Principles of ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY PDF

2 CH APTE R 1 An Introduction to the Human Body For example, the bones of the skull join tightly to form a rigid case that 1.1 Anatomy and Physiology protects...

2 CH APTE R 1 An Introduction to the Human Body For example, the bones of the skull join tightly to form a rigid case that 1.1 Anatomy and Physiology protects the brain. The bones of the fingers are more loosely joined to allow a variety of movements. The walls of the air sacs in the lungs are Defined very thin, permitting rapid movement of inhaled oxygen into the blood. OBJECTIVE Checkpoint 1. What body function might a respiratory therapist strive to Define anatomy and physiology, and name several branches of improve? What structures are involved? these sciences. 2. Give your own example of how the structure of a part of the body is related to its function. Two branches of science—anatomy and physiology—provide the foundation for understanding the body’s parts and functions. Anatomy (a-NAT-oˉ-mē; ana- = up; -tomy = process of cutting) is the science of body structures and the relationships among them. It was 1.2 Levels of Structural first studied by dissection (dis-SEK-shun; dis- = apart; -section = act of cutting), the careful cutting apart of body structures to study their Organization and relationships. Today, a variety of imaging techniques (see Table 1.3) also contribute to the advancement of anatomical knowledge. Body Systems Whereas anatomy deals with structures of the body, physiology (fiz′- ē-OL-oˉ-jē; physio- = nature; -logy = study of) is the science of body OBJECTIVES functions—how the body parts work. Table 1.1 describes several branches of anatomy and physiology. Describe the body’s six levels of structural organization. Because structure and function are so closely related, you will List the 11 systems of the human body, representative organs learn about the human body by studying its anatomy and physiology present in each, and their general functions. together. The structure of a part of the body often reflects its functions. TA BLE 1.1 Selected Branches of Anatomy and Physiology BRANCH OF ANATOMY STUDY OF BRANCH OF PHYSIOLOGY STUDY OF Embryology The first eight weeks of development Molecular physiology Functions of individual molecules (em′-brē-OL-oˉ-jē; embry- = after fertilization of a human egg. such as proteins and DNA. embryo; -logy = study of) Neurophysiology Functional properties of nerve Developmental biology The complete development of an (NOOR-oˉ-fiz-ē-ol′-oˉ-jē; cells. individual from fertilization to death. neuro- = nerve) Cell biology Cellular structure and functions. Endocrinology Hormones (chemical regulators in (en′-doˉ-kri-NOL-oˉ-jē; the blood) and how they control Histology Microscopic structure of tissues. endo- = within; body functions. (his-TOL-oˉ -jē; hist- = tissue) -crin = secretion) Gross anatomy Structures that can be examined Cardiovascular physiology Functions of the heart and blood without a microscope. (kar-dē-oˉ-VAS-kū-lar; vessels. Systemic anatomy Structure of specific systems of the body cardi- = heart; such as the nervous or respiratory systems. vascular = blood vessels) Regional anatomy Specific regions of the body such Immunology The body’s defenses against as the head or chest. (im′-ū-NOL-oˉ-jē; disease-causing agents. Surface anatomy Surface markings of the body to immun- = not susceptible) understand internal anatomy through Respiratory physiology Functions of the air passageways visualization and palpation (gentle touch). (RES-pi-ra-toˉr-ē; and lungs. Imaging anatomy Internal body structures that can respira- = to breathe) be visualized with techniques such Renal physiology Functions of the kidneys. – as x-rays, MRI, CT scans, and other (RE-nal; ren- = kidney) technologies for clinical analysis and Exercise physiology Changes in cell and organ medical intervention. functions due to muscular activity. Pathological anatomy Structural changes (gross to Pathophysiology Functional changes associated (path′-oˉ-LOJ-i-kal; microscopic) associated with disease. (Path-oˉ-fiz-ē-ol′-oˉ-jē) with disease and aging. path- = disease)  1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems 3 The levels of organization of a language—letters, words, sentences, of matter that participate in chemical reactions, and paragraphs, and so on—can be compared to the levels of organization molecules, two or more atoms joined together. Certain atoms, of the human body. Your exploration of the human body will extend such as carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), from atoms and molecules to the whole person. From the smallest phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), and sulfur (S), are essential for to the largest, six levels of organization will help you to understand maintaining life. Two familiar molecules found in the body are anatomy and physiology: the chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material passed from and organismal levels of organization (Figure 1.1). one generation to the next, and glucose, commonly known as blood sugar. Chapters 2 and 25 focus on the chemical level of 1 Chemical level. This very basic level can be compared to the organization. letters of the alphabet and includes atoms, the smallest units FIGURE 1.1 Levels of structural organization in the human body. The levels of structural organization are chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, system, and organismal. 2 CELLULAR LEVEL 1 CHEMICAL LEVEL 3 TISSUE LEVEL Smooth muscle cell Atoms (C, H, O, N, P) Smooth muscle tissue Molecule (DNA) 5 SYSTEM LEVEL Epithelial and connective tissues 4 ORGAN LEVEL Salivary glands Mouth Pharynx Smooth muscle Esophagus tissue layers Epithelial tissue Stomach Stomach Liver Pancreas Gallbladder (behind stomach) Large intestine Small intestine Mark Nielsen 6 ORGANISMAL LEVEL Digestive system Q Which level of structural organization is composed of two or more different types of tissues that work together to perform a specific function? 4 CH APTE R 1 An Introduction to the Human Body 2 Cellular level. Molecules combine to form cells, the basic outer covering is a layer of epithelial tissue and connective tissue structural and functional units of an organism that are com- that reduces friction when the stomach moves and rubs against posed of chemicals. Just as words are the smallest elements of other organs. Underneath are three layers of a type of muscular language that make sense, cells are the smallest living units in tissue called smooth muscle tissue, which contracts to churn and the human body. Among the many kinds of cells in your body are mix food and then push it into the next digestive organ, the small muscle cells, nerve cells, and epithelial cells. Figure 1.1 shows a intestine. The innermost lining is an epithelial tissue layer that smooth muscle cell, one of the three types of muscle cells in the produces fluid and chemicals responsible for digestion in the body. The cellular level of organization is the focus of Chapter 3. stomach. 