Functions of Management PDF

Functions of management 1  Functions of management  Planning  Organizing  Staffing  Leading/directing  Controlling 12/25/2024 2  Functions … 12/25/2024 3  P lanning 12/...

Functions of management 1  Functions of management  Planning  Organizing  Staffing  Leading/directing  Controlling 12/25/2024 2  Functions … 12/25/2024 3  P lanning 12/25/2024 4  Session objectives At the end of this session, you will be able to:  Define planning  Define health planning  Describe features of planning  Discuss types of planning  Explain steps of planning 12/25/2024 5  B rainstorming  What is planning?  Why is planning important?  What types of planning do you know? 12/25/2024 6  Planning  Planning is a process whereby a coordinated and comprehensive mechanism is developed for the efficient allocation of resources to meet a specific goal or goals  It is the combination of compiling and analyzing information, dreaming up ideas, using logic and imagination and judgment in order to arrive at a decision about what should be done.  It is not simply a technical exercise; but it is an ongoing process of learning, adapting to change, and educating 12/25/2024 7  Cont …  Planning is deciding in advance what is to be done  It is projected course of action for the future  It’s concerned with both ends (what) and means (how)  Specific objectives covering a specific time period are defined  These objectives are written and shared with organizational members to reduce ambiguity and create a common understanding about what needs to be done 12/25/2024 8  C ont …  A true plan should not be a static document  A plan is not a plan if it is not dynamic, evolving with the changing environment.  A plan does not provide the ultimate solution but offers the mechanism for finding the solution.  It should embody the principles necessary for achieving the goals of the community or the organization. 12/25/2024 9  Cont…  “The plan is nothing; planning is everything.” (Benjamin Disraeli) – What does the above quote mean? 12/25/2024 10  Cont … Rationale of planning  It provides direction to managers and non-managers  It reduces uncertainty by forcing managers to look ahead, anticipate change, consider the impact of change, and develop appropriate responses  Minimizes waste and redundancy 12/25/2024 11  Cont …  Establishes the goals or standards used in controlling  Without planning, there would be no goals against which to measure work effort 12/25/2024 12  C ont …  Health Planning- is the process of defining community health problems, identifying needs and resources, establishing priority goals, and setting out the administrative action needed to reach those goals  Planning assumes future will be different from present  It is a device for change 12/25/2024 13  C ont … Features of a good plan: o Clear vision, mission, goal and objectives o A clear picture of the tasks to be accomplished o The resources needed to accomplish the task (human, material, financial, time…) o Takes place at any level in health system & continually o Needs participation of d/t government sectors, community, NGOs …. 12/25/2024 14  Cont …  Vision: is a picture of desired future of a country, an organization, an individual …. o Enables people to play an active role in creating the future o Describes where the group or the organization wants to be in the future o Is a visual image you can see in your mind E.g. ‘We see healthy children walking to school on safe roads’ 12/25/2024 15  Cont …  Mission: is a statement which describes why the organization exists. o Mentions the target population it serves o Describes the services offered o Scope of the organization’s activities E.g. ‘Debre Birhan Hospital strives to provide preventive, promotive, curative, & rehabilitative health services to the people of Debre Birhan town and its surroundings so that the people lead a healthy and prosperous life.’ 12/25/2024 16  C ont … Types of planning  Based on scope and time of the plan, it is of two types: 1. Strategic/allocative planning o Is the process of determining what an organization intends to be in the future and how it will get there o It takes five years or more 12/25/2024 17  C ont … o Is comprehensive in scope, reflect long–term needs & directions of the organization. o Is a top management plan and focuses on overall organizational goal 12/25/2024 18  C ont … 2. Operational/tactical/activity planning o Are plans used to implement strategic plans o Short range planning that emphasizes on current operations of various parts of the organization o Are more limited in scope & address those activities and resources required 12/25/2024 19  Cont … o Deal more with the implementation & scheduling of actual work activities o Contains substantial amount of details substantial = ትልቅ 12/25/2024 20  Strategic vs. operational plans Areas of differences Strategic plan Tactical plan Individuals involved Top level manager middle/front-line Facts to be based on Facts are generally - facts are generally- easy difficult to gather to gather Amount of details relatively little detail Substantial detail Time covered long period (> 5yrs) Short period (< 1yr) 12/25/2024 21  Steps of planning 1. Plan the planning 7. Determine resource 2. Review of policy guidelines requirements 3. Situational analysis 8. Preparing budget 4. Problem analysis & 9. Monitoring & evaluation prioritization 10. Prepare action plan 5. Setting objectives and targets 11. Writing the plan 6. Formulate interventions 12/25/2024 22  Cont … 1. Plan the planning o This stage deals with prerequisites that have to be in place and issues that have to be resolved before actual planning exercise may start o The objective is to ensure that planning process can be carried out smoothly o Establish the identity and position of the planning body, i.e. the team 12/25/2024 23  Cont …  Determine specific terms of reference of the plan: owhat has to be planned?, the purpose of planning odefining target group, for what time period oidentify resources available, timings, tasks and responsibilities oassign responsibility to each member (chairman, secretary, core members, community representatives, from other government