PSY 9: Industrial/Organizational Psychology Reviewer Notes PDF

Tab 1  PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) They act as scientists when they...

Tab 1  PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) They act as scientists when they conduct research UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO I/O PS They apply research findings. WHAT IS I/O PSYCHOLOGY? -> Professionals in the field can have a -> a branch of psychology that applies the positive impact on the lives of other people. principles of psychology to the workplace. They advocate for the well-being of the workers. Purpose: “to enhance the dignity ○ Which then helps the society as and performance of human beings, and well. the organizations they work in, by advancing the science and knowledge From a societal perspective, I/O of human behavior” (Rucci, 2008). psychologists can also improve the quality of life by increasing employee -> helps organizations to flourish by boosting effectiveness. the motivation of employees. MAJOR FIELDS IN I/O PSYCHOLOGY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN I/O AND There are two approaches in I/O BUSINESS PROGRAMS 1. Industrial Approach - Focuses on determining the -> The main difference between I/O competencies needed to perform psychology and business fields is that I/O a job. psychology examines factors that affect the - Staff the organization with people in an organization. employees who have those competencies I/O Business - Increase those competencies through training. - Micro - More on the - Focuses on performance of the This approach helps the organization people hire the right people. organization - Uses data 2. Organizational Approach from action - Create an organizational research, and structure and culture that will then finds motivate employees to perform solutions. well - Provide working conditions that -> I/O Psychology relies extensively on are safe and result in an research, quantitative methods, and testing enjoyable and satisfying work techniques; I/O Psychologists are trained to environment. use empirical data and statistics. This approach is more on building structure of the whole organization. I/O Psychologists do not conduct therapy. MAJOR FIELDS IN I/O PSYCHOLOGY -> I/O Psychologists rely on the scientist-practitioner model; 1. Personnel Psychology  PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) - the field of study that concentrates on the selection and evaluation of employees. - What people in this field does: - Analyzing Jobs - Recruiting Applicants - Selecting Employees BRIEF HISTORY OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY - Determining Salary Levels - Training Employees 1903 - Evaluating Employee - Walter Dill Scott wrote The Performance. Theory of Advertising 1910 - Personnel psychologists analyze - Hugo Münsterberg wrote jobs to obtain a complete picture Psychology and Industrial of what they analyze jobs to Efficiency obtain a complete picture of 1911 what. - Walter Dill Scott wrote the book Increasing Human Efficiency in Making sure that workers matches Business their job. -> I/O Psychology used to be called “economic 2. Organizational Psychology psychology,” “business psychology,” and - the field of study that “employment psychology” investigates the behavior of employees within the context of -> Made its first impact during World War I an organization. (Army Alpha and Army Beta tests) Army Alpha - an intelligence test - They are concerned with the developed during World War I and used issues within the organization by the army for soldiers who can read. Army Beta - an intelligence test - Organizational psychologists developed during World War I and used often conduct surveys. They act by the army for soldiers who cannot as consultants as well. read. Makes sure that the workflow of the organization is efficient. -> Frank Gilbreth and Lillian Moller Gilbreth 3. Human Factors/Ergonomics - were among the first scientists to - a field of study concentrating on improve productivity and reduce fatigue the interaction between humans by studying the motions used by and machines. workers. Collaborates with engineers and other technical professionals to make the workplace safer and more efficient. -> Hawthorne studies  PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) - a series of studies, conducted at the Western Electric plant in Hawthorne, Illinois, that have come to represent any change in behavior when people react to a change in the environment. Hawthorne effect: - When employees change their behavior due solely to the fact that they are receiving attention or are being observed. Four Major Changes in I/O Psych in the 1980s & 1990s 1. Increased use of fairly sophisticated statistical techniques and methods of analysis 2. New interest in the application of cognitive psychology to industry 3. Increased interest in the effects of work on family life and leisure activities 4. I/O psychologists took a renewed EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS interest in developing methods to (PH Context) select employees. 