Principles of Anatomy and Physiology PDF

Principles of Anatomy and Physiology Fifteenth Edition Gerard Tortora and Bryan Derrickson Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Human Body Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 2 Introduct...

Principles of Anatomy and Physiology Fifteenth Edition Gerard Tortora and Bryan Derrickson Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Human Body Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 2 Introduction The purpose of the chapter is to: Introduce the disciplines of anatomy and physiology Discuss the organization of the human body Reveal shared properties of all living things Discuss the concept of homeostasis. 3 Anatomy & Physiology Defined 4 Anatomy vs. Physiology (1 of 5) Anatomy is the study of structure whereas, physiology is the study of how body parts function. 5 Anatomy vs. Physiology (2 of 5) Table 1.1 Selected Branches of Anatomy and Physiology Branch of Anatomy Study of Embryology The first eight weeks of development after fertilization of a human egg. (embry- = embryo; -logy = study of) Developmental biology The complete development of an individual from fertilization to death. Cell biology Cellular structure and functions. Histology Microscopic structure of tissues. (hist- = tissue) Gross anatomy Structures that can be examined without a microscope. 6 Anatomy vs. Physiology (3 of 5) Branch of Anatomy Study of Systemic anatomy Structure of specific systems of the body such as the nervous or respiratory systems. Regional anatomy Specific regions of the body such as the head or chest. Surface anatomy Surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy through visualization and palpation (gentle touch). Imaging anatomy Internal body structures that can be visualized with techniques such as x- rays, MRI, CT scans, and other technologies for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Pathological anatomy Structural changes (gross to microscopic) associated with disease. (path'-ō-LOJ-i-kal; path- = disease). 7 Anatomy vs. Physiology (4 of 5) Branch of Physiology Study of Molecular physiology Functions of individual molecules such as proteins and DNA. Neurophysiology Functional properties of nerve cells. (neuro- = nerve) Endocrinology Hormones (chemical regulators in the blood) and how they control (endo- = within; body functions. -crin = secretion) Cardiovascular physiology Functions of the heart and blood vessels. (cardi- = heart; vascular = blood vessels) 8 Anatomy vs. Physiology (5 of 5) Branch of Physiology Study of Immunology The body's defenses against disease-causing agents. (immun- = not susceptible) Respiratory physiology Functions of the air passageways and lungs. (respira- = to breathe) Renal physiology Functions of the kidneys. (ren- = kidney) Exercise physiology Changes in cell and organ functions due to muscular activity. Pathophysiology Functional changes associated with disease and aging. 9 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems 10 Levels of Structural Organization 11 Systems of the Human Body (1 of 13) Integumentary lymphatic/immune Skeletal Respiratory Muscular Digestive Nervous Urinary Endocrine Reproductive Cardiovascular. 12 Systems of the Human Body (2 of 13) Table 1.2 The Eleven Systems of the Human Body Integumentary System (chapter 5) Skeletal System (chapters 6-9) Components: Skin and structures, such as hair, Components: Bones and joints of the body and their fingernails and toenails, sweat glands, and oil associated cartilages. glands. Functions: Supports and protects body; provides Functions: Protects body; helps regulate body surface area for muscle attachments; aids body temperature; eliminates some wastes; helps make movements; houses cells that produce blood cells; vitamin D; detects sensations such as touch, pain, stores minerals and lipids (fats). warmth, and cold; stores fat and provides insulation. 13 Systems of the Human Body (3 of 13) Integumentary System (chapter 5) Skeletal System (chapters 6-9) 14 Systems of the Human Body (4 of 13) Muscular System (Chapters 10,11) Nervous System (Chapters 12-17) Components: Specifically, skeletal muscle tissue— Components: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and special muscle usually attached to bones (other muscle tissues sense organs, such as eyes and ears. include smooth and cardiac). Functions: Generates action potentials (nerve impulses) Functions: Participates in body movements, such as to regulate body activities; detects changes in body's walking; maintains posture; produces heat. internal/external environments, interprets changes, and responds by causing muscular contractions or glandular secretions. 15 Systems of the Human Body (5 of 13) Muscular System (Chapters 10,11) Nervous System (Chapters 12-17) A diagram illustrates the muscular system in a human female, with the A diagram illustrates the nervous system in a human female, with the following components: Skeletal muscle represented by the pectoral following components: Brain, spinal cord, and a nerve in the thigh that muscles of the chest, and a tendon in the arm. extends from the spinald splits into two branches at the knee. 16 Systems of the Human Body (6 of 13) Endocrine System (chapter 18) Cardiovascular System (chapters 19-21) Components: Hormone-producing glands (pineal Components: Blood, heart, and blood vessels. gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes) and hormone- Functions: Heart pumps blood through blood vessels; producing cells in several other organs. blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide and wastes away from cells and helps regulate acid–base balance, temperature, and water content of Functions : Regulates body activities by releasing body fluids; blood components help defend against hormones (chemical messengers transported in blood from disease and repair damaged blood vessels. endocrine gland or tissue to target organ). 