department, NGOs) 12/25/2024 24  Cont … 2. Review of policy guidelines It is the process of familiarization with government directives and conditions that must be followed in preparation of the health plans To ensure the health plan is in line with government national health policy 12/25/2024 25  Cont … 3. Situational analysis and problem identification o It is the stage of planning which implies understanding of current situation o It provides a common reference point for the rest of the planning process o It allows the selection of priority areas of concern for planning o Answers the question “where are we now?” o The current situation is described with identification of health and health related needs and available resources 12/25/2024 26  Cont …  Issues such as: o Population characteristics o Area characteristics & infrastructure o Policy and political environment o Health needs o Organizational structure and functions of health services o Resources (personnel, financial, material ….) o Past implementation experience should be analyzed well 12/25/2024 27  Cont …  What are possible sources of data for situational analysis & problem identification? 12/25/2024 28  Cont …  Sources of information for situational analysis & problem identification – Vital Statistics – Census census (n) = የህዝብ ቆጠራ – Health Information Systems – Hospital Records – Health System Review/System Analysis – Community Surveys – Qualitative Methods for Data Collection 12/25/2024 29  Cont … 4. Problem analysis and prioritization  Problem is a gap between current situation and desired future  Problem analysis is the art of critical examination of problems against prevailing conditions of your organization analysis (n) = ትንተና፤ ምርመራ  The analysis is done by constructing a problem tree  A problem tree is a set of assumptions on causes associated with the problem and its consequences 12/25/2024 30  Cont …  When analyzing problems, we should define clearly what the problem is, find all possible causes of the problem, & not confuse ‘problems’ with ‘causes’  Root causes of a given problem should be analyzed well using methods such as 5 whys, fishbone analysis …..  Objectives, targets, and strategies should focus on root causes of the problem 12/25/2024 31  Cont …  E.g. Problem- high prevalence of diarrheal disease – Possible causes: Inadequate and unsafe water supply, poor sanitary conditions, inappropriate weaning practice 12/25/2024 32  Cont… Grouping of problems A. Environmental problems – Poor sanitary conditions – Poor housing conditions – Inadequate and unsafe water supply – Air pollution and so on 12/25/2024 33  Cont … B. Diseases/health problems o Malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, malnutrition, respiratory diseases, etc C. Socio-economic problems – Low per capital income – Low literacy rate – Inequitable distribution of health services – Cultural and religious beliefs and values 12/25/2024 34  Cont … D. Health services problems o Poor quality and quantity of drugs o Old medical equipments o Lack of qualified personnel o Difficulty in visiting out-reach areas  Grouping helps seek common solutions to groups of problems 12/25/2024 35  Cont …  Problems are prioritized in the light of competing needs and limited resources.  Setting priority is, perhaps the most critical and hardest planning stage and yet cannot be avoided. 12/25/2024 36  Cont … Criteria for problem prioritization o Magnitude of the problem: the public health burden imposed by the problem o Degree of severity: consequent suffering, death and disability o Feasibility: possibility of tackling the problem with available intervention 12/25/2024 37  Cont … o Community concern: how much does it relate to community perceived health needs? o Political expediency: if the problem is not recognized as politically expedient by the central authority, it is very difficult to include it among the high priority list o The problem should be politically acceptable to convince local politicians 12/25/2024 38  Cont… o Based on the above criteria ranking is then done by using on 5 point scale – very high (5), high (4), moderate (3), low (2) and very low (1) 12/25/2024 39  Cont … 5. Setting objectives and targets  Goals, aims, objectives and targets are all ways of describing the desired direction of a service.  They differ in terms of breadth and detail  Goals:- Are broad statements. There is generally one goal for a service. o E.g. ' Health for all by 2000 and beyond.‘ 12/25/2024 40  Cont …  Aims:- There are a number of aims relating to the goal. They are specific to particular health problems. o E.g. 'To raise the nutritional status of women and children.‘  Objective:- For each programme aim, there may be a number of objectives which are specified in measurable terms. 12/25/2024 41  Cont …  An objective should be SMART i.e. specific, measurable, attainable, realistic, time bounded  Specific o An objective must be specific with a single key result. o If more than one result is to be accomplished, more than one objective should be written. o Just knowing what is to be accomplished is a big step toward achieving it. o Once you clarify what you want to achieve, your attention will be focused on the objective that you deliberately set. 12/25/2024 42  Cont …  Measurable o Allows monitoring & evaluation o Only an objective that affects behavior in a measurable way can be optimally effective. o If possible, state the objective as a quantity. o Avoid statements of objectives in generalities. o Avoid infinitive verbs such as to know, to understand, to enjoy, and to believe. 12/25/2024 43  Cont … o Action verbs are observable and better communicate the intent of what is to be attempted. o E.g. To identify, to contrast, to select, to conduct, to compare, to investigate, and to develop.  Attainable oAn objective must be attainable with the resources that are available. oWhat barriers stand between you and your objective? oHow will each barrier be overcome and with what resource? 12/25/2024 44  Cont …  Realistic o The objective should be central to the goals of the organization. o The successful completion of the objective should make a difference. o How will this objective help the organization move ahead? o Is the objective aligned with the mission of the organization? 