Brain and Cognition 3 Week 4 PDF

· evidence theory · Chapter 9 – Memory Part 1 B&C3: Cognitive Neuropsychology Hanneke den Ouden  Why did memory evolve? § www.wooclap.com § Code: CNPMEMORY 2  Why did memory evolve ? § WHERE and WHEN was… car I espect ? ↓ Danger...

· evidence theory · Chapter 9 – Memory Part 1 B&C3: Cognitive Neuropsychology Hanneke den Ouden  Why did memory evolve? § www.wooclap.com § Code: CNPMEMORY 2  Why did memory evolve ? § WHERE and WHEN was… car I espect ? ↓ Danger presiding Food the Partners future Sy recording the past 3  Memory is for predicting the future § WHERE and WHEN can I expect… Danger Food Partner 4  Memory is for predicting the future…. and generalising 5 based expect your on prev expo you - ---  Memory is for predicting the future t § Generalization: Specific dangers, food and partners, but also similar dangers, food and partners § Low precision can be advantageous! if you're too prese you can't to generalization 6  Outline § Brief anatomy of memory § Memory deficits § Declarative memory & the medial temporal lobe § Memory consolidation / storage § Flexible memories 7 Theory of Human Memory Function In cognitive control - & ⑨ 8 Theory of Human Memory Function 9  Memory Stages § Encoding O Izanomusike) § Acquisition: selection of information to store - § Consolidation: stabilising the memory LTM 8§ Storage: permanent record of information § Retrieval: accessing stored information § Reconsolidation = retrieving Medial Temporal lobe - hippoc. mygdala - 10  Outline § Brief anatomy of memory § Memory deficits § Declarative memory & the medial temporal lobe § Memory consolidation / storage § Flexible memories 11  the Amnesia syndrome 12  Temporal aspects of amnesia § Anterograde Amnesia future § Retrograde Amnesia bat § Loss of memory over a short period (e.g. concussion) Charcot, 19th century § Loss of memory for decades (e.g. Korsakoff) O 13  Temporal aspects of amnesia § Anterograde Amnesia § Retrograde Amnesia § Loss of memory over a short period § Loss of memory for decades § Temporal Gradient (Ribot’s Law) % intact § Loss of memory of more recent events more severe than for events in the past A memory > - recent memory-Koge interogeade > - past memory-spared 14  Patient H.M. ↓ surgeon Henry Molaison (1926-2008) William Scoville (1906-1984) Brenda Milner (*1918) 15  Patient H.M. (Scoville & Milner 1957) no secures taben-fixed § The surgery to treat Molaison's epilepsy - hoppocampus - the issue 16  Patient H.M. (Scoville & Milner 1957) § Surgery September 1953, age 27 § Tested April 1955, age 29 IQ better than pre-surgery Fewer seizures but….. Reported date as March 1953, age of 27 No memories after that date he haven't after stored any memory the surgery = Antenograde Amnesia 17  hippocampus is iup => Patient H.M. – Deficits Episodic memory § Anterograde amnesia – since lesion Events/People / Location of new home Suggests encoding deficit § Retrograde amnesia – prior to lesion emertime / retro 18 ↳ Scoville & Milner 1957 before lesion  Patient H.M. – Deficits § Anterograde amnesia – since lesion Events/People / Location of new home Suggests encoding deficit § Retrograde amnesia – prior to lesion § Semantic memory Language essentially frozen in 50’s Exceptions: ayatollah, rock ‘n roll 19 Gabrieli et al. 1988  Patient H.M. § Intact working memory ~ Normal digit span (remembering numbers) Unless interrupted (constant rehearsal) comin later - he couldn't 20  Patient H.M. § Intact skill memory ~ e.g. Mirror drawing task (Milner 1962, 1965) But NO explicit memory about training 21  HM & skill memory – watch @ Brightspace 22  What we learnt from HM & Amnesia syndrome Amnesia syndrome is a specific pattern of memory loss, not just ‘they forget stuff’ - declarative Empirical basis for the structure of human memory 23  Reading tip 24  Clive Wearing: a different case of memory loss (Herpes simplex) piano guy sec memory hippocampus retrograde t autoregrade 25  Diary of Clive Wearing § 8:31 AM: Now I am really, completely awake. 26  Diary of Clive Wearing § 8:31 AM: Now I am really, completely awake. § 9:06 AM: Now I am perfectly, overwhelmingly awake. 27  Diary of Clive Wearing § 8:31 AM: Now I am really, completely awake. § 9:06 AM: Now I am perfectly, overwhelmingly awake. § 9:34 AM: Now I am superlatively, actually awake. 