1. Bachelor’s Degree 2. BLE Psychometricians (Optional) 3. Master’s Degree (I/O Psychology) 4. BLE Psychologist 5. Professional Membership 6. PsyD or PhD (Optional) EMPLOYMENT OF I/O PSYCHOLOGISTS  PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) ○ Ex: Journal of Applied Psychology, Personnel Psychology, Academy of UNIT 2: RESEARCH Management Journal Bridge Publications WHY CONDUCT RESEARCH? ○ these publications are usually written by professors about a -> Answering Questions and Making topic of interest to Decisions practitioners, ○ but they are not as formal or - To help the organization make money statistically complex as articles and also save money. in journals ○ Ex: Academy of Management -> Research and Everyday Life Executive, Harvard Business Review - Helps us to analyze and criticize Trade magazines -> Common Sense Is Often Wrong ○ a collection of articles for those “in the biz,” about related - Common sense is not common and is professional topics, seldom often wrong. directly reporting the methods and results of new research (HR Magazine and Training) CONSIDERATIONS IN CONDUCTING Magazines RESEARCH ○ an unscientific collection of 1. Ideas, Hypotheses, and Theories articles about a wide range of 2. Literature Reviews topics 3. The Location of the Study ○ Ex: People, Time, and Cat 4. The Research Method to Be Used Fancy 5. Subject Samples 6. Running the Study 7. Statistical Analysis 3) The Location of the Study 1) Ideas, Hypotheses, and Theories Laboratory Research Hypothesis – an educated prediction about the answer to a research question. -> External Validity - the extent to which research Theory – a systematic set of assumptions results can be expected to hold regarding the cause and nature of true outside the specific setting behavior in which they were obtained. -> Generalizability 2) Literature Reviews - like external validity, the extent to which research Journals results hold true outside the ○ a written collection of articles specific setting in which they describing the methods and were obtained. results of new research  PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) Field Research - the alteration of a variable by an experimenter in expectation -> Field Research that the alteration will result in - conducted in a natural setting a change in the dependent as opposed to a laboratory. variable. Random Field research also provides researchers with ethical dilemma. Psychologists require Independent Variable that subjects participate in studies of their - the manipulated variable in an own free will. experiment. Dependent Variable -> Informed Consent - the measure of behavior that is - the formal process by which expected to change as a result subjects give permission to be of changes in the independent included in a study. variable. -> Institutional Review Boards Experimental Group - a committee designated to - receives the experimental ensure the ethical treatment of treatment research subjects. - These review boards pay Control Group close attention to - does not receive the confidentiality. experimental treatment 2. Quasi-Experiments 4) Research Methods To Be Used - Research method in which the experimenter either does not 1. Experiments manipulate the independent variable 2. Quasi-Experiments or in which subjects are not randomly 3. Archival Research assigned to conditions. 4. Observations 5. Surveys - Often used to evaluate the results of a 6. Meta-Analysis new program implemented by an organization. 1. Experiments - the only one that can determine 3. Archival Research cause-and-effect relationships; - involves the use of previously - a type of research study in which the collected data independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter - For example: If we want to know what 1.1 Cause-and-Effect Relationships distinguishes good workers from poor - the result of a well-controlled workers, we could look in the experiment about which the personnel files to see whether the researcher can confidently state that backgrounds of good workers have the independent variable caused the common characteristics not shared by change in the dependent variable poor workers. 1.2 Characteristics that define an experiment: 4. Observations Manipulation 5. Surveys  PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) - an investigation of the opinions or experiences of a group of people 7) Statistical Analysis 6. Meta-Analysis Correlation - a statistical method of reaching - a statistical procedure used to conclusions based on previous measure the relationship research between two variables Effect Size Intervening Variable - used in meta-analysis, a - a third variable that can often statistic that indicates the explain the relationship amount of change caused by between two other variables. an experimental manipulation. Mean Effect Size - used in meta-analysis, a statistic that is the average of CONSIDERATIONS IN CONDUCTING the effect sizes for all studies included in the analysis RESEARCH: ETHICS Type A Dilemma - There is a high level of uncertainty as to what is right or wrong, there appears to be no 5) Subject Samples best solution, and there are both positive and negative Random Sample consequences to a decision. - a sample in which every member of the relevant Type B Dilemma population had an equal - Also called rationalizing chance of being chosen to dilemmas, the difference participate in the study. between right and wrong is much clearer; Convenience Sample - Individuals know what is right - a nonrandom research sample but choose the solution that is that is used because it is easily most advantageous to available. themselves Random Assignment - the random, unbiased assignment of subjects in a research sample to the various experimental and control conditions. 