3 Tissue level. Tissues are groups of cells and the materials 5 System (organ-system) level. A system (or chapter, in our surrounding them that work together to perform a particular language analogy) consists of related organs (paragraphs) with a function, similar to the way words are put together to form common function. An example of the system level, also called the sentences. There are just four basic types of tissues in your organ-system level, is the digestive system, which breaks down body: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue, and and absorbs food. Its organs include the mouth, salivary glands, nervous tissue. Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines pharynx (throat), esophagus (food tube), stomach, small intestine, hollow organs and cavities, and forms glands. Connective tissue large intestine, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Sometimes an connects, supports, and protects body organs while distributing organ is part of more than one system. The pancreas, for example, blood vessels to other tissues. Muscular tissue contracts to make is part of both the digestive system and the hormone-producing body parts move and generates heat. Nervous tissue carries endocrine system. information from one part of the body to another through nerve 6 Organismal level. An organism (OR-ga-nizm), any living impulses. Chapter 4 describes the tissue level of organization individual, can be compared to a book in our analogy. All the in greater detail. Shown in Figure 1.1 is smooth muscle tissue, parts of the human body functioning together constitute the total which consists of tightly packed smooth muscle cells. organism. 4 Organ level. At the organ level, different types of tissues are joined together. Similar to the relationship between sentences and paragraphs, organs are structures that are composed of two In the chapters that follow, you will study the anatomy and phys- or more different types of tissues; they have specific functions iology of the body systems. Table 1.2 lists the components and intro- and usually have recognizable shapes. Examples of organs are duces the functions of these systems. You will also discover that all the stomach, skin, bones, heart, liver, lungs, and brain. Figure 1.1 body systems influence one another. As you study each of the body shows how several tissues make up the stomach. The stomach’s systems in more detail, you will discover how they work together to TA BLE 1.2 The Eleven Systems of the Human Body INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM (CHAPTER 5) SKELETAL SYSTEM (CHAPTERS 6–9) Components: Skin and Hair Components: Bones and joints associated structures, such of the body and their associated as hair, fingernails and cartilages. toenails, sweat glands, and oil glands. Functions: Protects body; Functions: Supports and helps regulate body protects body; provides surface Bone temperature; eliminates area for muscle attachments; Cartilage some wastes; helps Skin and aids body movements; houses make vitamin D; detects associated cells that produce blood cells; sensations such as touch, glands stores minerals and lipids (fats). Joint pain, warmth, and cold; stores fat and provides Fingernails insulation. Toenails  1.3 Characteristics of the Living Human Organism 5 maintain health, provide protection from disease, and allow for Checkpoint reproduction of the human species. 3. Define the following terms: atom, molecule, cell, tissue, organ, Clinical Connection system, and organism. 4. At what levels of organization would an exercise physiologist Noninvasive Diagnostic Techniques study the human body? (Hint: Refer to Table 1.1.) 5. Referring to Table 1.2, which body systems help eliminate wastes? Health-care professionals and students of anatomy and physiology com- monly use several noninvasive diagnostic techniques to assess certain as- pects of body structure and function. A noninvasive diagnostic technique is one that does not involve insertion of an instrument or device through the skin or a body opening. In inspection, the examiner observes the body for any changes that deviate from normal. For example, a physician may 1.3 Characteristics of the Living examine the mouth cavity for evidence of disease. Following inspection, one or more additional techniques may be employed. In palpation (pal- Human Organism – PA-shun; palp- = gently touching) the examiner feels body surfaces with the hands. An example is palpating the abdomen to detect enlarged or OBJECTIVE – tender internal organs or abnormal masses. In auscultation (aws-kul-TA -shun; auscult- = listening) the examiner listens to body sounds to evalu- Define the important life processes of the human body. ate the functioning of certain organs, often using a stethoscope to amplify the sounds. An example is auscultation of the lungs during breathing to check for crackling sounds associated with abnormal fluid accumulation. In percussion (pur-KUSH-un; percus- = beat through) the examiner taps Basic Life Processes on the body surface with the fingertips and listens to the resulting sound. Hollow cavities or spaces produce a different sound than solid organs. Certain processes distinguish organisms, or living things, from nonliv- For example, percussion may reveal the abnormal presence of fluid in the ing things. Following are the six most important life processes of the lungs or air in the intestines. It may also provide information about the size, human body: consistency, and position of an underlying structure. An understanding of anatomy is important for the effective application of most of these diag- 1. Metabolism (me-TAB-oˉ-lizm) is the sum of all chemical processes nostic techniques. that occur in the body. One phase of metabolism is catabolism (ka-TAB-oˉ-lizm; catabol- = throwing down; -ism = a condition), the MUSCULAR SYSTEM (CHAPTERS 10, 11) NERVOUS SYSTEM (CHAPTERS 12–17) Components: Specifically, Components: Brain, spinal cord, Brain skeletal muscle tissue— nerves, and special sense organs, muscle usually attached such as eyes and ears. to bones (other muscle Functions: Generates action tissues include smooth and potentials (nerve impulses) to cardiac). Skeletal regulate body activities; detects Functions: Participates in muscle changes in body’s internal and body movements, such as external environments, interprets Spinal cord walking; maintains posture; Tendon changes, and responds by causing produces heat. muscular contractions or glandular secretions. Nerve Table 1.2 Continues 6 CH APTE R 1 An Introduction to the Human Body TA BLE 1.2 The Eleven Systems of the Human Body (Continued) ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (CHAPTER 18) CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM (CHAPTERS 19–21) Components: Hormone-producing glands (pineal gland, hypothalamus, Components: Blood, heart, and blood vessels. pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal Functions: Heart pumps blood through blood vessels; blood carries glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes) and hormone-producing cells in oxygen and nutrients to cells and carbon dioxide and wastes away