28  Diary of Clive Wearing § 8:31 AM: Now I am really, completely awake. § 9:06 AM: Now I am perfectly, overwhelmingly awake. § 9:34 AM: Now I am superlatively, actually awake. § Complete lack of insight! § Doesn’t see the incongruency: how can he be married, play the piano, have so much semantic knowledge… if he was never awake? § temporal lobe AND prefrontal cortex affected -m fails to reject the 29 Inconsist.  Reading Tip: the story of Clive Wearing § https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2007/09/24/the-abyss 30  Outline § Brief anatomy of memory § Memory deficits § Declarative memory & the medial temporal lobe § Studying the hippocampus § Encoding vs. Retrieval § Familiarity vs. Recall § Memory consolidation / storage § Flexible memories 31  Outline § Brief anatomy of memory § Memory deficits § Declarative memory & the medial temporal lobe § Studying the hippocampus § Encoding vs. Retrieval § Familiarity vs. Recall § Memory consolidation / storage § Flexible memories 32  The Medial Temporal Lobe Memory System 33  HM and CW taught us that the hippocampus is crucial for memory 34  ↑ HM and CW taught us that the hippocampus is crucial for memory …. for ALL types of memory? So, how was your day? Wroof. 35  Task 1: Associative memory Associative learning: stimulus-response O 36  Task 2: delay non-match to sample task context-dependent declarative memory: delayed non-match to sample task Trial = context / ‘when’ trial 1 + O trial 2 + O trial 3 O + 37  Hippocampal lesion affects…. LET’S VOTE! Associative learning: stimulus-response context-dependent declarative memory: delayed non-match to sample 38  to remember T what happened in A the last session Hippocampal lesions disturb episodic memory, but not context-free associative learning only Context dependent memory ↓is about episodic 39  Do just hippocampal lesions disturb Delay non-match to sample? Delay Non Match to Sample 000a N = no lesion (H = hippocampal) HP = H + paraphippocampal HPP = HP + perirhinal 40 Zola-Morgan e.a. 1993:  Do hippocampal lesions disturb Delay non-match to sample? Delay Non Match to Sample N = no lesion (H = hippocampal) HP = H + paraphippocampal HPP = HP + perirhinal ? 41 Zola-Morgan e.a. 1993:  Do hippocampal lesions disturb Delay non-match to sample? Delay Non Match to Sample N = no lesion (H = hippocampal) HP = H + paraphippocampal HPP = HP + perirhinal For short delays, working memory can ‘solve the task’ 42 Zola-Morgan e.a. 1993:  Hippocampus + surrounding areas important for episodic memory Delay Non Match to Sample N = no lesion (H = hippocampal) HP = H + paraphippocampal HPP = HP + perirhinal the more of hoppocampal lesion the worse - the more posterior the worse + silateral 43 Zola-Morgan e.a. 1993:  Hippocampus does not work alone § Lesions to input regions of the HC worsen memory impairment paraphippocampal perirhinal enthorhinal cortex 44  Hippocampal lesions disturb episodic memory, but not context-free associative learning ? How is this related to the problems HM had? 45  What makes a memory “episodic”? 46  The importance of context for episodic memory § Memory trace: episode = stimulus (what, who) & context 47  The importance of context for episodic memory § Memory trace: episode = stimulus (what, who) > PLUS context: (where,when) time and place make the context - 48  Hypothesis: Hippocampus is crucial for episodic memory § Hippocampus is important for storing context information: § when did something happen, where did it happen etc. 49  What does the ‘context’ of memory look like? - ex. the fixi driver hippocangus grew 80 - O · 50  Spatial navigation § Hippocampus creates a ‘map’ of space? 51  Spatial navigation § Hippocampus creates a ‘map’ of space? O § Encode the ‘where’ component of your episodic memories 52  INTERLUDE Testing the role of the hippocampus in spatial navigation 53  Learning HC lesion: Morris water maze how : by using Cue - 7 - - & 54  HC lesion: Morris water maze § Doesn’t matter where you drop it in the tank 55  HC lesion: Morris water maze 56  HC lesion: Morris water maze of it goes at indication remembers destimat + I' eues serve da & 57  HC lesion: Morris water maze don't learn : they 58  Rats can use spatial cues to navigate around. However, when their hippocampus is lesioned, they can no longer use these spatial context cues. 59  but… lesioning hippocampus doesn’t tell us what it is doing during (cue-based) spatial navigation! 