6) Running the Study Debriefed - informing the subject in an experiment about the purpose UNIT 3: JOB ANALYSIS AND of the study in which he or she EVALUATION was a participant and providing any other relevant information Job Analysis  PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) -> foundation for almost all human resources needed to perform those tasks activities. 3. Training -> process of gathering and analyzing - The process of providing employees information about the work an employee with the knowledge and skills needed performs, the conditions under which the work for their current or future roles. is performed, and the worker characteristics needed to perform the work under the - Job analyses yield lists of job activities identified conditions. that can be systematically used to create training programs. without this hiring people would be difficult needed for legal purposes IMPORTANCE OF JOB ANALYSIS 4. Personpower Planning - One important but seldom employed It is needed for: use of job analysis is to determine Writing Job Descriptions worker mobility within an organization. Employee Selection Work Mobility Training - the degree to which people are Personpower Planning able and willing to move from Performance Appraisal one job to another. Job Classification Job Evaluation Peter Principle: Job Design The idea that organizations tend to Compliance with Legal Guidelines promote good employees until they Organizational Analysis reach the level at which they are not competent—in other words, their highest level of incompetence. 1. Writing Job Descriptions - One of the written products of a job - With this approach, there is a analysis is a job description. better match between the person being promoted and the - A brief, two- to five-page summary of requirements of the job. the tasks and job requirements - found in the job analysis 5. Performance Appraisal - Job analysis is the process of - Another important use of job analysis is determining the work activities and the construction of a performance requirements, and a job description is appraisal instrument. the written result of the job analysis. - An assessment of an employee’s job performance and overall contribution to a company. 2. Employee Selection - The process of selecting an individual - assessment of employees’ for employment based on qualifications, “dependability,” “knowledge,” and skills, and experience. “initiative.” - It is difficult to imagine how an - Can serve as an excellent source of employee can be selected unless there employee training and counselling. is a clear understanding of the tasks to be performed and the competencies  PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) 6. Job Classification 2. “and performs other job-related - is useful for determining pay levels, duties as assigned” transfers, and promotions. - Witten result of job analysis - Job analysis enables a human resources professional to classify jobs into groups - Needs to be detailed. based on similarities in requirements and duties. According to Hurtz and Wright (2012) a job description should contain the following eight 7. Job Evaluation sections: - Job analysis information can also be 1. Job title used to determine the worth of a job. 2. Brief summary 3. Work activities 8. Job Design 4. Tools and equipment used - A definition of the content and method 5. Work context of how work is to be performed. 6. Performance standards 7. Compensation information - Job analysis information can be used to 8. Personal requirements. determine the optimal way in which a job should be performed. 1. Job Title - An accurate title describes the nature of 9. Compliance with Legal Guidelines the job, its power and status level, and the competencies needed to perform the job. 10. Organizational Analysis - During the course of their work, job - An accurate title also aids in employee analysts often become aware of certain selection and recruitment. problems within an organization. - Job titles provide workers with some Job Analysis Interview form of identity. - Obtaining information about a job by - Instead of just saying that she is talking to a person per- forming it. a“worker at the foundry,” a woman can say that she is - During the course of their work, job a“welder” or a “machinist.” analysts often become aware of certain - Job titles can also affect perceptions of problems within an organization. the status and worth of a job. - Jobs with higher-status titles were evaluated as being worth more money Writing a Good Job Description than jobs with lower-status titles. - A job description is a relatively short summary of a job and should be about - Though some organizations allow their two to five pages in length. employees to create their own titles, it is important that employees who are - must describe a job in enough detail doing the same job have the same title that decisions about activities such as and that the title accurately reflects the selection and training can be made nature of the job. - listing each activity will limit their 2. Brief Summary ability to direct employees to perform - a paragraph in length tasks not listed on the job description 1. duties can always be added to a - should briefly describe the nature and job description  PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) purpose