from several other organs. cells and helps regulate acid–base balance, temperature, and water Functions: Regulates body activities by releasing hormones (chemical content of body fluids; blood components help defend against disease and messengers transported in blood from endocrine gland or tissue to target repair damaged blood vessels. organ). Hypothalamus Pineal gland Pituitary gland Blood Thyroid vessels: gland Thyroid Vein gland Heart Adrenal Parathyroid gland glands Posterior view Pancreas Artery Testis (male) Ovary (female) LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY (CHAPTER 22) RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (CHAPTER 23) Components: Lymphatic fluid and vessels; spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, Components: Lungs and air passageways such as the pharynx (throat), and tonsils; cells that carry out immune responses (B cells, T cells, and larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), and bronchial tubes leading into others). and out of lungs. Functions: Returns proteins and fluid to blood; carries lipids from Functions: Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide gastrointestinal tract to blood; contains sites of maturation and proliferation from blood to exhaled air; helps regulate acid–base balance of body fluids; of B cells and T cells that protect against disease-causing microbes. air flowing out of lungs through vocal cords produces sounds. Pharyngeal Pharynx Nasal cavity tonsil Oral cavity Larynx Pharynx Palatine tonsil Thymus Trachea Larynx Lingual Thoracic tonsil Bronchus duct Lung Spleen Red bone Lymph marrow node Lymphatic vessel  1.3 Characteristics of the Living Human Organism 7 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (CHAPTER 24) URINARY SYSTEM (CHAPTER 26) Components: Organs Components: Kidneys, ureters, of gastrointestinal urinary bladder, and urethra. tract, a long tube Salivary Mouth gland Pharynx Functions: Produces, stores, that includes the and eliminates urine; eliminates mouth, pharynx Esophagus wastes and regulates volume and (throat), esophagus chemical composition of blood; (food tube), stomach, Stomach helps maintain the acid–base small and large Liver Pancreas balance of body fluids; maintains intestines, and (behind Kidney anus; also includes Gallbladder stomach) body’s mineral balance; helps Ureter Small regulate production of red blood accessory organs that intestine cells. assist in digestive Large Urinary Rectum processes, such as intestine bladder Anus salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. Urethra Functions: Achieves physical and chemical breakdown of food; absorbs nutrients; eliminates solid wastes. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS (CHAPTER 28) Components: Gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females) and associated organs (uterine tubes or fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and mammary glands in females and epididymis, ductus or (vas) deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis in males). Mammary Functions: Gonads produce gametes gland Ductus (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form deferens a new organism; gonads also release Uterine Seminal hormones that regulate reproduction and tube vesicle Ovary Penis other body processes; associated organs Prostate transport and store gametes; mammary Uterus Vagina Testis glands produce milk Uterine tube Ductus deferens Seminal Uterus vesicle Ovary Prostate Penis Vagina Epididymis Testis breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler compo- a fever represents a change in the internal environment (within nents. The other phase of metabolism is anabolism (a-NAB-oˉ-lizm; the body), and turning your head toward the sound of squeal- anabol- = a raising up), the building up of complex chemical sub- ing brakes is a response to a change in the external environment stances from smaller, simpler components. For example, digestive (outside the body) to prepare the body for a potential threat. processes catabolize (split) proteins in food into amino acids. These Different cells in the body respond to environmental changes in amino acids are then used to anabolize (build) new proteins that characteristic ways. Nerve cells respond by generating electrical make up body structures such as muscles and bones. signals known as nerve impulses (action potentials). Muscle cells 2. Responsiveness is the body’s ability to detect and respond to respond by contracting, which generates force to move body changes. For example, an increase in body temperature during parts. 8 CH APTE R 1 An Introduction to the Human Body 3. Movement includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, Checkpoint single cells, and even tiny structures inside cells. For example, the coordinated action of leg muscles moves your whole body from 6. List the six most important life processes in the human body. one place to another when you walk or run. After you eat a meal that contains fats, your gallbladder contracts and releases bile into the gastrointestinal tract to help digest them. When a body tissue is damaged or infected, certain white blood cells move from the bloodstream into the affected tissue to help clean up and repair the 1.4 Homeostasis area. Inside the cell, various parts, such as secretory vesicles (see Figure 3.20), move from one position to another to carry out their OBJECTIVES functions. 4. Growth is an increase in body size that results from an increase Define homeostasis. in the size of existing cells, an increase in the number of cells, or Describe the components of a feedback system. both. In addition, a tissue sometimes increases in size because Contrast the operation of negative and positive feedback systems. the amount of material between cells increases. In a growing bone, for example, mineral deposits accumulate between bone cells, Explain how homeostatic imbalances are related to disorders. causing the bone to grow in length and width. - - 5. Differentiation (dif′-er-en-shē-A -shun) is the development of a cell Homeostasis (hoˉ′-mē-oˉ-STA -sis; homeo- = sameness; -stasis = stand- from an unspecialized to a specialized state. Such precursor cells, ing still) is the maintenance of relatively stable conditions in the which can divide and give rise to cells that undergo differentiation, body’s internal environment. It occurs because of the ceaseless inter- are known as stem cells. As you will see later in the text, each type play of the body’s many regulatory systems. Homeostasis is a dynamic of cell in the body has a specialized structure or function that differs condition. In response to changing conditions, the body’s parameters from that of its precursor (ancestor) cells. For example, red blood can shift among points in a narrow range that is compatible with cells and several types of white blood cells all arise from the same maintaining life. For example, the level of glucose in blood normally unspecialized precursor cells in red bone marrow. Also through dif- stays between 70 and 110 milligrams of glucose per 100 milliliters of ferentiation, a single fertilized human egg (ovum) develops into an blood.