60  Recording hippocampal cell activity during navigation ↑ --- - i : & for diff - parts Liff colour i i Bratm soldste paten o’Keefe & Dostrovsky 1971 61  consolidation memory the Hippocampal place cells during sleep - the cells the same single way & - W W 62  Nobel Prize 2014: hippocampus encodes location information 63  Summary: Hippocampus is crucial for Context-dependent memory (delay nonmatch to sample) Encoding spatial context: navigation …. ongoing research how these are all linked together! 64  Outline § Brief anatomy of memory § Memory deficits § Declarative memory & the medial temporal lobe § Studying the hippocampus § Encoding vs. Retrieval § Familiarity vs. Recall § Memory consolidation / storage § Flexible memories 65  The Big Questions § Is the hippocampus important for encoding or retrieval of information? encoding retrieval O response ‘seen before’ ‘new’ remembered forgotten 66  The Big Questions § Is the hippocampus important for encoding or retrieval of information? § Approach: imaging human memory encoding retrieval response ‘seen before’ ‘new’ remembered forgotten 67  Design: Subsequent memory paradigm At encoding (+ fMRI): remember a list of words OLD Goldfish Carpet Mountain Moose 68 Brewer ea. 1998, Wagner ea. 1998. Science; Ranganath ea. 2013  Design: Subsequent memory paradigm At encoding (+ fMRI): remember a list of words OLD NEW Response at Retrieval: have seen Goldfish Car you Carpet Dinosaur these works Mountain Lake before Moose Avocado 69 egotten remember Brewer ea. 1998, Wagner ea. 1998. Science; Ranganath ea. 2013  Design: Subsequent memory paradigm At encoding (+ fMRI): remember a list of words OLD NEW Response at Retrieval: Goldfish Car Carpet Dinosaur remembered Mountain Lake Quality check Airplane Avocado Carpet Mountain forgotten Goldfish Airplane 70 Brewer ea. 1998, Wagner ea. 1998. Science; Ranganath ea. 2013  Design: Subsequent memory paradigm At encoding (+ fMRI): remember a list of words Response at Retrieval: Brain activity @ encoding remembered Quality + hippoc check Carpet Mountain forgotten Goldfish Airplane 71 Brewer ea. 1998, Wagner ea. 1998. Science; Ranganath ea. 2013  Design: Subsequent memory paradigm At encoding (+ fMRI): remember a list of words S Response at Retrieval: Brain activity @ encoding ↑ predictive - in encoding remembered Quality check Carpet Mountain forgotten Goldfish Airplane 72 Brewer ea. 1998, Wagner ea. 1998. Science; Ranganath ea. 2013  Left Medial temporal lose More HC activation @ encoding à more likely to remember - 73  What about the role of HC @ retrieval? encoding retrieval response ‘seen before’ ‘new’ remembered forgotten lett 74 Medial Temporal  Familiarity vs Recall: Baker on the Bus § Recall: ‘remembering’ previous occurrence (episodic, context) ex Saturday. § Familiarity: ‘knowing’ previous occurrence morning traits Baker him Mandler 1980 75 Knowing on the fis Bakery from  Subsequent memory paradigm Ranganath e.a. (2013) § Confidence judgement: How sure are you you recognize this item (on a scale of 1 to 6)? § Source judgement: Was it red or green? 76  Subsequent memory paradigm to study retrieval encoding retrieval response correct recollect correct familiar correct reject miss At encoding § remember a list of words At retrieval (+ fMRI) § Did you see this word before? § do you recollect seeing it (as an episodic memory) § or does it just seem familiar? 77 Eldridge ea 2000  Subsequent memory paradigm to study retrieval encoding retrieval response ⑳ correct recollect correct familiar correct reject miss ⑨ only when you correctly recollect ① hippoc. Os more active · More HC activation @ retrieval only for correct recollection 78 Eldridge ea 2000  Does hippocampus really not care about familiarity? CR correct rejection M Miss F1 weak familiar F2 moderate familiar F3 strong familiar R recollected 79  Does hippocampus really not care about familiarity? Doesn't care - CR correct rejection M Miss F1 weak familiar F2 moderate familiar F3 strong familiar R recollected ↳ hippocampus Goesn't 80 care if you are having strong familiart  Hippocampus is important in retrieving context- dependent, episodic memories (not familiarity) But we can do familiarity judgements, even if the hippocampus cannot… 81  Which brain regions are involved in familiarity memory? 