12/25/2024 45  Cont …  Time bound o The objective should be traceable in time period. o Specific objectives enable time priorities to be set and time to be used on objectives that really matter. o Are the time lines you have established realistic? o Will other competing demands cause delay? o Will you be able to overcome those demands to accomplish the objective you've set in the time frame you've established? 12/25/2024 46  Cont …  Targets:- For each objective, there may be various targets which specify various points on the way to the attainment of the objective.  A target establishes a measured amount of output to be achieved in relation to a health objective through a specific program activity. o Whereas objectives are set with respect to needs in the client population, targets are set with respect to service providers. 12/25/2024 47  Cont … Example Objective: By the end of 2016 E.C, 90% of antenatal clients shall be tested for syphilis in Arsi Negele town. Targets o Number of lab technologists to be trained o Number of reagent to be available o Number of health education sessions to be provided for ANC clients …. 12/25/2024 48  Cont … 6. Formulating interventions  Is a process of identifying, short-listing and deciding between alternative approaches and measures to address identified and prioritized health problems and needs.  ‘’how will we get there?” Steps  Identifying and short-listing gaps and weaknesses in existing service components 12/25/2024 49  Cont …  Identifying additional components and activities that are required to bring about the desired changes in the existing service components.  Identifying potential constraints and limitations to planned interventions.  Modifying proposed interventions in line with geographical, political, climatic and socio cultural conditions, including existing infrastructure, management and organization 12/25/2024 50  Cont …  Addressing constraints by using community resources, modifying job responsibilities and tasks, shifting available resources from one activity to another and obtaining additional resources;  Improving management and administration in line with identified interventions. 12/25/2024 51  Cont … 7. Determining Resource Requirements  Involves translation of interventions and all activities required into resources such as human labor, materials, money, space, time and information.  Specify existing resources, additional resources required and total resources needed.  To do this, list all programme activities, and the type and quantities of resources required by each programme activity. 12/25/2024 52  Cont … 8. Budget preparation o Preparing a budget implies conversion of inputs, activities, targets and support services into money. o The budget is made up of recurrent (ongoing/routine) and developmental (capital - fixed asset) costs within a period of time. 12/25/2024 53  Cont … 9. Monitoring and Evaluation The key question to be addressed at this stage of the planning cycle is “how will we know when we get there and what have we achieved ?” Developing indicators Identify means of verification 12/25/2024 54  Cont … 10. Preparing the Plan of Action  A plan of action is usually prepared in a matrix format and contains: o The problem, objective(s), interventions o Activities, inputs, key responsible actor/implementer o Activity monitoring indicator o Planned output o Activity cost and implementation time frame. 12/25/2024 55  Cont … 11. Writing Up the Plan  Purpose of writing a plan o To carry out the work o To request funds or resources from the government or funding agencies o For monitoring & evaluating the implementation process by all concerned  A plan should include: 1. Summary of main points 2. Introduction (General background and Statement of the problem) 12/25/2024 56  Cont… 3. Objectives and targets should be clearly stated 4. Strategies & activities should be clearly stated using Gantt chart 5. Resources requirement – The type and number of resources needed – How each of the resources are going to be utilized 6. Monitoring & evaluation – Mention how monitoring and evaluation is to be performed – By whom? – When? – Indicators of effectiveness should be decided beforehand 12/25/2024 57  Cont … Why plans fail?  Planning is not integrated into the total management system  A lack of understanding of the different steps of the planning process  Concerned parties not participated or contributed in the planning process  Management expects that plans will be realized with little effort 12/25/2024 58  Cont …  Too much attempted at once  Failing to operate by the plan  Inadequate input in planning  Unforeseen (unexpected) changes in the environment 12/25/2024 59  Home work Assume you are a staff in a hospital where the following problems are identified 1. Long acting family planning acceptance rate of 10% 2. Tuberculosis prevalence of 8% 3. Surgical site infection 30% 4. Skilled delivery of 50% – Prioritize the problems and select two of them – Set an objective for each problem – Devise interventions – Identify necessary resources – Prepare budget – Prepare plan of monitoring & evaluation 12/25/2024 60  Questions What is the difference between strategies and activities? Discuss SWOT analysis using examples in anesthesia discipline. Develop at least four indicators to monitor and evaluate interventions on infection prevention of anesthesia procedures. Describe the rationales of planning. Explain the 5 whys and fishbone analysis. 12/25/2024 61  References HSM lecture note Health services planning, RK Thomas. 