* Each structure, from the cellular level to the system level, con- embryo, and then into a fetus, an infant, a child, and finally an adult. tributes in some way to keeping the internal environment of the body 6. Reproduction (rē-proˉ-DUK-shun) refers either to (1) the formation of within normal limits. new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement, or (2) the produc- tion of a new individual. The formation of new cells occurs through cell division. The production of a new individual occurs through the Homeostasis and Body Fluids fertilization of an ovum by a sperm cell to form a zygote, followed by An important aspect of homeostasis is maintaining the volume and repeated cell divisions and the differentiation of these cells. composition of body fluids, dilute, watery solutions containing dis- When any one of the life processes ceases to occur properly, the solved chemicals that are found inside cells as well as surrounding result is death of cells and tissues, which may lead to death of the organ- them (See Figure 27.1). The fluid within cells is intracellular fluid ism. Clinically, loss of the heartbeat, absence of spontaneous breath- (intra- = inside), abbreviated ICF. The fluid outside body cells is extra- ing, and loss of brain functions indicate death in the human body. cellular fluid (ECF) (extra- = outside). The ECF that fills the narrow spaces between cells of tissues is known as interstitial fluid (in′-ter- STISH-al; inter- = between). As you progress with your studies, you will Clinical Connection learn that the ECF differs depending on where it occurs in the body: ECF within blood vessels is termed blood plasma, within lymphatic vessels Autopsy it is called lymph, in and around the brain and spinal cord it is known as An autopsy (AW-top-sē = seeing with one’s own eyes) or necropsy is a post- cerebrospinal fluid, in joints it is referred to as synovial fluid, and the mortem (after death) examination of the body and dissection of its internal ECF of the eyes is called aqueous humor and vitreous body. organs to confirm or determine the cause of death. An autopsy can uncover The proper functioning of body cells depends on precise the existence of diseases not detected during life, determine the extent regulation of the composition of their surrounding fluid. Because ex- of injuries, and explain how those injuries may have contributed to a per- tracellular fluid surrounds the cells of the body, it serves as the body’s son’s death. It also may provide more information about a disease, assist internal environment. By contrast, the external environment of the in the accumulation of statistical data, and educate health-care students. body is the space that surrounds the entire body. Moreover, an autopsy can reveal conditions that may affect offspring or sib- Figure 1.2 is a simplified view of the body that shows how a num- lings (such as congenital heart defects). Sometimes an autopsy is legally ber of organ systems allow substances to be exchanged between the required, such as during a criminal investigation. It also may be useful in external environment, internal environment, and body cells in order to resolving disputes between beneficiaries and insurance companies about the cause of death. *Appendix A describes metric measurements.  1.4 Homeostasis 9 FIGURE 1.2 A simplified view of exchanges between the external and internal environments. Note that the linings of the respiratory, digestive, and urinary systems are continuous with the external environment. The internal environment of the body refers to the extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid and plasma) that surrounds body cells. O2 CO2 External environment Integumentary system Nutrients Digestive system Body cells Internal environment Respiratory system Interstitial fluid Blood plasma O2 CO2 Nitrogenous Nutrients wastes Nutrients Nitrogenous wastes Cardiovascular system Urinary system Urine Solid wastes Q How does a nutrient in the external environment reach a body cell? maintain homeostasis. Note that the integumentary system covers the plasma, these substances are transported throughout the body by the outer surface of the body. Although this system does not play a major cardiovascular system. Oxygen and nutrients eventually leave plasma role in the exchange of materials, it protects the internal environment and enter interstitial fluid by crossing the walls of blood capillaries, the from damaging agents in the external environment. From the external smallest blood vessels of the body. Blood capillaries are specialized to environment, oxygen enters plasma through the respiratory system and allow the transfer of material between plasma and interstitial fluid. nutrients enter plasma through the digestive system. After entering From interstitial fluid, oxygen and nutrients are taken up by cells and 10 CH APTE R 1 An Introduction to the Human Body metabolized for energy. During this process, the cells produce waste or other chemical signals. This pathway is called an efferent products, which enter interstitial fluid and then move across blood pathway (EF-er-ent; ef- = away from), since the information flows capillary walls into plasma. The cardiovascular system transports these away from the control center. In our skin temperature example, the wastes to the appropriate organs for elimination from the body into the brain acts as the control center, receiving nerve impulses from the external environment. The waste product CO2 is removed from the body skin receptors and generating nerve impulses as output. by the respiratory system; nitrogen-containing wastes, such as urea and 3. An effector (e-FEK-tor) is a body structure that receives output ammonia, are eliminated from the body by the urinary system. from the control center and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition. Nearly every organ or tissue in Control of Homeostasis the body can behave as an effector. When your body temperature drops sharply, your brain (control center) sends nerve impulses Homeostasis in the human body is continually being disturbed. Some (output) to your skeletal muscles (effectors). The result is shivering, disruptions come from the external environment in the form of physi- which generates heat and raises your body temperature. cal insults such as the intense heat of a hot summer day or a lack of A group of receptors and effectors communicating with their enough oxygen for that two-mile run. Other disruptions originate in control center forms a feedback system that can regulate a controlled the internal environment, such as a blood glucose level that falls too condition in the body’s internal environment. In a feedback system, low when you skip breakfast. Homeostatic imbalances may also occur the response of the system “feeds back” information to change the due to psychological stresses in our social environment—the demands of work and school, for example. In most cases the disruption of homeostasis is mild and temporary, and the responses of body cells FIGURE 1.3 Operation