Cognitive Psychology Notes PDF

# **Cognitive Psychology** ## **Background of Cognitive Psychology** - Difference between the brain and mind ### **Brain** - Hardware An organ of soft nervous tissue contained in the skull of vertebrates, functioning as the coordinating center of sensation, intellectual, and nervous activity ##...

# **Cognitive Psychology** ## **Background of Cognitive Psychology** - Difference between the brain and mind ### **Brain** - Hardware An organ of soft nervous tissue contained in the skull of vertebrates, functioning as the coordinating center of sensation, intellectual, and nervous activity ### **Mind** - Software The element of a person that enables them to be aware of the world and their experiences, to think, and to feel the faculty of consciousness and thought Gathers, stores, and manages information to achieve desired outcomes by using the resources of the brain. - Attention How we filter or select important information from the environment - Knowledge The store of general information and algorithms for performing tasks - Memory A process for storing, retrieving, and working with information - Decision Making The process of making choices by identifying a decision, gathering information, and assessing alternative resolutions ## **COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY** - Study of mental processes How people perceive, learn, remember, and think about information - Branch of psychology that aims to understand cognition Uses behavioral evidence to enhance our understanding of human cognition - Cognitive psychologist Explores a wide variety of topics related to mental processes such as attention, memory, problem solving, decision making, language acquisition, forgetting, and others - Cognition Closest scientific synonym for thinking From the latin word, Cogito - "to know" The set of all mental abilities and processes related to knowledge, including attention, memory, judgment, reasoning, problem solving, decision making, and a host of other processes ## **Other Approaches To Human Cognition** - Cognitive Neuropsychology Studies brain-damaged patients to gain insights into normal human cognition - Cognitive Neuroscience Approach that combines behavioral and neural evidence Aims to comprehend human cognition. It investigates how both observable actions and underlying brain activity contribute to mental processes ## **Computational Cognitive Science** - computer models to study human cognition Models are based on algorithms that mimic how humans perform tasks, incorporating knowledge about behavior and brain function ## **Physiology** Seeks a scientific study of life-sustaining functions in living matter, primarily through empirical (observation-based) methods ## **Philosophical Roots** - Five Pillars of Psychology - Biological - biopsychology/ neuroscience, sensation, consciousness - Cognitive - perception, thinking, intelligence, memory - Development - learning, lifespan development - Social and Personality - social, personality, emotion, motivation - Mental and Physical Health - abnormal, therapies, stress/ lifestyle/ health - How Does Cognitive Psychology Differ from Other Perspectives? Some of the other psychological perspectives focus on actions and behavior, which are external and observable. Cognitive Psychology is concerned with the mental processes and internal representations. It sees the mind as a computer, taking in and processing information, and seek to understand the various factors involved. ### **Plato - Rationalism** Believes that the route to knowledge is through thinking and logical analysis Does not need experiments to develop new knowledge ### **Aristotle - Empiricism** Proposed first theory of memory Believes that we acquire knowledge through empirical evidence We obtain evidence through experience and observation ### **Rene Descartes - Dualism** How is knowledge represented mentally Maintained that the only proof of his existence is that he was thinking and doubting Dualism: Mind and body are separate entities. "I think therefore I am" ## **History of Cognitive Psychology** ### **Earliest Roots of Psychology** ### **Philosophy** Seeks to understand the general nature of many aspects of the world, in part through introspection, the examination of inner ideas and experiences. *intro-, "inward, within," and -spect, "look" "Rationalist theories without any connection to observations gained through empiricist methods may not be valid; but mountains of observational data without an organizing theoretical framework may not be meaningful." ## **Cognitive Psychology Depends on Both;** ### **Rationalism:** Knowledge is gained through logical reasoning and deduction, without relying solely on sensory experience ### **Empiricism:** Knowledge is gained through experience and observation ## **Physiological Roots of Cognitive Psychology** ### **1. Structuralism** Seeks to understand the structure of the mind and its perceptions by analyzing those perceptions into their constituent components (affection, attention, memory, sensation, etc.). - Introspection - looking inward at pieces of information passing through consciousness ### **Wilhelm Wundt (1879)** First Psychological Laboratory in Leipzig, GE Father of Psychology Used introspection to report contents of consciousness Study of: Human Cognition ### **Edward Titchener** Wundt's student considered to be the first full-fledged structuralist Founder of Structuralism Proponent of introspection Narrow view of psychology (excluded mental illness, educational applications, and social psych) Study of: Sensations, images, and feelings ### **2. Functionalism** Rose in response to Structuralism Suggested that psychologists should focus on the processes of thought rather than on its content Seeks to understand what people do and why they do it Methods: Introspection, observation, experiments ### **William James** Wundt's student Philosopher, but started American Psych Lab Proposed Functionalism Stressed the functions over the mind rather than the contents How does the mind adapt to new circumstances? Concerned not only with knowing what people do; they also want to know what we can do with our knowledge of what people do Proposed Multicomponent Memory System: Primary Memory vs. Secondary Memory Authored: Principles of Psychology - chapters on sensation, perception, attention, consciousness, memory, reasoning ### **3. Behaviorism** To study observable