3rd ed. 2021 12/25/2024 62 Organizing 63  Session objectives At the end of this session students will be able to: o Define organizing o Describe elements of organizing 64  O rganizing  Organizing is the mgt function performed after planning  Means of structuring the work of the organization  It is the process of developing intentional pattern of relationship among people and other resources 65  Cont …  While organizing the manager differentiates and integrates the activities  Differentiation is the process of departmentalization or segmentation of activities Integration is the process of achieving unity of effort among various departments 66  C ont... Elements of organizing 1. Work specialization/Division of work 2. Departmentalization 3. ƒChain of command/Hierarchy 4. Span of control 5. ƒCentralization & Decentralization 6. Formalization 67  C ont … 1. Work specialization/Division of labour  Is breaking of a complex task into components  Deciding what job tasks will be done by whom  It is dividing operating work to manageable units  Work process requirements and employee skill level determine the degree of specialization  Contributes for productivity improvement 68  C ont... Reasons and benefit – Facilitate control – Aid Coordination – Secure adequate attention – Reduce expenses – Recognize human consideration E.g. You rarely find a cardiac surgeon closing up a patient after surgery 69  C ont... 2. Departmentalization  Grouping common work activities together so work gets done in a coordinated and integrated way  Jobs are grouped, coordinated & logically connected.  It is the basis on which work or individuals are grouped into manageable units. 70  C ont …  Departmentalization by function – Organizes by the functions to be performed – Helps to obtain efficiencies – E.g. emergency, OPD, surgical ward…  Departmentalization by product – Allows specialization in particular product – E.g. cosmetics, clothing, appliances… 71  Cont …  Departmentalization by geographical regions – Groups jobs on the basis of territory or geography – E.g. central, northeast, southeast… 72  Cont … 3. Chain of command  The line of authority extending from upper organizational levels to lower levels  Clarifies who reports to whom  Authority refers to the rights inherent in a managerial position to tell people what to do and to expect them to do it 73  Cont …  Authority can be delegated downward to lower-level managers  Acceptance theory of authority states the ff conditions for acceptance of orders by subordinates: – They understand the order – They feel the order is consistent with the organization’s purpose 74  Cont … – The order does not conflict with their personal beliefs – They are able to perform the task as directed  Responsibility is the obligation or expectation to perform a given work  Employees should be held accountable for their performance 75  Cont …  Assigning work authority without responsibility and accountability can create opportunities for abuse  Likewise, no one should be held responsible or accountable for work tasks over which he or she has no authority to complete those tasks 76  Cont …  Unity of command: states that a person should report to only one manager – But nowadays, you may encounter organizations that break this principle 77  Cont … 4. Span of control  Decides the number of employees a manager should oversee  It determines the number of levels and managers in an organization  How many employees can a manager efficiently and effectively manage? 78  Cont …  All other things being equal, the wider the span, the more efficient an organization is 79  Cont …  Contemporary view of span of control recognizes that there is no magic number – Factors such as the skills and abilities of the manager and the employees, and the characteristics of the work being done determine the number 80  Cont … 5. Centralization & decentralization  Centralization is the degree to which decision making takes place at upper levels of the organization  Decentralization is when lower-level employees provide input or actually make decisions 81  Cont …  An organization is never completely centralized or decentralized  In today’s world, managers often choose the amount of centralization or decentralization that will allow them to best implement their decisions and achieve organizational goals 82  Cont … 6. Formalization  It refers to how standardized an organization’s jobs are and the extent to which employee behavior is guided by rules and procedures  In highly formalized organizations, there are explicit job descriptions, numerous organizational rules, and clearly defined procedures covering work processes 83  Cont …  In formalized org’s employees have little discretion (freedom to make one’s own decision) over what’s done, when it’s done, and how it’s done  However, where formalization is low, employees have more discretion in how they do their work 84  Cont … Organizational structures Mechanistic organizational structure o Is a combination of elements of organizing o Adheres to command of chain o Organization is rigid and stable o Has standardized jobs & regulations o More centralized o Tightly controlled 85  Cont … Organic organizational structure o Is a highly adaptive form that is as loose and flexible o Jobs & regulations can be changed rapidly as required o Professionals are technically proficient and trained to handle diverse problems o They need few formal rules and little direct supervision 86  Cont … o Professional standards guide the workers’ behavior o Less centralized 87  Cont … Factors that affect choice of org’nal structure o Choosing appropriate org’nal structure depends on d/t factors: o Organization’s strategy o Size of an organization o Use of technology o Degree of environmental uncertainty 88  Reading assignment How the following factors affect organizational structure choice? o Organization’s strategy o Size of an organization o Use of technology o Degree of environmental uncertainty 89  Questions 1. Differentiate between division of labour and departmentalization. 2. What kind of organizational structures are used in Ethiopian healthcare organizations (compare the public with private)? 3. Why is span of control determination important in health organizations? 90  Leading 12/25/2024 91  Session objectives At the end of this session you will be able to: o Explain theories of leadership o Explain importance of leadership in organizations 12/25/2024 92  Leading  It is a mgt function in which managers motivate their employees to achieve the organization’s goals—quickly and efficiently.  Leadership is the most important ingredient for a manager’s success  Great leaders can make great things happen, inspiring their employees to do extraordinary things and accomplish extraordinary goals. 