of a feedback system. quickly restore balance in the internal environment. However, in some cases the disruption of homeostasis may be intense and pro- The three basic components of a feedback system are the receptor, longed, as in poisoning, overexposure to temperature extremes, control center, and effector. severe infection, or major surgery. Fortunately, the body has many regulating systems that can usu- ally bring the internal environment back into balance. Most often, the STIMULUS nervous system and the endocrine system, working together or inde- pendently, provide the needed corrective measures. The nervous disrupts homeostasis by system regulates homeostasis by sending electrical signals known as increasing or decreasing a nerve impulses (action potentials) to organs that can counteract changes from the balanced state. The endocrine system includes many CONTROLLED CONDITION glands that secrete messenger molecules called hormones into the blood. Nerve impulses typically cause rapid changes, but hormones usually work more slowly. Both means of regulation, however, work that is monitored by toward the same end, usually through negative feedback systems. RECEPTORS Feedback Systems The body can regulate its internal environment through many feedback systems. A feedback system or, feedback loop, is a cycle of events in which the status of a body Input that send nerve impulses or chemical signals to a condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, reevaluated, and so on. Each monitored variable, such as body temperature, blood Return to pressure, or blood glucose level, is termed a controlled condition homeostasis when CONTROL CENTER the response brings (controlled variable). Any disruption that changes a controlled the controlled condition is called a stimulus. A feedback system includes three basic that receives the input condition back to components: a receptor, a control center, and an effector (Figure 1.3). and provides nerve normal Output impulses or chemical 1. A receptor is a body structure that monitors changes in a con- signals to trolled condition and sends input to a control center. This pathway is called an afferent pathway (AF-er-ent; af- = toward; -ferrent = EFFECTORS carried), since the information flows toward the control center. Typ- ically, the input is in the form of nerve impulses or chemical signals. that bring about a change or For example, certain nerve endings in the skin sense temperature and can detect changes, such as a dramatic drop in temperature. 2. A control center in the body, for example, the brain, sets the nar- RESPONSE that alters row range or set point within which a controlled condition should the controlled condition be maintained, evaluates the input it receives from receptors, and generates output commands when they are needed. Output from Q What is the main difference diff b between t negative t and positive the control center typically occurs as nerve impulses, or hormones feedback systems?  1.4 Homeostasis 11 controlled condition in some way, either negating it (negative feed- FIGURE 1.4 Homeostatic regulation of blood pressure by a negative back) or enhancing it (positive feedback). feedback system. The broken return arrow with a negative sign surrounded by a circle symbolizes negative feedback. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS A negative feedback system reverses a change in a controlled condition. Consider the regulation of blood If the response reverses the stimulus, a system is operating by negative pressure. Blood pressure (BP) is the force exerted by blood as it feedback. presses against the walls of blood vessels. When the heart beats faster or harder, BP increases. If some internal or external stimulus causes blood pressure (controlled condition) to rise, the following sequence STIMULUS of events occurs (Figure 1.4). Baroreceptors (the receptors), pressure- sensitive nerve cells located in the walls of certain blood vessels, Disrupts homeostasis detect the higher pressure. The baroreceptors send nerve impulses by increasing (input) to the brain (control center), which interprets the impulses and responds by sending nerve impulses (output) to the heart and CONTROLLED CONDITION blood vessels (the effectors). Heart rate decreases and blood vessels Blood pressure dilate (widen), which cause BP to decrease (response). This sequence of events quickly returns the controlled condition—blood pressure— to normal, and homeostasis is restored. Notice that the activity of the effector causes BP to drop, a result that negates the original stimulus RECEPTORS (an increase in BP). This is why it is called a negative feedback system. Baroreceptors in certain POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS Unlike a negative feedback system, a blood vessels positive feedback system tends to strengthen or reinforce a change in one of the body’s controlled conditions. In a positive feedback – system, the response affects the controlled condition differently than Input Nerve impulses in a negative feedback system. The control center still provides com- mands to an effector, but this time the effector produces a physiologi- cal response that adds to or reinforces the initial change in the CONTROL CENTER controlled condition. The action of a positive feedback system contin- Brain ues until it is interrupted by some mechanism. Normal childbirth provides a good example of a positive feedback system (Figure 1.5). The first contractions of labor (stimulus) push part Return to of the fetus into the cervix, the lowest part of the uterus, which opens homeostasis when the response brings into the vagina. Stretch-sensitive nerve cells (receptors) monitor the blood pressure amount of stretching of the cervix (controlled condition). As stretching back to normal increases, they send more nerve impulses (input) to the brain (control Output Nerve impulses center), which in turn causes the pituitary gland to release the hormone oxytocin (output) into the blood. Oxytocin causes muscles in the wall of the uterus (effector) to contract even more forcefully. The contractions EFFECTORS push the fetus farther down the uterus, which stretches the cervix even more. The cycle of stretching, hormone release, and ever-stronger con- Heart tractions is interrupted only by the birth of the baby. Then, stretching of the cervix ceases and oxytocin is no longer released. Blood vessels Another example of positive feedback is what happens to your body when you lose a great deal of blood. Under normal conditions, the heart pumps blood under sufficient pressure to body cells to pro- vide them with oxygen and nutrients to maintain homeostasis. Upon severe blood loss, blood pressure drops and blood cells (including heart cells) receive less oxygen and function less efficiently. If the RESPONSE blood loss continues, heart cells become weaker, the pumping action A decrease in heart rate of the heart decreases further, and blood pressure continues to fall. and the dilation (widening) This is an example of a positive feedback cycle that has serious conse- of blood vessels cause quences and may even lead to death if there is no medical interven- blood pressure to decrease tion. As you will see in Chapter 19, blood clotting is also an example of a positive feedback system. Q What would happen to heart rate if some stimulus caused These examples suggest some important differences between blood pressure to decrease? Would this occur by way of positive and negative feedback systems. Because a positive feedback positive or negative feedback? 