of the job. should contain information on the salary grade, whether the position is - can be used in help-wanted exempt, and the compensable factors advertisements, internal job postings, used to determine salary. and company brochures Grade - A cluster of jobs of similar worth. employee’s actual salary or salary 3. Work Activities range should not be listed on the job - lists the tasks and activities in which the description worker is involved 8. Job Competencies - tasks and activities should be organized - This section contains what are into meaningful categories to make the commonly called job specifications or job description easy to read and competencies. understand - These are the knowledge, skills, 4. Tools and Equipment Used abilities, and other characteristics - lists all the tools and equipment used to (KSAOs) perform the work activities in the previous section - The competencies section should be divided into two subsections. The first - used primarily for employee selection contains KSAOs that an employee must and training have at the time of hiring. The second subsection. 5. Job Context - This section describes the environment Job Specifications in which the employee works and - A relatively dated term that refers to mentions stress level, work schedule, the knowledge, skills, and abilities physical demands, level of needed to successfully perform a job. responsibility, temperature, number of “Competencies” is the more common coworkers, degree of danger, and any term used today. other relevant information. Competencies - important in providing applicants with - The knowledge, skills, abilities, and disabilities with information they can other characteristics needed to perform use to determine their ability to perform a job. a job under a particular set of circumstances divided into two subsections: 6. Work Performance 1. KSAOs that an employee must have at - A brief description of how an the time of hiring employee’s performance is evaluated and what work standards are expected 2. KSAOs that are an important part of the of the employee. job but can be obtained after being hired - The job description should outline standards of performance. first set of KSAOs is used for employee selection and the second for training purposes 7. Compensation Information - This section of the job description  PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) Preparing for a Job Analysis - The informal changes that employees make in their Prior to conducting a job analysis, jobs. several decisions must be made that - A process in which will influence how it is conducted: employees unofficially change their job duties to 1. Who Will Conduct the better fit their interests Analysis? and skills. 2. How Often Should a Job Description Be Updated? - It is common for 3. Which Employees Should employees to quietly Participate? expand the scope of their 4. What Types of Information jobs to add tasks they Should Be Obtained? want to perform and to remove tasks that they 1. Who will conduct the analysis? don’t want to perform - Typically, a job analysis is conducted by a trained individual in the Human Resources department, but it can also be conducted by job incumbents, supervisors, or outside consultants. Which Employees Should Participate? - for small organizations, it is advisable to > If job incumbents or supervisors are have all employees participate used, it is essential that they be thoroughly trained in job analysis - for larger organizations, it is generally procedures. advisable for job analysts to keep Consultants are a good choice for interviewing incumbents until they do conducting a job analysis because they are not hear anything new well trained and have extensive experience (but very expensive). “How many people need to be included in the job analysis?” An interesting alternative to consultants is the use of college interns. Graduate students - The answer to this question to from I/O psychology programs tend to have some extent depends on job analysis training and experience and can whether the job analysis will be be employed for a relatively small cost (often, committee-based or field-based. at no cost). Committee-based job analysis 2. How Often Should a Job - a group of subject-matter Description Be Updated? experts (people who are - a job description should be updated if a knowledgeable about the job job changes significantly. and include job incumbents, supervisors, customers, and - fairly often for high-tech jobs; not so for upper-level management) meet jobs such as package handling and to generate the tasks performed, others the conditions under which they are performed, and the KSAOs - An interesting reason that job needed to perform them. descriptions change across time is: Field-based job analysis Job crafting - the job analyst individually interviews/observes a number of  PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) incumbents out in the field. (SMEs) - those knowledgeable about the job (supervisors and incumbents); individual versus groups - Observing incumbents - Job Participation - a job analysis What Types of Information Should Be method in which the job analyst Obtained? performs the job being analyzed - An important decision concerns the level of specificity. STEP 2: WRITE TASK STATEMENTS - in terms of level of specificity: specific versus general behaviors. Task