12/25/2024 93  Cont …  Leadership is a process of leading a group and influencing that group to achieve its goals  A leader is an individual in a team capable of influencing group activities towards goal formulation & achievement  Successfully persuading others to follow  This days we need managers who lead 12/25/2024 94  Cont … Theories of Leadership A. Early leadership theories 1. Trait theory: focuses on characteristics that would differentiate leaders from non-leaders  Traits studied included physical stature, appearance, social class, emotional stability, fluency of speech, and sociability 12/25/2024 95  Cont …  It was impossible to identify a set of traits that would always differentiate a leader from a non-leader  Seven traits shown to be associated with effective leadership: – Drive, desire to lead, honesty and integrity, self-confidence, intelligence, job relevant knowledge, extraversion 12/25/2024 96  Cont … 2. Behavioral theory: examines how leaders act towards their followers.  Autocratic style: when a leader dictates work methods, make unilateral decisions, and limits employee participation  Democratic style: described a leader who involved employees in decision making, delegated authority, and used feedback as an opportunity for coaching employees 12/25/2024 97  Cont …  Laissez-faire style: leader let the group make decisions and complete the work in whatever way it saw fit  Democratic style of leadership was most effective, although later studies showed mixed results 12/25/2024 98  Cont … Other behavioral theories  People vs production oriented  Consideration vs initiating structure  Managerial grid 12/25/2024 99  Cont … B. Contingency theories of leadership “The corporate world is filled with stories of leaders who failed to achieve greatness because they failed to understand the context they were working in.” 12/25/2024 100  Cont …  Look at defining leadership style and the situation, and attempts to answer the if-then contingencies  If this is the context or situation, then this is the best leadership style to use  Fiedler model, Hersey-Blanchard theory, and path- goal model 12/25/2024 101  Cont … C. Contemporary theories of leadership 1. Leader–member exchange theory (LMX)  Leadership style in which leaders create in-groups and out-groups  In-groups will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction 12/25/2024 102  Cont …  Leaders reward in-groups while punishing out-groups  Evidences shows that in-group members have demographic, attitude, personality, and even gender similarities with the leader  Or they have a higher level of competence than out-group members 12/25/2024 103  Cont … 2. Transformational-Transactional Leadership  Transactional leaders: guide or motivate followers to work toward established goals by exchanging rewards for their productivity o Correcting problems actively when performance goes wrong o Refrain from interruptions of performance if it meets standards 12/25/2024 104  Cont …  Transformational leaders: stimulates and inspires followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes oInfluence through vision oStimulate the intellect of subordinates oHelp followers to look at old problems in new ways 12/25/2024 105  Cont … o Excite, arouse, and inspire followers to exert extra effort to achieve group goals o Attempt to instill in followers the ability to question not only established views but those views held by the leader o Studies revealed that transformational leaders were evaluated as more effective, higher performers, more promotable than their transactional counterparts, and more interpersonally sensitive 12/25/2024 106  Cont … 3. Charismatic-Visionary Leadership  Charismatic leadership: that is, an enthusiastic, self-confident leader whose personality and actions influence people to behave in certain ways o they have a vision o ability to articulate that vision 12/25/2024 107  Cont … o A willingness to take risks to achieve that vision o A sensitivity to both environmental constraints and follower needs o Behaviors that are out of the ordinary E.g. Martin Luther King Jr., Jeff Bezos (founder and CEO of Amazon.com) 12/25/2024 108  Cont …  Visionary leadership: it’s the ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the future that improves upon the present situation – Vision should offer clear and compelling imagery – Visions that are clearly articulated and have powerful imagery are easily grasped and accepted 12/25/2024 109  Cont … 12/25/2024 110  C ont … V ision “A democratic South A frica Free of apartheid.” Initial reaction “Y ou are crazy!” Price paid 2 7 years in prison 12/25/2024 111  C ont … V ision “ N o man will be a slave. Everyone man is created eq ual.” Initial reaction “Y ou are going to break the nation apart!” Price paid H is life 12/25/2024 112  Cont … Leadership practices 1. Scanning: examining both the external and internal environments 2. Focusing: concentrates the team’s attention in order to address challenges with a strategy & goals 12/25/2024 113  Cont … 3. Align & Mobilize: adjusting people, energy, work, & other resources toward achievement of common goal 4. Inspiring: continually motivating others by creating env’t in which they want to take part & put forth their best effort 12/25/2024 114  Questions Explain the difference and relations between leadership and management. Explain the practices of leadership What are the challenges leaders in psychiatry nursing discipline encounter? 