82  Outline § Brief anatomy of memory § Memory deficits § Declarative memory & the medial temporal lobe § Studying the hippocampus § Encoding vs. Retrieval § Familiarity vs. Recall § Memory consolidation / storage § Flexible memories 83  Anatomy of recollection and familiarity: information flow between neocortex and hippocampal system 84  Which region will be important for familiarity judgements? www.wooclap.com Code: CNPMEM 85  Familiarity judgements and the medial temporal lobe encoding retrieval response CR correct rejection M Miss F1 weak familiar F2 moderate familiar F3 strong familiar R recollected 86  Familiarity judgements and the medial temporal lobe CR correct rejection M Miss F1 weak familiar F2 moderate familiar F3 strong familiar R recollected 87  Recollection vs. familiarity § What info: input via anterior PHC (perirhinal cortex) context familiarity § Where info: input via posterior PHC ->multi assoc. areas § Both go through entorhinal cortex, but only converge in hippocampus § Hippocampus binds these two types of information into episodic, context-rich memories 88 O  · Perirhinal / anterial PH cortex is important in familiarity memory 89  Where is information stored? hopocampus ? is it stored in 90  Retrieval § Retrieval through ‘reversing the flow’ in these pathways: § From hippocampus back to cortical areas: reactivate areas that provided input 91  Retrieval: Modality-Specific LTM in posterior (sensory) regions Wheeler ea. (2000) perceive cued recall Training: Learn words, some with picture, some with sound § BELL à see or accoptil § BELL à “ding doongg” hear O Recall was this word a picture or a sound? temporal § BELL à ….? auditory Remember ! 92  Retrieval: Modality-Specific LTM in posterior (sensory) regions Wheeler ea. (2000) perceive cued recall Training: - § BELL à § BELL à “ding doongg” O Recall shown slosely smaller: (but overlaps) § BELL à …. it's diff When your exp. is. retrieving a memory compared toAst Overlap between memory and perceptual activations shows that higher order perceptual areas are involved in memory => we store men. in Liff. places 93 = ) it activates the same areas as shown when remembering  Sensory memory information retrieval in posterior cortex § During retrieval, sensory areas were reactivated by words associated to pictures or sounds: subsets of original areas during perception/learning phase - § Relevant for imagination! 94  Outline of today § Brief anatomy of memory § Memory deficits § Declarative memory & the medial temporal lobe § Memory consolidation / storage § Flexible memories 95  Memory (Re)Consolidation from COM -> LTM §Consolidation is the process by which immediate memories are transformed into long-term memories. § takes a loooong time : retrograde amnesia of >20 years! & § This is not just two neurons connecting to form an association because that doesn’t take such a long time 96  O Theories of Consolidation – Standard Theory (Squire) 97  Theories of Consolidation – Standard Theory (Squire) formation hippocampus supports of memory that collection forms units then hippocave. ensures that can be activated together to distruption & resistance M 98  / Theories of Consolidation – Multiple Trace Theory (Moscovitch) 1001 Gather 99 the the more resist to more - losing memory  O Theories of Consolidation – Multiple Trace Theory (Moscovitch) P to distruption resistance O ↓ reflieved I more traces memories = more traces the more 100 such as old ones are the more resistant Des prone to loss to memory loss  horder to lose both Old memories says : Problem: how to dissociate? time 8rely over ~ all inf. becomes e always on hippoc. 101  Outline of today § Brief anatomy of memory § Memory deficits § Declarative memory & the medial temporal lobe § Memory consolidation / storage § Flexible memories 102 Week z deteparte her Memory · what evidence/research proves the Eacts ! ⑧ theories names Chapter 9 – Memory Part 2 B&C3: Cognitive Neuropsychology Hanneke den Ouden  Best childhood memory? § www.wooclap.com § Code: CNPMEM mocap 112  Outline of today § Brief anatomy of memory § Memory deficits § Declarative memory & the medial temporal lobe § Memory consolidation / storage § Flexible memories 113  Homework: remember these words 114  …. …. 115  needle? ↳ no related to needle = all the words are So it would be more legical to say yes 116  and E studying for the exam I bave say Memory ’failure’: remembering what was not there forgotten § thread, pin, sewing, sharp, point, pain: all associated with ‘needle’ § generalisation, remembering the ‘gist’ 117  Memory is like a Wikipedia page § you can edit it… § … and so can others! 