17 Systems of the Human Body (7 of 13) Endocrine System (chapter 18) Cardiovascular System (chapters 19-21) A diagram illustrates the endocrine system in a human male, with the A diagram illustrates the cardiovascular system in a human male, with the following components: Thyroid gland in the neck; adrenal gland and following components: Blood vessels, a vein, and the heart in the thoracic pancreas in the abdominal cavity; and testis extending below the pelvic cavity, and an artery in the abdominal cavity. cavity. An expanded view of a sagittal section of the center of the brain shows the hypothalamus, the pineal glands, and the pituitary glands from superior to inferior. Another expanded view shows the thyroid gland in posterior view with the positions of the parathyroid glands indicated. A third expanded view shows the ovary because of its dual roles in the endocrine and female reproductive systems. 18 Systems of the Human Body (8 of 13) Lymphatic System and Immunity (chapter 22) Respiratory System (chapter 23) Components: Lymphatic fluid and vessels; spleen, Components: Lungs and air passageways such as thymus, lymph nodes, and tonsils; cells that carry out the pharynx (throat), larynx {voice box), trachea immune responses (B cells, T cells, and others). (windpipe), and bronchial tubes leading into and out of lungs. Functions: Returns proteins and fluid to blood; carries Functions: Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood; contains sites blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled of maturation and proliferation of B cells and T cells that air; helps regulate acid-base balance of body protect against disease-causing microbes. fluids; air flowing out of lungs through vocal cords produces sounds. 19 Systems of the Human Body (9 of 13) Lymphatic System and Immunity (chapter 22) Respiratory System (chapter 23) A diagram illustrates the lymphatic system in a human female, with the A diagram illustrates the respiratory system in a human male, and following components: Thymus, in the neck; thoracic duct, in the thoracic components are shown as follows. Larynx and trachea, in the throat. cavity; and the spleen, in the abdominal cavity; a lymph node in the lower left And bronchus, which extends to the lung. An expanded view shows side of the abdomen; and a lymphatic vessel in the thigh near the knee. Red the pharynx in correlation to the larynx. From bottom to top, the bone marrow is highlighted by an arrow pointing to the superior portion of the larynx is in the throat, and the oral and nasal cavities are located femur. An expanded view of a sagittal section of the head shows the above it. pharyngeal tonsil on the posterior wall of the nasal cavity, the palatine tonsil within the pharynx, and the lingual tonsil under the tongue. 20 Systems of the Human Body (10 of 13) Digestive System (chapter 24) Urinary System (chapter 26) Components: Organs of gastrointestinal tract, a long Components: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and tube that includes the mouth, pharynx (throat), urethra. esophagus (food tube), stomach, small and large intestines, and anus; also includes accessory organs that assist in digestive processes, such as salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Functions: Produces, stores, and eliminates urine; eliminates wastes and regulates volume and Functions: Achieves physical and chemical chemical composition of blood; helps maintain the breakdown of food; absorbs nutrients; eliminates acid–base balance of body fluids; maintains body's solid wastes. mineral balance; helps regulate production of red blood cells. 21 Systems of the Human Body (11 of 13) Digestive System (chapter 24) Urinary System (chapter 26) A diagram illustrates the digestive system in a human female, with the A diagram illustrates the urinary system in a human male, with the following components: The mouth, pharynx, and salivary glands are following components: Kidney, ureters extending from the kidney to the located in the head and neck, and the esophagus extends from the urinary bladder, and the urethra within the penis. pharynx to the stomach. Organs in the abdominal cavity include the stomach, pancreas (located behind the stomach), liver, gallbladder, small and large intestines, rectum, and anus. 22 Systems of the Human Body (12 of 13) Reproductive Systems (chapter 28) Components: Gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females) and associated organs (uterine tubes or fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and mammary glands in females and epididymis, ductus or (vas) deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis in males). Functions: Gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a new organism; gonads also release hormones that regulate reproduction and other body processes; associated organs transport and store gametes; mammary glands produce milk.. 23 Systems of the Human Body (13 of 13) Reproductive Systems (chapter 28) One diagram illustrates the reproductive system in a human female, with the following components: Mammary glands, uterine tubes ovaries, uterus, and vagina. An expanded view shows a frontal section of the uterine tube, ovary, uterus, and vagina. A second diagram illustrates the reproductive system in a human male, with the following components: Penis, testes, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, and prostate. An expanded view shows a frontal view of the penis and other organs, including the epididymis superior to each testis and the ductus deferens extending from the epididymis, through the prostate, to the seminal vesicle. 