115  C ontrolling 12/25/2024 116  Controlling  It’s the process of monitoring, comparing, and correcting work performance  Effective controls ensure that activities are completed in ways that lead to the attainment of goals  It’s the only way that managers know whether organizational goals are being met and if not, the reasons why 117  Cont …  Stating goals or having employees accept goals doesn’t guarantee that the necessary actions to accomplish those goals have been taken  As final management process, controlling provides the critical link back to planning  Without controlling there is no way of knowing whether goals and plans were being achieved and what future actions to take 118  Cont … Reasons for controlling  Measure org’nal performance  Employee empowerment  Protection of an org’n & its assets 119  Cont … The control process  It has three steps  The control process assumes that performance standards already exist  They’re the specific goals created during the planning process 120  Cont … 1. Measuring Actual Performance  Information is needed  Personal observations, statistical reports, oral reports, and written reports 121  Cont … Benefits Drawbacks Personal Get firsthand knowledge Subject to personal biases observations Information isn’t filtered Time consuming Intensive coverage of work Obtrusive activities Statistical Reports Easy to visualize Provide limited Effective for showing relationships information Ignore subjective factors 122  Cont … Oral Reports Fast way to get Information is filtered information Information can’t be Allow for verbal and documented nonverbal feedback Written Reports Comprehensive Take more time to Formal prepare Easy to file and retrieve 123  Cont …  Most managers use a combination of these approaches 2. Comparing Actual Performance Against the Standard  This step determines the variation between actual performance and the standard  Although some variation in performance can be expected in all activities, it’s critical to determine an acceptable range of variation 124  Cont …  Deviations outside this range need attention 3. Taking Managerial Action  Three possible courses of action: do nothing, correct the actual performance, or revise the standards 125  Cont … Correcting Actual Performance  Depending on what the problem is, a manager could take different corrective actions  Immediate corrective action: corrects problems at once to get performance back on track 126  Cont …  Basic corrective action: looks at how and why performance deviated before correcting the source of deviation Revising the standard  Sometimes variance can be a result of an unrealistic standard— too low or too high a goal  In that situation, the standard needs the corrective action, not the performance 127  Cont … Forms of Controlling o There are three basic forms of management control: Monitoring, Supervision & Evaluation. 1. Monitoring o Monitoring is the day-to-day watch on, or continuous follow-up of the on going activities o It is used to improve a campaign by influencing immediate decisions about how activities can be improved. 128  Cont … o The key question in monitoring is: Are things going all right? o It is carried out through observation of people and materials, discussion with workers, supervisors and beneficiaries, and review of reports, diaries and statistical data. o Monitoring is one of the tools for evaluation. 129  C ont … o It is about collecting information and keeping records about activities to check whether the work is being carried out as planned and to assess reactions of people receiving the services or involved in the project. o The goals of monitoring are: – ƒTo identify any problem early, – To solve without delaying the progress of the program. 130  C ont … Key areas of monitoring – Adequacy of supply, materials and budget. – Training, type, relevance and quality. – Quantity and quality of work done. – Communication. – Supervisory activities. 131  Cont … Steps in Monitoring o Establish data sources o Collect data on program implementation and outcome o Compare program outcomes with prior or expected outcomes o Assist in making policy and management decisions 132  C ont... 2. Supervision oIt is a teaching-learning process of ensuring that workers execute the work and spend money as per the plan. o It is an investigative - corrective process o Health service supervision is defined as "A process of guiding, helping, training and encouraging staff to improve their performance in order to provide high quality health services. “ 133  Cont … o It is not fault finding. o The two main styles of supervision are autocratic and democratic o Autocratic (traditional) supervisions tend to humiliate people, make them irresponsible and mostly it is one way 134  Cont … – It may also dry up the initiative of colleagues. o Democratic (supportive) supervision helps people to grow, to become responsible for their own work to show initiative and it follows two-ways communication 135  C ont … o Supervisors needs knowledge of the work and responsibilities, skill in instructing , skill in improving methods and skill in leadership to be effective o Main Features of a Supervisor – Guidance and training – Assistance with resources and logistics – Support, encouragement and advocacy 136  C ont … Effective Supervision To make an effective supervision and to facilitate the work, it is advisable to remember and apply the following issues. – Create good communication and understanding, and participatory discussions with the staff. – Share the overall goals and objectives of the program with the staff. 137  Cont … – Develop and create team working and team spirit among the staff involved in supervision. – Equip yourself with a checklist – Reward (in kind or cash) for those with better performances. 138  C ont... 3. Evaluation o It is a systematic collection, analysis, interpretation and use of data about the activities, characteristics, and outcomes of programs to make judgments about the program, improve program effectiveness, and/or inform decisions about future program development. 139  Cont … o It deals with determining the value or worth of the objects of interest (health programs) against standard of acceptability. o It is the use of special studies to measure the extent to which changes in desired health outcomes are attributable to a program’s intervention 140 Purposes of Evaluation Program Improvement Generating knowledge Accountability 12/25/2024 141  Cont … o To determine achievements of objectives related to improved health status o To improve program implementation o To provide accountability to funders, community and other stakeholders 142  Cont … o To increase community support for initiatives o To contribute to the scientific basis for community public health intervention o To inform policy decisions 143  C ont … Types of evaluation o There are several types of evaluations that can be conducted. Some of them include the following: o Formative evaluation ensures that a program or program activity is feasible, appropriate, and acceptable before it is fully implemented. 