118  After reactivation Memory Reconsolidation theory Following reactivation, memory traces can return to a labile state and become susceptible to disruption by treatments (similar to those that impair initial memory consolidation) Wait, what? WHY? 119  Memory Reconsolidation theory Following reactivation, memory traces can return to a labile state and become susceptible to disruption by treatments (similar to those that impair initial memory consolidation) 120  Testing Reconsolidation Theory Subjects watched this event 121 Loftus & Palmer 1974, ‘the reconstruction of automobile construction’.  Testing Reconsolidation Theory all of them Subjects watched this event And were asked: How fast were the cars going when they…. description ….bumped into each other? asked- when > -> ↓ All …smashed into each other? higher speed 122 reportingthings like smashed windows which were not there  showing hot old pictures which put has on a air baloon never Implanting false memories happened => 50% of people created false memory m true mem.= MTL False mem Parietal. = Frontal + 123  Why are changing memories important? 124  Real life consequences of the mis-information effect Most judges and juries are convinced that eye witness evidence is the most persuasive evidence there is, yet… P § If witness is not informed that the perpetrator may not be in the line-up, false identification increases and alters memory 125 Leippe Eisenstad Rauch 2009  Innocence project (2014) § 314 convicted prisoners. § How many were mistakenly identified by an eye witness and exonerated? 75 % § www.wooclap.com § code: BLHGXI 126 Leippe Eisenstad Rauch 2009  Real life consequences of the mis-information effect with 127 suggestive questions => you way change the memory  Misinformation effect: incorporating misleading information into your memory of an event 128 Loftus 2005, Planting misinformation in the human mind: A 30-year investigation of the malleability of memory.  Misinformation effect: incorporating misleading information into your memory of an event So, about the neurobiology of editing memories?? 129  Neurobiology of reconsolidation: editing memory CONTROL group 00 O tone = shock § Tone reactivates shock memory § Freezing reflects fear response 130 Nadel & Land (2000)  Neurobiology of reconsolidation: editing memory TEST group I anisomycin = protein synthesis inhibitor 131 Nadel & Land Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2000  Neurobiology of reconsolidation: editing memory TEST group 132  Protein synthesis inhibitor anisomycin erases the shock memory when applied during reactivation of the memory Did you miss any control conditions? will have to activate the to mess memory you memory 133  Neurobiology of reconsolidation: editing memory CONTROL group ⑳ no pairment Only injection, no reactivation 134 Nadel & Land (2000) we need do activate the memory  So, can we edit human memories? M S 135  Hypothesis: § Noradrenaline controls fear circuitry (a.o. amygdala, insula) § Administration of beta-adrenergic blocker propanolol during retrieval of fearful memory will disturb reconsolidation (i.e. mess up this memory) 136  Neurobiology of reconsolidation – in humans Day 1: Day 2: + propanolol Day 3: -without shock Shock Conditioning Extinction (or placebo) Test (‘Recall’) no shocks - Each day: Measure fear response: SCR = skin conductance response * Shock ever after extinction ; on day 3 fear response ↓ is found as both 137 light-danger light safe · day's memoriesKroes et al., 2015 with fighteach other  Reconsolidation in humans - Design groups : CS+ PLA CS+ DRUG shock CS- PLA CS- DRUG no shock - don't get shock 138 Kroes et al., 2015  Day 1: Initial fear conditioning CS+ PLA CS+ DRUG Shock CS- PLA CS- DRUG no shock min placebo drug placedo succest 1drug 139 Wi -Sit simillar  Day 2: retrieve fear memory & extinguish CS+ PLA CS+ DRUG only light + day , placed = successful CS- PLA CS- DRUG t affect extinction - - 140 Kroes et al., 2015 un there's not that much Extinction V : Lifs between redand blue  Day 3: test / recall CS+ PLA CS+ DRUG CS- PLA CS- DRUG 141 Kroes et al., 2015  Reconsolidation in humans CS+ PLA CS+ DRUG CS- PLA CS- DRUG ⑳ After the Break on 2nd fear back En coming no ⑤ reca with 142 propandla Kroes et al., 2015 ↓ implicit memory as messed during retrieval propond alters memory  episodic e did change we What do you think? r it was? scary B CS+ PLA CS+ DRUG CS- PLA CS- DRUG 143 Kroes et al., 2015  Have we changed declarative memory? = control (0 shocks) CS+ PLA CS+ DRUG CS- PLA CS- DRUG 144 Kroes et al., 2015  in a sense : tee druy group's memorywasdea Have we changed declarative memory? saying they : have received on dayt less reality-tha but in yes not on the 1st > ⑭y group say they - received · fewer than on day one 2 => Episodic memory ~ changed ↑ ~ - CS+ PLA CS+ DRUG -v CS- PLA CS- DRUG 145 ~ yes Kroes et al., 2015  People’s episodic memory (of shocks) can be altered pharmacologically during reconsolidation! 