12 CH APTE R 1 An Introduction to the Human Body FIGURE 1.5 Positive feedback control of labor contractions during system continually reinforces a change in a controlled condition, birth of a baby. The broken return arrow with a positive sign surrounded some event outside the system must shut it off. If the action of a posi- by a circle symbolizes positive feedback. tive feedback system is not stopped, it can “run away” and may even produce life-threatening conditions in the body. The action of a If the response enhances or intensifies the stimulus, a system is operating negative feedback system, by contrast, slows and then stops as the by positive feedback. controlled condition returns to its normal state. Usually, positive feedback systems reinforce conditions that do not happen very often, and negative feedback systems regulate conditions in the body that Contractions of the wall of the uterus force the baby’s remain fairly stable over long periods. head or body into the cervix Increasing Homeostatic Imbalances You’ve seen homeostasis defined as a condition in which the body’s CONTROLLED CONDITION internal environment remains relatively stable. The body’s ability to Stretching of the cervix maintain homeostasis gives it tremendous healing power and a remarkable resistance to abuse. The physiological processes respon- sible for maintaining homeostasis are in large part also responsible for your good health. RECEPTORS For most people, lifelong good health is not something that Stretch- happens effortlessly. The many factors in this balance called health sensitive nerve + include the following: cells in the cervix The environment and your own behavior. Your genetic makeup. Input Nerve impulses The air you breathe, the food you eat, and even the thoughts you think. CONTROL CENTER The way you live your life can either support or interfere with your Brain Increased stretching body’s ability to maintain homeostasis and recover from the inevitable of the cervix causes the release of more stresses life throws your way. oxytocin, which Many diseases are the result of years of poor health behavior that results in more interferes with the body’s natural drive to maintain homeostasis. stretching of the cervix An obvious example is smoking-related illness. Smoking tobacco Output Brain interprets input exposes sensitive lung tissue to a multitude of chemicals that cause and releases oxytocin cancer and damage the lung’s ability to repair itself. Because diseases such as emphysema and lung cancer are difficult to treat and are very EFFECTORS rarely cured, it is much wiser to quit smoking—or never start—than to Muscles hope a doctor can “fix” you once you are diagnosed with a lung dis- in the wall of the ease. Developing a lifestyle that works with, rather than against, your uterus body’s homeostatic processes helps you maximize your personal potential for optimal health and well-being. Contract more As long as all of the body’s controlled conditions remain within forcefully certain narrow limits, body cells function efficiently, homeostasis is maintained, and the body stays healthy. Should one or more compo- RESPONSE nents of the body lose their ability to contribute to homeostasis, Baby’s body stretches however, the normal balance among all of the body’s processes may the cervix more be disturbed. If the homeostatic imbalance is moderate, a disorder or disease may occur; if it is severe, death may result. A disorder is any abnormality of structure or function. Disease is Interruption of the cycle: a more specific term for an illness characterized by a recognizable set The birth of the baby decreases stretching of the of signs and symptoms. A local disease affects one part or a limited cervix, thus breaking the region of the body (for example, a sinus infection); a systemic disease positive feedback cycle affects either the entire body or several parts of it (for example, influ- enza). Diseases alter body structures and functions in characteristic Q Why do positive feedback systems that are part of a ways. A person with a disease may experience symptoms, subjective normal physiological response include some mechanism changes in body functions that are not apparent to an observer. that terminates the system? Examples of symptoms are headache, nausea, and anxiety. Objective  1.5 Basic Anatomical Terminology 13 changes that a clinician can observe and measure are called signs. Define the anatomical planes, anatomical sections, and directional Signs of disease can be either anatomical, such as swelling or a rash, terms used to describe the human body. or physiological, such as fever, high blood pressure, or paralysis. Outline the major body cavities, the organs they contain, and their The science that deals with why, when, and where diseases occur associated linings. and how they are transmitted among individuals in a community is known as epidemiology (ep′-i-dē-mē-OL-oˉ-jē; epi- = upon; -demi = people). Pharmacology (far′-ma-KOL-oˉ-jē; pharmac- = drug) is the science that deals with the effects and uses of drugs in the treatment Scientists and health-care professionals use a common language of of disease. special terms when referring to body structures and their functions. The language of anatomy they use has precisely defined meanings that allow us to communicate clearly and precisely. For example, is it Clinical Connection correct to say, “The wrist is above the fingers”? This might be true if your upper limbs (described shortly) are at your sides. But if you hold your hands up above your head, your fingers would be above your Diagnosis of Disease wrists. To prevent this kind of confusion, anatomists use a standard – Diagnosis (dī-ag-NO -sis; dia- = through; -gnosis = knowledge) is the anatomical position and a special vocabulary for relating body parts science and skill of distinguishing one disorder or disease from another. to one another. The patient’s symptoms and signs, his or her medical history, a physical exam, and laboratory tests provide the basis for making a diagnosis. Tak- ing a medical history consists of collecting information about events that might be related to a patient’s illness. These include the chief complaint (primary reason for seeking medical attention), history of present illness, Body Positions past medical problems, family medical problems, social history, and re- Descriptions of any region or part of the human body assume that it is view of symptoms. A physical examination is an orderly evaluation of the in a standard position of reference called the anatomical position body and its functions. This process includes the noninvasive techniques of