144  Cont … o It is usually conducted when a new program or activity is being developed or when an existing one is being adapted or modified. o Process/implementation evaluation: determines whether program activities have been implemented as intended. 145  Cont … o Outcome/effectiveness evaluation: measures program effects in the target population by assessing the progress in the outcomes or outcome objectives that the program is to achieve. o Impact evaluation: assesses program effectiveness in achieving its ultimate goals 146  Q uestions Explain how controlling empowers employees in organizations. Discuss the difference between monitoring, supervision and evaluation. What are the data sources for to measure actual performance of an organization? Explain types of evaluation Describe the difference b/n project and program 147  H u m an R esou rce M anagem ent 12/25/2024 148  Session objectives At the end of this session you will be able to: Define HRM Describe functions of HRM 12/25/2024 149  Brainstorming o What is human resource management? o Why HRM is important? 12/25/2024 150  Human Resource Management o “Human resource management is the integrated use of system, policies and management practices to support the organization to meet its desired goal through recruitment, maintaining and development of employees.” Management Sciences for Health o Involves having the right number of the right people in the right place at the right time 12/25/2024 151  Cont … o Human Resource Management is planning, organizing, directing and controlling, development, compensation, integration, maintenance and separation of human resources to the end that individual, organizational, and social objectives are accomplished. o It is a function of management, concerned with hiring, motivating and maintaining people in an organization o HRM is concerned with the people dimension in management. 12/25/2024 152  Cont … o A major HRM challenge for managers is ensuring that their company has a high-quality workforce o Getting and keeping competent and talented employees is critical to the success of every organization o If an organization doesn’t take its HRM responsibilities seriously, performance may suffer 12/25/2024 153  Cont … o Human capital is essential to any organization’s long-term performance success o Organizations perform better when they treat their employees better o Human resource management (HRM) views people as organizational assets and internal customers 12/25/2024 154  Cont … o Ethiopia has major HRH management challenges including shortage, urban/rural and regional disparities, poor motivation, retention and performance. o HRM is sub optimal as modern concepts and practices are lacking and HR functions are generally limited to traditional personnel administration tasks 12/25/2024 155  Cont … o Due to limited efforts to modernize HR functions, there is limited investment into HRM capacity development as evidenced by – Limited technical skills and experience of existing HR staff in HRM and leadership, – Inadequate HR structure and staffing at all levels, – Limited capacity and practices in strategic and operational HR planning and budgeting 12/25/2024 156  Cont … o The health workforce density in Ethiopia has increased from 0.84 to 1.3 per 1000 population between 2008 and 2013, indicative of an improvement in supply and availability of health workers. o However, the doctor, public health officer, nurse and midwife to population ratio is 0.7 per 1000 population, far behind the minimum threshold of 2.3 doctor, nurse and midwife to 1000 population ratio required to ensure high coverage with essential health interventions 12/25/2024 157  Cont … o Human resources department is the organizational component responsible for staffing and labor relation activities, programs and policies o All managers have some degree of responsibility for staffing activities like: – Selection – Performance appraisal 12/25/2024 158  Cont … – Promotion – Training and development – Discipline and corrective counseling – Compensation of their employees 12/25/2024 159  Functions of H R M 1. HR planning  It is the process by which managers ensure that they have the right number and kinds of capable people in the right places and at the right times  Through HR planning, organizations avoid sudden people shortages and surpluses 12/25/2024 160  Cont …  HR planning entails assessing current human resources and meeting future HR needs  An important part of a current assessment is job analysis  Job analysis is an assessment that defines a job and the behaviors necessary to perform it 12/25/2024 161  Cont … o It has two components: – Job description is a written statement describing a job content, environment, and conditions of employment – Job specification states the minimum qualifications that a person must possess to successfully perform a given job 12/25/2024 162  Job Analysis Process of Obtaining all information pertinent Job Facts Job Description Job Specification A proper definition & design A statement of human qualifications of work. A statement containing: necessary to do the job containing: Job Title Education & Qualifications Location Experience & Training Job Summary Knowledge & Skills Duties & Responsibilities Communication skills Materials, Tools & Equipment used Physical requirements - Height, Weight, Forms & reports handled Age Supervision given / received Personality requirements - Working conditions Appearance, Judgement, Initiative, Hazards 12/25/2024 & Safety precautions Emotional stability 163  Cont … o The content and format of job descriptions & specifications vary among organizations o The general practice is to include: o Job title – standard title of the person. E.g. Head Nurse, Senior Nurse, Midwife Nurse, etc… o Job code e.g. PS/ADM1 (professional science /administration 1) 12/25/2024 164  Cont … o Job summary – a statement of the core duties and responsibilities of the employee o General duties and