146  People’s episodic memory (of shocks) can be altered pharmacologically during reconsolidation! …. what about more multi-dimensional episodic memories? 147  Neurobiology of reconsolidation II: ECT ↓ Therapy § Electro Convulsive Therapy affects consolidation § evokes generalized seizure activity memory § Unipolar depression patients safe effects - 148  Hypothesis: Fast Retrograde amnesia affects reconsolidation, so will happen more for memories that have just been retrieved. 149  Using ECT to test reconsolidation § Design: 2 aversive stories to induce controlled memories O crive minsos 150 Kroes et al., Nature Neuroscience 2014  Using ECT to test reconsolidation § Design: 2 aversive stories to induce controlled memories Test: -report details about the story exclothing what happen. Reactivation: see slide 1 of the story, and imagine the rest 151 there's no traumatic Kroes et al., Nature Neuroscience 2014 on the slide  Using ECT to test reconsolidation § Design: 2 aversive stories to induce controlled memories § Change timing of both ECT & test 24h-later right after 24l > - 152 Kroes et al., Nature Neuroscience 2014  Reactivation + Reactivation + Reactivation + ECT + ECT + No ECT ECT + ECT + NO ECT + delayed test Immediate test delayed test immediate test delayed test correct 153 Kroes et al., Nature Neuroscience 2014  Reactivation + Reactivation + Reactivation + ECT + ECT + ECT + ECT + NO ECT + delayed test Immediate test delayed test immediate test delayed test correct 154 Kroes et al., Nature Neuroscience 2014 ries  Reactivation + Reactivation + Reactivation + ECT + ECT + ECT + NO ECT + delayed test delayed test immediate test delayed test 155 Kroes et al., Nature Neuroscience 2014  zun now 24h Reactivation + Reactivation + Reactivation + ECT + ECT + O NO ECT + delayed test immediate test delayed test 156 Kroes et al., Nature Neuroscience 2014 ECT-affects reconsolidation  if ECT disrupt - memory reactivated mem. only : delayed better observations. - : ECT disrupts reactivated, but not non-reactivated emotional episodic memories (in a time-dependent manner) (in patients with unipolar depression) 157  Can we use memory reconsolidation disruption to reduce traumatic memories? 158  Can we use memory reconsolidation disruption to reduce traumatic memories… …. ideally without the ECT? 159  Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing therapy EMDR increasingly seen as treatment option for PTSD Reflected in treatment guidelines (UK, USA, NL, and AUS1) Controversial aspects: mechanism of action, role of eye movements 1Lee & Cuijpers, 2013 160  Mechanisms of EMDR 161  Fear conditioning as experimental model for EMDR O non ofdeustim shock - a 162  ‘relapse’ of fear reduced by EMDR shiduct - E N less tham nee 163  What is happening in the brain that could explain this finding? 164  Amygdala suppression during eye movements D eye non eye CS+ EM vs non-EM 1 Amygdala 165  Amygdala in emotional memories Shot - 166 aspects  Fear ‘recovery’ after reinstatement fear-reinst > - shocks at the being o remind Joe , they can happen set not paining them 167  Fear ‘recovery’ after ‘reinstatement’ is es th po Hy 168  Fear ‘recovery’ after ‘reinstatement’ fear wa less when amyghala was deactivated by using e. ey 169  Eye-movement intervention enhances extinction via amygdala de-activation 170  Eye-movement intervention enhances extinction via amygdala de-activation …but are the eye movements crucial? 171  Working memory intervention Replace EMDR with n-back task § “another task which taxes working memory leads to a similar amygdala suppression furthermore indicates that this effect is likely not specific to eye movements” 172  Take home message for today § Memories are flexible and can be changed. § This has great relevance for society § dubious reliability of eye witnesses / importance of non- leading questioning § Treatment of PTSD 173  TAKE-HOME MESSAGES 9. Memory § Learning is the process of acquiring new information, the outcome of which is memory. § Learning and memory have many stages, including encoding (acquisition and consolidation), storage, and retrieval. § What is known as the medial temporal lobe memory system is made up of the hippocampus and the surrounding rhinal and parahippocampal cortices. § Other areas involved with memory include the prefrontal cortex, the parietal cortex, and subcortical structures. 