24 Clinical Connection Noninvasive Diagnostic Techniques – does not involve insertion of any instrument or device through the skin or a body opening Inspection – what you can see, observing the body for changes that are not normal Palpation – what you can feel Auscultation – what you can hear Percussion – taping on the body with fingertips listening to the resulting sound. Hollow cavities produce different sounds than solid organs 25 Characteristics of the Living Human Organism. 26 Basic Life Processes Life processes in humans include: metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, and reproduction Metabolism – sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body ----- Catabolism/Anabolism Differentiation is the development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state. Such as stem cells. Fertilized egg (ovum) → embryo → fetus →infant →child → adult Reproduction formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement OR production of a new individual 27  Homeostasis Homeostasis is a condition of equilibrium, or balance, in the body’s internal environment. Each structure, from the cellular level to the system level, contributes to keep the body’s internal environment within normal limits.. 28  Body Fluids & Homeostasis Various organ systems work together exchanging substances in order to maintain homeostasis. 29 Control of Homeostasis. 30 Homeostasis Homeostatic imbalances occur because of disruptions from the external or internal environments. The body regulates it’s internal environment via feedback systems. Interactions Animation ❑ Communication, Regulation, and Homeostasis ❑ Negative Feedback Control of Temperature Regulation The nervous system and endocrine system predominantly regulate and maintain homeostasis. 31 Control of Homeostasis The basic components of a feedback loop 32 Control of Homeostasis: Negative Feedback A negative feedback system reverses a change in a controlled condition. 33  Control of Homeostasis: Positive Feedback Interactions Animation: ❑ Positive Feedback Control of Labor A positive feedback system strengthens a change in one of the body’s controlled conditions. 34 Homeostatic Imbalances When homeostasis is disrupted it may result in disorder, disease, or even death Factors such as your genetics, the air you breathe, the food you eat, and the thoughts you think can all affect your health 35 Basic Anatomical Terminology 36 Types of Anatomical Terminology Body positions Regional names Directional terms Planes and sections Body cavities. 37  Body Positions: The Anatomical Position Anatomical position: a standardized method of observing or imaging the body that allows precise and consistent anatomical reference Person stands erect, facing the observer, upper extremities placed at the sides, palms of the hands turned forward, and feet flat on the floor Important to know 38 Regional Names Regional names are names given to specific regions of the body for reference. 39  Directional Terms (1 of 4) Directional terms are used to precisely locate one part of the body relative to another. 40 Directional Terms (2 of 4) Directional term Definition Example of Use Superior (cephalic or cranial) Toward the head, or the upper part The heart is superior to the liver. of a structure. Inferior (caudal) Away from the head, or the lower The stomach is inferior to the lungs. part of a structure. Anterior (ventral)* Nearer to or at the front of the The sternum (breastbone) is anterior body. to the heart. Posterior (dorsal) Nearer to or at the back of the The esophagus (food tube) is body. posterior to the trachea (windpipe). Medial Nearer to the midline The ulna is medial to the radius. (an imaginary vertical line that divides the body into equal right and left sides). 41 Directional Terms (3 of 4) Directional term Definition Example of Use Lateral Farther from the midline. The lungs are lateral to the heart. Intermediate Between two structures. The transverse colon is intermediate to the ascending and descending colons. Ipsilateral On the same side of the body as The gallbladder and ascending colon are (ip-si-LAT-er-al) another structure. ipsilateral. Contralateral On the opposite side of the body from The ascending and descending colons another structure. are contralateral. Proximal Nearer to the attachment of a limb to The humerus is proximal to the radius. the trunk; nearer to the origination of a structure. 