responsibilities (5-9) o Supervision given or received o Special working conditions (including equipment or systems used) 12/25/2024 165  Cont … o Qualifications- a statement of qualifications should include the minimum education, training, experience, and demonstrated skills required. o Review and appraisal 12/25/2024 166  Cont … o Job descriptions for each job should be updated whenever job content, performance requirements, or qualifications change o This basic document is used for other HRM functions (recruitment, selection, training, performance appraisal, career counseling, and compensation) and a fundamental document in legal disputes 12/25/2024 167  Cont … 2. Recruitment & decruitment o Recruitment is, locating, identifying, and attracting capable applicants o It involves searching for and attracting prospective employees, either from outside or within o If recruitment is effective, the organization will have applicants for the vacancies 12/25/2024 168  Cont …  Recruitment sources include newspaper, internet, employee referrals, training institutions  Decruitment is when an organization reduces its workforce if HR planning shows a surplus of employees  Decruitment options include firing, layoffs, transfers, attrition, early retirements etc… 12/25/2024 169  Cont … 3. Selection  It is a process of screening job applicants to determine who is best qualified for the job  The essence of selection procedure is to determine, whether a given applicant is suitable for the job in terms of training, experience and aptitude. 12/25/2024 170  Cont …  It should be done carefully since hiring errors can have significant implications  Selection involves predicting which applicants will be successful if hired  Rejection/acceptance errors may occur  Selection tools include: application formats, interviews, written tests, performance-simulation tests, background investigations, physical examinations 12/25/2024 171  Cont … 4. Induction & orientation o Induction activities are typically carried out by the human resources department and include: – Enrolling new employees in benefit plans, – Issuing identification card/badge and – Creating a database for the individual o Orientation: A set of activities designed to familiarize new employees with their jobs, coworkers, and key aspects of the organization. 12/25/2024 172  Cont …  Work unit orientation familiarizes the employee with the goals of the work unit, clarifies how his or her job contributes to the unit’s goals, and includes an introduction to his/her coworkers  Organization orientation informs the new employee about the organization’s goals, history, philosophy, procedures and rules 12/25/2024 173  Cont … o The orientation program includes: – Informing employees about the mission, vision and values of the organization – Information about the physical facility and organizational structure – Introducing with colleagues 12/25/2024 174  Cont … – Universal precautions, fire & safety programs – Employee health service and other HRD services – Explanation of organizational policies and benefits – Orientation on department specific work methods 12/25/2024 175  Cont … Importance of orientation o Builds employees’ sense of identification o Helps them gain acceptance by fellow workers o Gives them a clear understanding of what they need to know o Familiarize new employees with the entire organization as 12/25/2024 176  C ont … 5. Training  Intentional efforts to improve current and future performance by helping employees acquire the skills, knowledge, and attitudes required of a competitive workforce. 12/25/2024 177  Cont …  Its objective is to improve employee performance in a specific job  In many org’s employee interpersonal (soft skill) trainings such as communication, conflict resolution, team building, customer service etc. are necessary 12/25/2024 178  Cont …  Traditional training methods include: on-the-job, job rotation, mentoring/coaching, manuals, lectures etc  Technology-based training methods: DVD, audiotapes, Videoconferencing, teleconferencing, satellite TV 12/25/2024 179  Cont … 6. Performance Appraisal o A performance appraisal is a formal system of review and evaluation of individual or team performance. o The performance appraisal is a periodic event to reflect and evaluate past performance with the intent to identify strengths and weaknesses of an employee’s performance and to identify developmental goals. 12/25/2024 180  Cont … Importance of PA – To determine if individual work results are consistent with expectations – To identify high, marginal and unsatisfactory performers – On the basis of their performance, interventions like training, in -service education, jobs redesign etc or counseling, discipline or separation may be provided. 12/25/2024 181  Cont … – To provide information on compensation determination – To provide information for employee assistance and counseling. E.g. substance use – To provide feedback to both employee and supervisor 12/25/2024 182  Cont … 7. Compensation and Benefits  It is about rewarding the top performers with a bonus or promoting them to another position  Most of effective workers expect to receive appropriate compensation from their employer  Developing an effective and appropriate compensation system is an important part of the HRM process 12/25/2024 183  Cont …  Managers must develop a compensation system that reflects the changing nature of work and the workplace in order to keep people motivated  Compensations can be wage and salary add-ons, incentive payments, promotions, surfing lessons, tickets 12/25/2024 184  Reading assignment Medical equipment management Financial management in health care organizations Space and time mgt 12/25/2024 185  Questions Why is retaining quality workforce is a challenge to healthcare managers? How are employees asset to their organization? Describe the importance of the HR planning document for consequent HR functions. What are the issues related with selection stage of HR functions in developing nations? What are the issues related with training in Ethiopian health organizations? 186  References SB Robbins, M Coulter. Management 11th edition. 2012 HSM lecture note 12/25/2024 187