inventory ○ a questionnaire containing a list - In such a situation, the work obviously of tasks each of which the job must be performed in a specific manner incumbent rates on a series of for the greatest financial savings. Thus, scales such as importance and the job analysis is more effective at a time spent. more detailed level. must contain an action (what is done) - A related decision addresses the issue and an object (to which the action is of formal versus informal requirements. - In addition, informal requirements (e.g., picking up mail) may need to be made more formal to reduce potential confusion regarding who is responsible for the task. done), where the task is done, how it is done, why it is done, and when it is Conducting a Job Analysis done the goal of most job analyses is to identify the tasks performed in a job, the conditions under which the tasks are performed, and the KSAOs needed to perform the tasks STEP 1: IDENTIFY TASKS PERFORMED STEP 3: WRITE TASK STATEMENTS STEP 2: WRITE TASK STATEMENTS Task Analysis STEP 3: RATE TASK STATEMENTS ○ the process of identifying the STEP 4: DETERMINE ESSENTIAL KSAOS tasks for which employees need STEP 5: SELECTING TESTS TO TAP KSAOS to be trained; using a group of SMEs to rate each task statement on STEP 1: IDENTIFY TASKS PERFORMED the - Gathering existing information (job descriptions, task inventories, and training manuals - Interviewing Subject-Matter-Experts  PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) frequency and the importance or criticality of the task being -> Job-oriented methods, such as task performed. analysis, are best for work design and writing job descriptions. JOB EVALUATION - The process of determining monetary STEP 4: DETERMINE ESSENTIAL KSAOS worth of a job Knowledge - a body of information Once a job analysis has been completed needed to perform a task. and a thorough job description written, it is Skill - the proficiency to perform a important to determine how much employees learned task. in a position should be paid. This process of Ability - the basic capacity for determining a job’s worth is called job performing a wide range of tasks, evaluation acquiring knowledge, or developing a skill. - There are two ways: Other Characteristics - factors that 1. Determining Internal Pay Equity are not knowledge, skills, or abilities 2. Determining External Pay Equity such as personality, willingness, interest, degrees, and motivation and such tangible factors as licenses, Determining Internal Pay Equity degrees, and years of experience. - involves comparing jobs within an organization to ensure that the people in jobs worth the most money are paid STEP 5: SELECTING TESTS TO TAP KSAOS accordingly. used to select new employees and include such methods as interviews, Step 1: Determining Compensable work samples, ability tests, personality Job Factors tests, reference checks, integrity tests, biodata, and assessment centers The first step in evaluating a job is to decide what factors differentiate the Using Other Job Analysis Methods relative worth of jobs. Possible compensable job factors include the following: Level of responsibility Physical demands Evaluation Methods Mental demands -> The best method to use in analyzing a job Education requirements appears to be related to the end use of the job Training and experience analysis information. requirements Working conditions ->Worker-oriented methods, such as the CIT, JCI, and TTA, are the best for employee selection and performance appraisal Compensable job factors  PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.) - Factors, such as responsibility and see how much they are paying their education requirements, that employees in positions similar to those in the differentiate the relative worth of jobs. organization sending the survey. Step 2: Determining the Levels for Each Compensable Factor Step 3: Determining the Factor Weights Updated resources Experts must conduct Because some factors are more important than Participants must be many or would represent others, weights must be assigned to the job each factor and to each level within a factor. Many methods is the best Here is the process for doing this: 1. A job evaluation committee determines the total number of points that will be distributed among the factors. 2. Each factor is weighted by assigning a number of points. The more important the factor, the greater the number of points that will be assigned. 3. The number of points assigned to a factor is then divided into each of the levels. 4. The total number of points for a job is compared with the salary currently being paid for the job. Wage trend lines are drawn based on the results of a regression formula in which salary is predicted by the number of job analysis points. - A line that represents the ideal relationship between the number of points that a job has been assigned (using the point method of evaluation) and the salary range for that job. Determining External Pay Equity - With external equity, the worth of a job is determined by comparing the job to the external market (other organizations) important if an organization is to attract and retain employees. To determine external equity, organizations use salary surveys. A questionnaire sent to other organizations to PSY 9: INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY | REVIEWER NOTES By YAÑEZ, RPm, MSPsy (Cand.)