inspection, palpation, auscultation, and percussion that you learned (an′-a-TOM-i-kal). In the anatomical position, the subject stands erect about earlier in the chapter, along with measurement of vital signs (tem- facing the observer, with the head level and the eyes facing directly perature, pulse, respiratory rate, and blood pressure), and sometimes forward. The lower limbs are parallel and the feet are flat on the floor laboratory tests. and directed forward, and the upper limbs are at the sides with the palms turned forward (Figure 1.6). Two terms describe a reclining body. If the body is lying facedown, it is in the prone position. If the body is lying faceup, it is in the supine position. Checkpoint 7. Describe the locations of intracellular fluid, extracellular fluid, interstitial fluid, and blood plasma. Regional Names 8. Why is extracellular fluid called the internal environment of the The human body is divided into several major regions that can be body? identified externally. The principal regions are the head, neck, trunk, 9. What types of disturbances can act as stimuli that initiate a upper limbs, and lower limbs (Figure 1.6). The head consists of the feedback system? skull and face. The skull encloses and protects the brain; the face 10. Define receptor, control center, and effector. is the front portion of the head that includes the eyes, nose, mouth, 11. What is the difference between symptoms and signs of a disease? forehead, cheeks, and chin. The neck supports the head and Give examples of each. attaches it to the trunk. The trunk consists of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis. Each upper limb attaches to the trunk and consists of the shoulder, armpit, arm (portion of the limb from the shoulder to the elbow), forearm (portion of the limb from the elbow to the wrist), 1.5 Basic Anatomical wrist, and hand. Each lower limb also attaches to the trunk and consists of the buttock, thigh (portion of the limb from the buttock Terminology to the knee), leg (portion of the limb from the knee to the ankle), ankle, and foot. The groin is the area on the front surface of the body marked by a crease on each side, where the trunk attaches to the OBJECTIVES thighs. Figure 1.6 shows the anatomical and common names of major Describe the anatomical position. parts of the body. For example, if you receive a tetanus shot in your Relate the anatomical names and the corresponding common gluteal region, the injection is in your buttock. Because the anatom- names for various regions of the human body. ical term for a body part usually is based on a Greek or Latin word, 14 CH APTE R 1 An Introduction to the Human Body FIGURE 1.6 The anatomical position. The anatomical names and corresponding common names (in parentheses) are indicated for specific body regions. For example, the cephalic region is the head. In the anatomical position, the subject stands erect facing the observer with the head level and the eyes facing forward. The lower limbs are parallel and the feet are flat on the floor and directed forward, and the upper limbs are at the sides with the palms facing forward. Frontal (forehead) Temporal (temple) Cranial Orbital or ocular (eye) (skull) Cephalic Otic (ear) (head) Facial Buccal (cheek) (face) Cephalic Nasal (nose) (head) Cervical Occipital Oral (mouth) (base of skull) (neck) Mental (chin) Cervical Thoracic (neck) Axillary Sternal (breastbone) (chest) (armpit) Scapular Brachial Mammary (breast) (shoulder blade) (arm) Umbilical Vertebral Abdominal (spinal column) (navel) Antecubital (abdomen) Coxal (hip) Dorsal Trunk (front of elbow) Olecranal or (back) Inguinal (groin) cubital Antebrachial Upper (back of elbow) (forearm) limb Pelvic Sacral Lumbar (loin) Carpal (pelvis) (between (wrist) hips) Pollex Palmar (thumb) or volar (palm) Gluteal Manual (buttock) (hand) Digital or Perineal (region phalangeal of anus and (fingers) external genitals) Femoral Pubic Dorsum (thigh) (pubis) (back of hand) Patellar Popliteal (anterior surface of knee) Lower (hollow behind knee) limb Crural (leg) Sural Tarsal (calf) (ankle) Pedal Digital or (foot) phalangeal (toes) Dorsum (top of foot) Plantar (sole) Hallux Calcaneal (a) Anterior view (great toe) (b) Posterior view (heel) Q What is the usefulness of defining one standard anatomical position? Directional Terms it may look different from the common name for the same part or area. For example, the Latin word axilla (ak-SIL-a) is the anatomical To locate various body structures, anatomists use specific directional term for armpit. Thus, the axillary nerve is one of the nerves pass- terms, words that describe the position of one body part relative to ing within the armpit. You will learn more about the Greek and Latin another. Several directional terms are grouped in pairs that have word roots of anatomical and physiological terms as you read this opposite meanings, such as anterior (front) and posterior (back). book. Exhibit 1 and Figure 1.7 present the main directional terms.  Exhibit 1 15 EXHIBIT 1 Directional Terms (Figure 1.7) OBJECTIVE example, your knee is superior to your ankle, even though both are located in the inferior half of the body. Study the directional terms below and the Define each directional term used to describe the human body. example of how each is used. As you read the examples, look at Figure 1.7 to see the location of each structure. Overview Most of the directional terms used to describe the relationship of one part Checkpoint of the body to another can be grouped into pairs that have opposite mean- 12. Which directional terms can be used to specify the relation- ings. For example, superior means toward the upper part of the body, and ships between (1) the elbow and the shoulder, (2) the left and inferior means toward the lower part of the body. It is important to under- right shoulders, (3) the sternum and the humerus, and (4) the stand that directional terms have relative meanings; they make sense only heart and the diaphragm? when used to describe the position of one structure relative to another. For DIRECTIONAL TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE OF USE – Superior (soo’-PER-ē-or) Toward the head, or the upper part of a structure. The heart is superior to the liver. (cephalic or cranial) – Inferior (in-FE-rē-or) (caudal) Away from the head, or the lower part of a structure. The stomach is inferior to the lungs. – Anterior (an-TER-ē-or) (ventral)* Nearer to or at the front of the body. The sternum (breastbone) is anterior to the heart. – Posterior (pos-TER-ē-or) (dorsal) Nearer to or at the back of the body. The esophagus (food tube) is posterior to the trachea (windpipe). – Medial (ME-dē-al) Nearer to the midline (an imaginary vertical line that The ulna is medial to the radius. divides the body into equal right and left sides). Lateral (LAT-er-al) Farther from the midline. The lungs are lateral to the heart. – Intermediate (in’-ter-ME-dē-at) Between two structures. The transverse colon is intermediate to the ascending and descending colons. Ipsilateral (ip-si-LAT-er-al) On the same side of the body as another structure. The gallbladder