Week of 1-7-25 Notes - Biology/Anatomy Notes PDF

**Notes** *HW due Saturdays at 11:59 pm* *Focus on Chemistry, a lot of students have trouble with that -- ch 2* *Chapter Groups* - *Ch 1-6* - *Ch 7-12* - *Ch 13-14* Origins of Medical Science - Early healers depended on superstition and magic - Corpses and cadaver dissection broug...

**Notes** *HW due Saturdays at 11:59 pm* *Focus on Chemistry, a lot of students have trouble with that -- ch 2* *Chapter Groups* - *Ch 1-6* - *Ch 7-12* - *Ch 13-14* Origins of Medical Science - Early healers depended on superstition and magic - Corpses and cadaver dissection brought new knowledge of the human body - Understanding of A&P evolved w/ experimentation A&P - Anatomy -- Study of structure/morphology of the human body and it's parts - Physiology -- study of functions of human body & its parts - Study normal structure and function of body Levels of Organization - Atom - Molecule - Macromolecule - Proteins - Fats - Lipds - Carpohydrates - DNA/RNA - Cell - Pap smear evaluates changes to cell to look for abnormalities - Red blood cells - Neurons - Tissue - Biopsy evaluates tissue for abnormalities - Empothylia tissue - Connective tissue - Muscle tissue -- connects to bone to move body - Nervous tissue - Organ - Made of different tissues which serve a common purpose - Organ System - Organism Core themes of A&P - Homeostasis -- Maintenance of constant internal environment -- keeps body in stable condition apart form outside factors (think temperature) - The Cell -- all living things consist of cells - Internal environment -- environment within the body - Interdependency of cells -- cells depend on each other - Structure and function -- interrelated Characteristics of life - Growth -- increase in cell number and size and increase in body size - Reproduction -- production of new cells and organism - Responsiveness -- reaction to a change inside or outside of the body - Movement -- change in body position or location -- motion of internal organs - Metabolism -- the sum of all chemical reactions in your body - Respiration -- making energy, most times by taking in oxegyn and releasing carbon dioxide - Digestion -- breaking down food into usable nutrients for absorption in blood - Circulation -- moving chemicals and cells through the body fluids - Excretion -- removing waste products Requirements of organisms - Chemicals - Water - Most abundant substance in body - Environment for metabolic processes (intracellular and extracellular fluids) - Required for transport of substances - Regulation of body temperature - Food - Provides necessary nutrients to supply energy - Oxygen - Releases energy from food - If oxygen is depleted to a certain area of body, pain starts to occur. If oxygen is removed, the body part starts to die - Heat - Pressure Homeostasis Mechanisms - Stimulus - A Change Occurs in the internal environment - Receptors - Detects the change - Control Center - Change is compared to set point, signal sent to brain to activate effectors. - Effectors - Muscles or glands - Response - Change is corrected Negative Feedback -- reverses change - Most common type of homeostatic mechanism - Effectors return conditions toward normal range and the deviation from set point lessens - Called "negative" because the response to the change moves the variable in the opposite direction of the deviation from the set point - Prevents sudden, severe changes in the body - Similar to how a furnace heats a house to a certain temperature and then shuts off/turns on as needed, will turn off once value reaches set point - Examples in body include body temperature, blood pressure, and glucose level in the blood, hormones Positive Feedback -- pushes change forward until desired outcome - Uncommon feedback mechanism in the body -- most common occurs in child birth, increase in oxytocin which causes contractions. Another example is blood clotting. Another example is breast feeding - Change/deviation is intensified instead of reversed - Activity of effector is increased initially, instead of decreasing - Short-lived - Produce unstable conditions, that seem like they will not lead to homeostasis, but they will Organization of the Human Body - Dorsal body cavity -- back -- cranal cavity and vertebral canal - Ventral body cavity -- front -- thoracic cavity (left pleural cavity, mediastinum, right pleural cavity, pericardial cavity), diaphragm separates thoracic cavity from abdominopelvic cavity, abdominopelvic cavity (abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity) Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Membranes The thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are lined by double-layered **serous membranes**, which secrete serous fluid (prevents friction) - Serous membranes consist of 2 layers - Visceral Layer -- inner layer which covers an organ - Parietal layer -- outer layer which lines wall of cavity - Examples - Visceral and parietal pleura -- lungs - Visceral and parietal Pericardium - heart - Visceral and parietal Peritoneum Organ Systems -- need to understand basics of systems - Integumentary system - Skin, glands, nails, hair - Body covering, protection, body temperature regulation, sensory reception, production of vitamin d - Skeletal system - Muscular System - Movement - Temperature - Posture - Nervous system - Integration and coordination of organ function through nerve impulses and neurotransmitters -- rapid short-term effects - Endocrine System - Integration and coordination of organ function through chemical messengers called hormones; slower, longer-lasting effects - Hormones travel via blood - Cardiovasular system - Transportation of gasses, nutrients, blood cells, hormones, and wastes - Works with respiratory system - Lymphatic system - Transportation of fluids from tissue spaces to blood, carries fats from digestive system to blood, and defends body against infection - Tonsils - Spleen - Digestive system - Receives food, breaks down food, absorbs digestion products, excretes waste - Respiratory system - Moves air in and out of body, exchanges gasses (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between blood and air; absorbs oxygen - Works with cardiovascular system - Urinary - Removes blood wastes, regulates electrolyte & water balance and blood pressure, produces urine and excretes it by transporting out of body - Reproductive system - Male and female systems produce and transport sex cells, produce hormones, and produce new like organisms - See table 1.3 for parts of different systems Lifespan changes - Aging occurs from the microscopic to the whole-body level - Hair loses pigment - Skin wrinkles due to decrease in subcutaneous fat - Skin stiffens due to decrease in collagen - Elevated blood pressure - Percentage of fats in tissues increases - Joint stiffens - Blood glucose may progress to type 2 diabetes - Tissues atrophy and organs shrink - Cells can't undergo cell division as they lose tips of chromosomes - Metabolic rate decreases - Decreased production of enzymes and other proteins - Some with develop dementia/Alzheimer disease Anatomical Position - Patient facing me - Standing erect - Arms down at sides - Palms forward Terms of relative Position -- **need to add definitions** - Superior/Inferior - Anterior or ventral/Posterior or dorsal - Medial/Lateral - Bilateral -- paired structure on both sides (kindeys) - Ipsilateral -- same side/Contralateral -- different side (nervous system) - Proximal -- close to trunk of body/Distal -- farther from point of attachment to trunk of body - Superficial -- close to body surface(skin)/Deep -- more interal(muscle, heart) Sections of Body - Sagittal plane (divides into right and left sections) - Transverse plane (top and bottom part) -- superior and inferior sections - Coronal plane (front and back part) -- anterior and posterior sections Abdominal Regions and Quadrants - study abdominal regions **Lab** *Always bring in work sheets* Microbiology is the study of organisms that cannot be seen by the naked eye Virus is the smallest microorganism -- made of proteins and DNA/RNA -- not a cell because no covering Bacteria -- are cells -- about 10x bigger than a virus -- does not have a nucleus, DNA material loose in cell - Cell wall - Cell membrane - Cytoplasm - Flagella - Ribosome - Pili - Plasma - Genetic material Virus is smallest, then bacteria, then animal cell Bacteria have different shapes - Spherical - Streptococcus (in a straight line) -- stays local, mostly to skin, sometimes to bones - Staphylococcus (in a cluster) -- goes everywhere, can cause massive problems - Rod shaped - Bacillus comtraccus - Clostridium -- when active can only be treated by vaccine - Spiral - Most STDs (may look like spiral or wavy lines Cultures - TSA -- triptic soy agar - How does it grow? - BAP -- Blood agar Plate - Use sheep blood to grow bacteria Structures of Cell - Cell membrane - Covering on cell - Provides protection for cell - Lets water, electrolytes in easily - Blocks bacteria/viruses - Mitocondria - Small ovals - Organelles - Produce atp - Number per cell depends on how much energy is needed - Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough) - Span off necleous - Make proteins - Covered with ribosomes - Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth) - Span off ER Rough - No ribosoms - Makes steroids and fats - Nucleoulus - Sends them to cytoplasm or rough or smooth ER - Golgi apparatus - Transports proteins from center to outside cell - Packages proteins and other products of the cell where needed - Centrioles - Always in pairs @ right angles - That and nucleus are required to form a cell *What to study (don't talk about in tutoring)* - *Ch 1 and parts of Ch 2* - *Ions -- negative/positive charged particles* - *Cations* - *Anions* - *Structure of atom* - *Terms of relative positions* - *Feedback loops* - *Know examples* - *Organic vs inorganic* - *Know chemical formulas and whether they're organic or inorganic* - *Organic, need to have hydrogen and carbon directly attached* - *Planes of the body* - *Sections of the body* - *PH* - *Regions of abdomen* **1/9/25** Review - Levels of Organization - Feedback Loops - General idea of systems (what they do) - Planes of the body -- what portions does that divide into? (superior/inferior, etc) Abdominal Plane - Right Hypochondriac Region - Left Hypochondriac Region - Epigastric Region - Stomach - Umbilical Region - Right Lateral Region - Colon - Intestines - Left Lateral Region - Colon - Intenstines - Right Inguinal Region - Apendix - Left Inguinal Region - Pubic Region - Reproduction Organ Why Chemistry? - People and Mecidine are made of chemicals Atomic Structure - Nucleus - Protons - Single Positive Charge - Don't move - Neutrons - No Charge - Don't Move - Orbital - Electrons - Negative Charge - Move around nucleus Molecule and Compound - Molecule -- particle formed when 2 or more atoms are chemically combined - Compound -- particle formed when two or more atoms of different elements combined - Molecular formulas -- depict the elements present and number of each atom present in molecule - H2 -- a molecule of hydrogen - C6H12O6 -- a molecule of glucose; a compound - H2O -- a molecule of water; a compound The bigger the atom, the higher the gravitational pull Bonding of Atoms - Ionic Bonds -- when you transfer electrons between one atom to another they become bonded - **Ion -- an electrically changed atom that