42 Directional Terms (4 of 4) Directional term Definition Example of Use Distal Farther from the attachment of a limb The phalanges (finger bones) are distal to the trunk; farther from the to the carpals (wrist bones). origination of a structure. Superficial (external) Toward or on the surface of the body. The ribs are superficial to the lungs. Deep (Internal) Away from the surface of the body. The ribs are deep to the skin of the chest and back. 43 Planes and Sections Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body. Sagittal – divides into right and left sides Midsagittal – equal right and left sides Parasagittal – unequal right and left sides Frontal – divides into anterior and posterior portions Transverse – upper and lower portions/superior and inferior Sagittal Plane Oblique – divides at any angle other than 90 degrees 44 Practicing Planes and Sections 45  Body Cavities Body cavities are spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs. 46 Serous Membranes Thin, double-layered membranes that cover the viscera within the thoracic and abdominal cavities and also line the walls of the thorax and abdomen Reduce friction ❑ Visceral layer – a thin epithelium that covers the organs in the cavities ❑ Parietal layer – a thin epithelium that lines the walls of the cavities. 47  Serous Membranes in the Thoracic Cavity (1 of 2) The pericardium and pleura cover the heart and lungs. 48 Serous Membranes in the Thoracic Cavity (2 of 2) 49  Serous Membrane in the Abdominal Cavity The peritoneum covers many of the abdominal organs but not all… ❑ Retroperitoneal – the classification some organs are given because they are not surrounded by the peritoneum; rather, they are posterior to it. 50 Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants The abdominal cavity can be divided into regions or quadrants to easily describe the location of organs. 51 Regional Abdominal Pain and Possible Differential Diagnoses: 52 Aging and Homeostasis Aging is a normal process characterized by a progressive decline in the body’s ability to restore homeostasis. Results in increased vulnerability to stress and disease. 53 Medical Imaging Medical imaging involves techniques that allow physicians to view images of the human body Allows physicians to diagnose anatomical and physiological abnormalities 54  Medical Imaging Procedures: (1 of 2) Table 1.3 Common Medical Imaging Procedures Radiography – X-rays Procedure: A single barrage of x-rays pass through the body, producing an image of interior structures on x-ray-sensitive film, resulting in a two- dimensional image. Comments: Relatively inexpensive, quick, and simple to perform; usually provides sufficient information for diagnosis. X-rays do not easily pass through dense structures, so bones appear white. Hollow structures, such as the lungs, appear black. Structures of intermediate density, such as skin, fat, and muscle, appear as varying shades of gray. 55  Medical Imaging Procedures: Radiography (2 of 2) Radiography A radiograph of the thorax in anterior view shows the vertebral column, the left clavicle, a left rib, the left lung, the heart, and the diaphragm. A mammogram of the female breast shows a cancerous tumor as a white mass with an uneven border. A bone densitometry scan shows the lumbar spine in anterior view. An angiogram shows a blockage of a coronary artery in an adult human heart. An intravenous urogram shows a kidney stone as a darker mass in the right kidney. A barium contrast x-ray shows cancer of the ascending colon as a contrasting dark mass. 56  Medical Imaging Procedures: MRI and CT (1 of 3) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Computed Tomography (CT) Formerly called computerized axial tomography Procedure: A high-energy magnetic field, causes (C A T scanning) protons in body fluids and tissues to arrange themselves in relation to the field. Then a pulse of Procedure: In this form of computer-assisted radio waves "reads" these ion patterns, and a color- radiography, an x-ray beam traces an arc at multiple coded image is assembled on a video monitor. The angles around a section of the body. The resulting result is a two- or three- dimensional blueprint of transverse section of the body, called a CT scan, is cellular chemistry. shown on a video monitor. 57  Medical Imaging Procedures: MRI and CT (2 of 3) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Computed Tomography (CT) Comments: Relatively safe but cannot be used on Comments: Visualizes soft tissues and organs with patients with metal in their bodies. Shows fine details much more detail than conventional radiographs. for soft tissues but not for bones. Differing tissue densities show up as various shades of gray. Most useful for differentiating between normal and abnormal tissues. Used to detect tumors and artery- Multiple scans can be assembled to build 3-D views of clogging fatty plaques; reveal brain abnormalities; structures. Whole-body CT scanning typically targets measure blood flow; and detect a variety of the torso and appears to provide the most benefit in musculoskeletal, liver, and kidney disorders. screening for lung cancers, coronary artery disease, and kidney cancers. 58  Medical Imaging Procedures: MRI and CT (3 of 3) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Computed Tomography (CT) A magnetic resonance image, or MRI, shows a brain in sagittal section. A computed tomography scan, or CT scan, of the thorax in inferior view shows the heart, aorta, vertebra, and a left rib from superior to inferior. 