175  Amnesia § Anterograde amnesia is the loss of the ability to form new memories, as in the case of H. M. § Patient H.M. developed amnesia after bilateral removal of his medial temporal lobes to treat epilepsy. Retrograde amnesia is the loss of memory for events that happened in the past. § Retrograde amnesia tends to be greatest for the most recent events, an effect known as a temporal gradient or Ribot's Law. § Patients with retrograde amnesia may have normal short term memory as shown by digit span tests. 176  Memory systems (p393) § Traditional memory theories include two main distinctions about how we learn and retain knowledge: by how long the information is retained and by what type of information the knowledge contains. § Memory classified by duration includes sensory memory, lasting only seconds at most; short-term memory, lasting from seconds to minutes; and long-term memory, lasting from days to years. § Echoic memory is sensory memory for audition; iconic memory is sensory memory for vision. § Working memory extends the concept of short-term memory: It contains information that can be acted on and processed, not merely maintained by rehearsal. 177  Memory systems (p394) § Long-term memory is split into two divisions defined by content: declarative and nondeclarative. Declarative memory is knowledge that we can consciously access, including personal and world knowledge. Nondeclarative memory is knowledge that we cannot consciously access, such as motor and cognitive skills, and other behaviors derived from conditioning, habituation, or sensitization. § Declarative memory can be further broken down into episodic and semantic memory. Episodic memory involves conscious awareness of past events; it is our personal, autobiographical memory. Semantic memory is the world knowledge that we remember even without recollecting the specific circumstances surrounding its learning. § Procedural memory is a form of nondeclarative memory that involves the learning of various motor and cognitive skills. Other forms of nondeclarative memory include perceptual priming, conditioned responses, and nonassociative learning. § Different types of information may be retained in partially or wholly distinct memory systems. 178  Medial Temporal lobe (p402) § The hippocampus is critical for the formation of long term memory. § Cortex surrounding the hippocampus is critical for normal hippocampal function in memory. § The delayed non-match to sample task is used to assess memory in non-human primates. § The amygdala is not a crucial part of the system for episodic memory, but it is important for emotional memory. § Neurons that activate when rats are in a particular place and facing a particular direction have been identified in the hippocampus and are called place cells. They provide evidence that the hippocampus has cells that encode contextual information. 179  Imaging (p413) § Functional MRI evidence suggests that the hippocampus is involved in encoding and retrieval for episodic memories that are recollected. Areas outside the hippocampus, especially the entorhinal cortex, support recognition based on familiarity. § Neuroimaging has confirmed the neural basis of memory demonstrated by animal and lesion studies and has provided some notable new findings- including, for example, evidence that the hippocampus and surrounding parahippocampal and perirhinal cortices may play different roles in memory. supporting different forms of recognition memory. § The retrosplenial cortex in the parietal lobe appears also to be crucial for memory. § The PHC and RSC have anatomical and functional connectivity patterns that are similar to each other and are very different from the PRC. 180  Consolidation (p415) § Two prominent theories of long-term memory consolidation are the standard consolidation theory and the multiple trace theory. § Hippocampal memory consolidation is quick. § Lesions to the anterior temporal cortex can cause severe retrograde amnesia. § Damage to the temporal lobe outside of the hippocampus can produce the loss of semantic memory even while the ability to acquire new episodic memories remains intact. 181