gains or loses electrons to become stable** - **Cation -- positively charged ion, formed when an atom loses electrons** - **Anion -- negatively charged ion, formed when atom gains electrons** - **Ionic Bonds -- Strong chemical bonds formed when ions of opposite charge attract** - \+ means it lost an electron(or more) to become stable - -- means it gained an electron(or more) to become stable - Will be on exam - **Covalent Bonds -- strong chemical bonds formed between atoms that share electrons** - Non-polar Covalent Bonds -- equal sized atoms sharing electrons equally - Polar Covalent Bonds -- different sized atoms don't share electrons equally -- electrons will be closer to the nucleus of the smaller molecule - Hydrogen Bonds - Weak bond - Slightly positive (H) end of one polar molecule to a slightly negative (N or O) end of a nearby molecule - From between adjacent water molecules - Important for protein and nucleic acid structure Chemical Reactions -- reactants (starting molecules) and products (what you have at end) - Synthesis Reaction -- more complex chemical structure is formed - A+B-\>AB - Decomposition Reaction -- chemical bonds are broken to form a simpler chemical structure - AB -\> A+B - Exchange Reaction - Reversible Reaction Electrolytes -- substances that release ions in water, can conduct electric current Acid -- electrolytes that dissociate to release hydrogen ions in water -- hydrogen increases Bases -- substances that release ions that can be combined with hydrogen ions -- releases hydroxide ions into solution -- hydrogen decreases Salts -- electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid and a base **pH** - **Concentrations of acids and bases affect chemical reactions in living organisms** - **0-14** - **0 = acidic** - **7 = neutral** - **14 = base** - Juice -- electrolytes - pH blood is 7.35-7.45 in homeostasis - Acidemia occurs when blood pH drops to 7.0 to 7.3 - Makes a person feel disoriented, fatigued - Caused by vomiting of alkaline intestinal contents, diabetes, lung disease w/ impaired CO2 exhalation - Alkalemia occurs when blood pH rises to 7.5-7.8 - Makes a person feel dizzy and agitated - Caused by high altitude breathing, vomiting of acidic stomach contents, high fever, taking excessive antacids - Buffers are chemicals which act to resist pH Changes; bind and release H+ ions to regulate pH -- sodium bicarbonate is an example Organic vs Inorganic molecules - Organic molecules - Contain C and H bonded to each other - Will dissolve in water or organic liquids - Water-soluble organic compounds do not release ions and are non-electrolytes - Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids - Inorganic - Generally do not contain C and H - Usually dissolve in water and dissociate, forming ions and are electrolytes - Water - Oxygen - Carbon dioxide - Inorganic salts Organic Substances: Carbohydrates - Main source of cellular energy -- 60% of all intake - Supply materials to build cell structures by breaking of chemical bonds -- polysaccharide are the greatest source of energy, why athletes carboload before games - Water-soluble - C6H12O6 -- glucose - Size of classification of carbohydrates - Monosaccharides -- single sugars -- **glucose**, fructose - Disaccharides -- double sugars -- sucrose, lactose - Polysaccharides -- complex carbohydrates -- starch, glycogen, cellulose Lipids -- make up 30% of diet - Lipids are fats - Insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents - Include triglycerides (fat), phospholipids, steroids - Important component of cell membranes and have several functions in cells - Most abundant lipids are triglycerides (fats) - Used for cellular energy - Contain more energy per gram than carbohydrates - Contain C, H, and O, but less O than carbs - 1 molecule of glycerol and 3 fatty acids - Phospholipids are similar to triglycerides, but contain glycerol, 2 fatty acids and a phosphate group - Fat is required to live, required by cells Saturated and unsaturated **fatty acids** - Saturated fatty acids - Have only single carbon-hydrogen bonds - Most are solid at room temperature - Butter - Unsaturated fatty acids - Some carbon don't have hydrogen attached - Most liquid at room temperature - Olive Oil - Triglycerides -- energy occur at each point when bond between glycerol portion and fatty acid portion is broken Phospholipids and steroids - Phospholipids - Main structural component of cell membrane - Steroids - Required to make hormones in body - Component of cell membranes - Cholesterol is the main steroid of the body Fat molecules have a head and tail component - Head is water soluble - Tail is water insoluble Proteins - Used last for energy because is multifunctional, repairs tissue, produces steroids and hormones - Produced typically in liver - **Consists of building blocks called amino acids** - Amino acids bonded w/ Peptide bonds - Weak bond - Constantly being broken down for different functions - Bonding carbon of one molecule and the nitrogen of another molecule - People w/ kidney issues are on low protein diet - Used as structural materials, energy source, hormones, receptors, enzymes, and antibodies - Produced in liver - **Built w/ amino acids** Nucleic acids - Carry genetic code (DNA) or aid in protein synthesis (RNA - DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid - Double change of nucleotides - Looks like a ladder - Rungs of ladder are nucleotides - Sugar - Base - Phosphate - Stores genetic code - Contains sugar deosyribose (ribose w/o oxygen) - RNA Ribonucleic acid - Single gain on nucleotides - Found in both nucleus and cytoplasm, goes back and forth to ribosome to produce protein - Made of sugar, base, phosphate - Contains the sugar ribose