59  Medical Imaging Procedures: Ultrasound Scanning Ultrasound Scanning Procedure: High‐frequency sound waves produced by a handheld wand reflect off body tissues and are detected by the same instrument. The image, which may be still or moving, is called a sonogram and is shown on a video monitor. Comments: Safe, noninvasive, painless, and uses no dyes. Most commonly used to visualize the fetus during pregnancy. Also used to observe the size, location, and actions of organs and blood flow through blood vessels (Doppler ultrasound). A sonogram shows a frontal view of the forehead, eye, and hand. 60  Medical Imaging Procedures: CCTA and PET scan (1 of 3) Coronary (CARDIAC) Computed Tomography Positron Emission Tomography (P E T) Angiography (C C T A) SCAN Procedure: Computer-assisted radiography, an Procedure: A substance that emits positrons (positively iodine-containing contrast medium is injected charged particles) is injected into the body, where it is taken into a vein and a beta blocker is given to up by tissues. decrease heart rate. Then, numerous x-ray beams trace an arc The collision of positrons with negatively charged electrons in around the heart and a scanner detects the x- body tissues produces gamma rays (similar to x-rays) that are ray beams and transmits them to a computer, detected by gamma cameras positioned around the subject. which transforms the information into a three- dimensional image of the coronary blood A computer receives signals from the gamma cameras and vessels on a monitor. constructs a P E T scan image, displayed in color on a video Is called a CCT A scan and can be generated in monitor. The P E T scan shows where the injected substance is less than 20 seconds. being used in the body. 61 Medical Imaging Procedures: CCTA and PET scan (2 of 3) Coronary (CARDIAC) Computed Tomography Angiography (CCTA) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) SCAN Comments: Used to study the physiology of body Comments: Used to determine if there are any coronary structures, such as metabolism in the brain or heart. artery blockages that may require an intervention such as angioplasty or stent. The C C T A scan can be rotated, enlarged, and moved at any angle. The procedure can take thousands of images of the heart within the time of a single heartbeat, so it provides a great amount of detail about the heart's structure and function. 62 Medical Imaging Procedures: CCTA and PET scan (3 of 3) Coronary (CARDIAC) Computed Tomography Angiography (CC Positron Emission Tomography (PET) TA) SCAN A coronary computed tomography angiography scan, also called a cardiac computed A positron emission tomography scan, or PET scan, shows a transverse section of the brain. A tomography angiography scan or CCTA, shows a normal left coronary artery and a blocked right circled area at upper left indicates where a stroke has occurred. coronary artery. 63 Medical Imaging Procedures: Endoscopy Endoscopy Procedure: Endoscopy involves the visual examination of the inside of body organs or cavities using a lighted instrument with lenses called an endoscope. Comments: Examples include colonoscopy (used to examine the interior of the colon, which is part of the large intestine), laparoscopy (used to examine the organs within the abdominopelvic cavity), and arthroscopy (used to examine the interior of a joint, usually the knee). An endoscopy image shows the interior view of the colon as shown by colonoscopy. 64  Medical Imaging Procedures: Radionuclide Scanning (1 of 2) Radionuclide Scanning Procedure: A radionuclide (radioactive substance) is introduced intravenously into the body and carried by the blood to the tissue to be imaged. Gamma rays emitted by the radionuclide are detected by a gamma camera outside the subject, and the data is fed into a computer. The computer constructs a radionuclide image and displays it in color on a video monitor. Areas of intense color take up a lot of the radionuclide and represent high tissue activity; areas of less intense color take up smaller amounts of the radionuclide and represent low tissue activity. Single-photon- emission computed tomography (SPECT) scanning is a specialized type of radionuclide scanning that is especially useful for studying the brain, heart, lungs, and liver. Comments: Used to study activity of a tissue or organ, such as searching for malignant tumors in body tissue or scars that may interfere with heart muscle activity. 65 Medical Imaging Procedures: Radionuclide Scanning (2 of 2) Radionuclide Scanning A radionuclide scan, or nuclear scan, shows a normal human liver as an oblong shape with bands of pink, red, orange, yellow, green, light blue, dark blue, and purple extending outward from a white center. A single photon emission computed tomography scan, or SPECT scan, shows a transverse section of the brain. Areas of the brain appear white, red, yellow, green, and blue. An almost all green area at lower left indicates a migraine attack. 66 Imaging Summary X-Ray: shows bone/skull only. Does not show the brain. Best used to detect bone fractures. CT: a quick test. Shows brain but detail not great. Shows if any larger bleed, stroke, lesions, or masses. MRI: a long test. Shows brain and detail is great. Shows smaller bleeds, stroke, lesions, or masses. MRA: shows the flow of blood in the vasculature system of the brain. If there is vessel narrowing or blockage this test would show it. PET scan: shows how active different parts of the brain is. An active brain uses sugar as energy and pet scan detects how much sugar is being used by lighting up and turning different colors. The more sugar being used the more that area will light up and be different in colors. Cancer cells use the most sugar so cancer cells light up the most. (Cancer cells replicate at a very fast and uncontrolled rate hence use a lot of sugar to allow that replication hence why they light up so much). 67 Copyright ©2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 68