiv. Ultimate responsibility for outcome h. Final decision rests with recognized authority xv. Lines of authority are maintained. xvi. Ultimate authority rests with legitimate ranking officer. i. Fire officers should look at all situations with a risk-versus-gain mentality. xvii. Risk nothing to gain what is already lost. 25. Self-Assessment of Each Team Member j. Consider xviii. Physical condition xix. Mental condition xx. Attitude xxi. Human behavior k. Everyone should have the following characteristics: xxii. A healthy appreciation for personal safety and the safety of the crew xxiii. A respect for authority xxiv. A willingness to accept orders xxv. A knowledge of the limits of authority xxvi. A desire to help their leader be successful xxvii. Good communication skills xxviii. The ability to provide constructive, pertinent feedback xxix. The ability to admit errors xxx. The ability to keep one's ego in check xxxi. The ability to balance assertiveness and authority xxxii. A learning attitude xxxiii. The ability to perform demanding tasks xxxiv. Adaptability l. Qualities of a good follower are remarkably similar to qualities of effective leaders. 26. Teams that practice CRM make fewer mistakes and are able to recognize and correct errors before they cause tragic outcomes. D. Task Allocation 27. Refers to dividing responsibilities to accomplish them effectively 28. Task overload occurs when fire officer exceeds capacity to manage. m. Safety is compromised. 29. Knowing your limits and the capacity of the team is the first step in task allocation. n. Everyone has an overload point. o. If resources are not available, tasks must be prioritized. 30. Three categories of multitasking ability p. Some cannot admit they are overwhelmed and believe they become more effective the more hectic things are. q. Some become overwhelmed before the full complexity is even recognized. r. Some effectively assess needs, ask for help, and stay ahead of the incident. 31. Each fire officer has to evaluate his or her personal capacity to manage complicated situations and identify weak spots. s. Training and practice can help, but everyone has limitations. t. If limitations are known, action can be taken to compensate. 32. Fire officer must also know the crew's limits. u. Understanding can be difficult to develop when crew is constantly changing. 33. Individual and crew strength should be evaluated and enhanced in nonemergency settings. v. Training classes w. Live training exercises x. Tabletop modeling y. Didactic presentations z. Mentoring a. Exchanging E. Critical Decision Making 34. In CRM, input is welcome from all team members; however, the final responsibility rests with the leader. b. Experience and training play pivotal roles. 35. Experienced officers rely on previous experience rather than traditional decision-making models. c. Applying the processes that mitigated previous similar incidents successfully 36. Commanders must often make decisions: d. When pressed for time e. In dynamic conditions f. With ambiguous data and multiple players g. Without real-time feedback 37. Two decision-making models h. Recognition-primed decision making describes how commanders recognize a plausible plan of action. i. Naturalistic decision making describes how commanders make decisions in their natural environment. 38. Decision making is improved through: j. Gaining experience k. Training constantly l. Improving communication skills m. Preincident planning 39. Practice makes perfect n. Problem identification is enhanced. o. Supervisors at all command levels maintain better incident control. p. Situational awareness is improved. q. Hazards are more rapidly identified. r. Resource capability is rapidly assessed. s. Potential solutions are more rapidly developed. t. Decision making is improved. u. Surprises and unanticipated problems are reduced. F. Situational Awareness 40. The ongoing assessment of what is going on around you in a dynamic and complex environment 41. Affects performance and decision making v. Without it, errors occur, performance suffers, and catastrophe can result. 42. Difficult to explain but easy to recognize in hindsight 43. Also carries over into nonincident operations 44. Human tendency to ignore or disregard information that is out of context can be problematic. w. Officer needs to constantly check and cross-check the situation and operational performance. 45. Maintaining Emergency Scene Situational Awareness x. Fight the fire. (Keep big picture in mind.) y. Assess problems in time available. (Balance between rushing ahead and waiting for more information.) z. Gather information from all sources. (One person cannot see/hear/know/smell everything.) a. Choose the best option. (minimize risk, maximize results) b. Monitor results and change course if needed. (Have a plan B.) c. Beware of situational awareness loss factors: xxxv. Ambiguity xxxvi. Distraction xxxvii. Fixation xxxviii. Overload xxxix. Complacency xl. Improper procedure xli. Unresolved discrepancy xlii. Nobody fighting the fire d. Say the checklist out loud when preparing for a low-frequency/high-risk task. xliii. Memorization is not as effective as two people seeing and speaking a list out loud. G. Postincident Analysis 1. Some form of after-action review or postincident analysis should be conducted at the company level after every call. a. 2. Every situation is a potential learning experience. b. c. d. i. e. 3. Conducting a Postincident Analysis f. ii. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. n. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. o. p. q. 4. Documentation and Follow-Up r. s. t. u. v. w. ix. x. XIII\. Summary A. John Cotter describes the leadership process as producing movement through three subprocesses: establishing direction, aligning people, and providing motivation and inspiration. B. Management tends to look at short time frames; leaders look at longer time frames. C. Peter Northouse's classification approach includes the trait approach, the skills approach, and the behavioral approach. D. The grid theory of management assumes that every decision made and every action taken in the workplace is driven by people's values, attitudes, and beliefs. Blake and Mouton described five behavioral models based on a person's position on this grid: 1. Impoverished management 2. Authority-compliance management i. Demonstrates an autocratic leadership style 3. Country club management 4. Middle-of-the-road management ii. Demonstrates a laissez-faire leadership style 5. Team management iii. Demonstrates a democratic leadership style E. Situational leadership is based on the assumption that followers' skills and motivation vary over time, and leaders should change the degree to which they are directive or supportive to meet the changing needs of followers. F. Transformational leadership is concerned with emotions, values, ethics, standards, and long-term goals. G. Servant leadership emphasizes that leaders be attentive to the concerns of their followers, empathize with them, and nurture them. Servant leaders put followers first, empower them, and help them develop their full personal capacities. H. Adaptive leadership focuses on the activities of the leader in relation to the work of the followers when confronted with a technical or adaptive challenge. I. Followership accepts the influence of others to accomplish a common goal. Typically, followers comply with the directions and wishes of leaders. J. The fire officer has to be both a leader and a follower. K. Types of power may be categorized using several different methods. French and Raven refer to legitimate, reward, expert, referent, and coercive power. Yukl refers to personal and positional power. L. The fire officer works in a dynamic environment with changing conditions and evolving organizational needs. Two unique challenges include the fire station as a work location and leading a volunteer fire company. M. A company-level officer should make it a practice to walk around the fire station at various times during the workday to observe what is going on. N. The volunteer fire officer must pay attention to the satisfaction level of every member and be alert for issues. O. Just as fire companies do, the Marine Corps respond from all corners of the community and assemble to handle an emergency incident. To serve as an example, this text presents the 14 leadership traits of the Marine Corps, as qualities of thought and action which, if demonstrated in daily activities, help Marines earn the respect, confidence, and loyal cooperation of other Marines. P. Human resource management focuses on human resources planning; employee (labor) relations; staffing; human resources development; performance management; compensation and benefits; and employee health, safety, and security. Q. Managing fire fighters requires physical, financial, human, and time resources. R. One of the best tools to improve time efficiency is delegation. Once a task is assigned, the fire officer must provide the fire fighter with follow-up and feedback. S. Crew resource management (CRM) is a behavioral approach to reducing human error in high-risk or high-consequence activities. T. Leading change describes the process of recommending changes (as a lieutenant) and developing a process to establish a change (as a captain). U. CRM was developed as a behavioral modification training system in a 1979 NASA workshop examining the role of human error in aviation accidents. V. The aviation industry has reduced its accident rate by 80 percent through the development, refinement, and system-wide delivery of CRM. W. Gordon Dupont determined that a "dirty dozen" of human factors contribute to tragedy: 6. Lack of communication 7. Complacency 8. Lack of knowledge 9. Distraction 10. Lack of teamwork 11. Fatigue 12. Lack of resources 13. Pressure 14. Lack of assertiveness 15. Stress 16. Lack of awareness 17. Norms X. James Reason identified two precursors to holes appearing in the layers of defense: active failures and latent conditions. Y. CRM is an error management model that includes three activities: avoidance, entrapment, and mitigating consequences. Error avoidance provides the greatest opportunity for trapping errors and preventing them from evolving into full-blown catastrophes. Z. A six-point CRM model serves the fire service well: 18. Communication skills 19. Teamwork 20. Task allocation 21. Critical decision making 22. Situational awareness 23. Postincident analysis A. CRM suggests that developing a standard language, maintaining a "sterile cockpit," and teaching appropriate assertive behavior are the keys to reducing errors resulting from miscommunication. B. CRM promotes the idea that members must work together for the common good. This requires developing effective teams through buy-in of all members, leaders, and followers, in the effort to be efficient and safe. C. Task overload occurs when the fire officer exceeds his or her capacity to manage the various simultaneous functions and responsibilities. D. CRM promotes the concept of team involvement in all aspects of operation. In the area of emergency scene decision making, time, experience, and training play pivotal roles in successful outcomes. E. The loss of situational awareness is frequently the first link in a chain of errors that leads to calamity. F. The CRM approach concentrates on the conditions under which individuals work and tries to build defenses to avert errors or mitigate their effects.