and ascending colon are ipsilateral. Contralateral (KON-tra-lat-er-al) On the opposite side of the body from another structure. The ascending and descending colons are contralateral. Proximal (PROK-si-mal) Nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk; nearer to The humerus (arm bone) is proximal to the radius. the origination of a structure. Distal (DIS-tal) Farther from the attachment of a limb to the trunk; The phalanges (finger bones) are distal to the farther from the origination of a structure. carpals (wrist bones). Superficial (soo’-per-FISH-al) Toward or on the surface of the body. The ribs are superficial to the lungs. (external) Deep (Internal) Away from the surface of the body. The ribs are deep to the skin of the chest and back. *Note that the terms anterior and ventral mean the same thing in humans. However, in four-legged animals ventral refers to the belly side and is therefore inferior. Similarly, the terms posterior and dorsal mean the same thing in humans, but in four-legged animals dorsal refers to the back side and is therefore superior. 16 CH APTE R 1 An Introduction to the Human Body FIGURE 1.7 Directional terms. Directional terms precisely locate various parts of the body relative to one another. LATERAL MEDIAL LATERAL SUPERIOR Midline Esophagus (food tube) Trachea (windpipe) PROXIMAL Rib Right lung Left lung Sternum (breastbone) Heart Humerus Stomach Liver Transverse colon Radius Small intestine Ulna Gallbladder Descending colon Ascending colon Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges DISTAL INFERIOR Anterior view of trunk and right upper limb Q Is the radius proximal to the humerus? Is the esophagus anterior to the trachea? Are the ribs superficial to the lungs? Is the urinary bladder medial to the ascending colon? Is the sternum lateral to the descending colon? Planes and Sections body or an organ into right and left sides. More specifically, when such a plane passes through the midline of the body or an organ and You will also study parts of the body relative to planes, imaginary flat divides it into equal right and left sides, it is called a midsagittal surfaces that pass through the body parts (Figure 1.8). A sagittal plane or a median plane. The midline is an imaginary vertical line plane (SAJ-i-tal; sagitt- = arrow) is a vertical plane that divides the that divides the body into equal left and right sides. If the sagittal  1.5 Basic Anatomical Terminology 17 plane does not pass through the midline but instead divides the body When you study a body region, you often view it in section. or an organ into unequal right and left sides, it is called a parasagittal A section is a cut of the body or one of its organs made along one – plane (para- = near). A frontal or coronal plane (koˉ-RO -nal; corona = of the planes just described. It is important to know the plane of crown) divides the body or an organ into anterior (front) and poste- the section so you can understand the anatomical relationship of rior (back) portions. A transverse plane divides the body or an organ one part to another. Figure 1.9a–c indicates how three different into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions. Other names for a sections—midsagittal, frontal, and transverse—provide different transverse plane are a cross-sectional or horizontal plane. Sagittal, views of the brain. frontal, and transverse planes are all at right angles to one another. – An oblique plane (oˉ-BLEK), by contrast, passes through the body or FIGURE 1.9 Planes and sections through different parts of the an organ at an oblique angle (any angle other than a 90-degree brain. The diagrams (left) show the planes, and the photographs (right) angle). show the resulting sections. Note: The “view” arrows in the diagrams indicate the direction from which each section is viewed. This aid is used throughout the book to indicate viewing perspectives. Planes divide the body in various ways to produce sections. FIGURE 1.8 Planes through the human body. Midsagittal plane Frontal, transverse, sagittal, and oblique planes divide the body in specific ways. Frontal plane View Dissection Shawn Miller; Photograph Mark Nielsen Midsagittal section Parasagittal plane (a) Frontal plane Transverse plane Midsagittal plane View (through Dissection Shawn Miller; Photograph Mark Nielsen midline) Frontal section (b) View Transverse Oblique plane plane Posterior Anterior Dissection Shawn Miller; Photograph Mark Nielsen Anterolateral view Transverse section (c) Q Which plane divides the heart into anterior and posterior Q Which plane divides the brain into unequal right and left portions? portions? 18 CH APTE R 1 An Introduction to the Human Body Body Cavities vertebral column. Within the thoracic cavity are the pericardial cavity (per′-i-KAR-dē-al; peri- = around; -cardial = heart), a fluid-filled space Body cavities are spaces that enclose internal organs. Bones, muscles, that surrounds the heart, and two fluid-filled spaces called pleural ligaments, and other structures separate the various body cavities from cavities (PLOOR-al; pleur- = rib or side), one around each lung. The one another. Here we discuss several body cavities (Figure 1.10). central part of the thoracic cavity is an anatomical region called the - The cranial bones form a hollow space of the head called the mediastinum (mē′-dē-as-TI -num; media- = middle; -stinum = parti- - cranial cavity (KRA -nē-al), which contains the brain. The bones of the tion). It is between the lungs, extending from the sternum to the ver- vertebral column (backbone) form the vertebral (spinal) canal (VER- tebral column and from the first rib to the diaphragm (Figure 1.11a, b). te-bral), which contains the spinal cord. The cranial cavity and verte- The mediastinum contains all thoracic organs except the lungs them- bral canal are continuous with one another. Three layers of protective selves. Among the structures in the mediastinum are the heart, tissue, the meninges (me-NIN-jēz), and a shock-absorbing fluid esophagus, trachea, thymus, and several large blood vessels that - surround the brain and spinal cord. enter and exit the heart. The diaphragm (DI -a-fram = partition or The major body cavities of the trunk are the thoracic and abdom- wall) is a dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from inopelvic cavities. The thoracic cavity (thor-AS-ik; thorac- = chest) or the abdominopelvic cavity. chest cavity (Figure 1.11) is formed by the ribs, the muscles of the The abdominopelvic cavity (ab-dom′-i-noˉ-PEL-vik; see Figure chest, the sternum (breastbone), and the thoracic portion of the 1.10) extends from the diaphragm to the groin and is encircled by the FIGURE 1.10 Body cavities. The black dashed line in (a) indicates the border between the abdominal and pelvic cavities. The major cavities of the trunk are the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. CAVITY COMMENTS Cranial cavity Formed by cranial bones and contains brain. Vertebral canal Formed by vertebral column and contains spinal Cranial cord and the beginnings of spinal nerves. cavity Thoracic cavity* Chest cavity; c