behavior Any hypotheses about internal thoughts and ways of thinking are nothing more than speculation; and cannot be verified by reference of observable behavior We can not say anything meaningful about cognition Behaviorists should "never use the terms consciousness, mental states, mind, content, introspectively verifiable and the like". The dominant approach in psychology in the first half of the 20th century Methods: Animal experiments, Conditioning experiments ### **John Watson** Father of Behaviorism Argued that psychologists should focus on stimuli (aspects of the immediate situation) and responses (behavior produced by the participants in an experiment) ### **Ivan Pavlov** Classical Conditioning (Pavlov's dog) ### **B.F. Skinner** Operant Conditioning (reinforcement and punishment) (rat in a box) ### **The Black Box Theory** - Input → Black Box → Output It is not possible to open the human mind to look inside, we can only DO something to the mind The art of understanding the human psyche in terms of stimulus and response. ### **4. Gestalt Psychology** To understand psychological phenomena as organized, structured wholes Gestalt theory: The whole is greater than the sum of its parts Gestalt: "an organized whole" or "configuration" Theory of Perception Methods: Experiments, Observation Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Koffka ## **Emergence of Cognitive Psychology** ### **Human Performance (WWII)** - Attention and perception - training of soldiers to use radio and radar - Signal detection - Blips on radar or sonar - Information theory (1948) - abstract method for analyzing information processing; provided a framework for understanding how humans process and transmit information ### **Artificial Intelligence** How can we make computers behave intelligently? Contributed host of concepts and the idea of study machine, which allows us to study our own processes and how it can be applied ### **Linguistics** Interest in language and language development. Provided insights into how humans process and understand language ### **Why Cognitive Psychology Emerged** - Two major factors - Dissatisfaction with behaviorism's account of complex behavior - Sole focus on observable behavior - Convergence of several other fields during WWII (Linguistics, Human performance, Al contributed) ### **Tolman's contribution (1948)** Edward C. Tolman - behaviorist that believed that internal mental processes were important for understanding behavior. Observed rats learning mazes and discovered that they could easily adjust to changes, indicating they had a mental picture of the maze (cognitive map) Key year: 1956 MIT meeting is considered a pivotal moment in the emergence of cognitive psychology. **Featured:** - Noam Chomsky - theory of language - George Miller - magic number seven in short-term memory - Alan Newell & Herbert Simon - General Problem Solver ## **Research Methods** ### **Assumptions of Cognitive Psychology** - Mental processes exist - People are active information processes - Mental processes and structures can be revealed by time and accuracy measures ### **Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology** - How does scientific investigation work? - Theory development - Hypotheses testing - Data gathering - Data analysis ### **Ecological Validity:** The degree to which particular findings in one context may be considered relevant outside of that context ### **1. Controlled Laboratory Experiments** **CHARACTERIZATION** An experimenter conducts research in a laboratory setting in which he controls as many aspects of the experimental situation as possible **ADVANTAGES** Enables isolation of causal factors Excellent means of testing hypotheses **DISADVANTAGES** Often lack of ecological validity **Example** - IV: Teacher's Emotional Display - DV: Student's Perception of Teacher's Competence, Feelings, and Productivity in Online Small Group Discussions - Treatment Conditions: - Positive Feeling Display - Neutral Feelings Display - Negative Feeling Display *Instead of actual teachers, the subject will be watching videos on computers ### **2. Psychobiological Research** **CHARACTERIZATION** Studies the relationship between cognitive performance and cerebral events and structures Examples: postmortem studies, animal studies, studies in vivo (PET, MRI, EEG) **ADVANTAGES** "hard" evidence of cognitive functions by relating them to physiological activity **DISADVANTAGES** Often very expensive; risk of making inferences about normal functions based on abnormal brain functioning ### **Example:** - IV: Teacher's Emotional Display - DV: Student's Perception of Teacher's Competence, Feelings, and Productivity in Online Small Group Discussions - Treatment Conditions: - Positive Feeling Display - Neutral Feelings Display - Negative Feeling Display Connect students to an EEG machine while the experiment is ongoing ### **3. Self-reports** **CHARACTERIZATION** Participant's reports of own cognition in progress or as recollected **ADVANTAGES** Introspective insights from participant's point of view, which may be unavailable via other means **DISADVANTAGES** Inability to report on processes occurring outside conscious awareness Data gathering may influence cognitive process being reported **Example** - IV: Teacher's Emotional Display - DV: Student's Perception of Teacher's Competence, Feelings, and Productivity in Online Small Group Discussions - Treatment Conditions: - Positive Feeling Display - Neutral Feelings Display - Negative Feeling Display ### **SELF-REPORT MEASURES ON:** 1. Perception of Teacher's Competence 2. Feelings about Online Small Group Discussions.Productivity in Online Small Group Discussions ### **4. Case Studies** **CHARACTERIZATION** Intensive study of a single individual **ADVANTAGES** Richly detailed information about individuals, including information about historical and current contexts Very good for theory development **DISADVANTAGES** Small sample; questionable generalization to other cases ### **Example** - IV: Teacher's Emotional Display - DV: Student's Perception of Teacher's Competence, Feelings, and Productivity in Online Small Group Discussions - Treatment Conditions: - Positive Feeling Display - Neutral Feelings Display - Negative Feeling Display ### **CASE STUDY** - The subject may be a child diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder who is enrolled in online class with regular students ### **5. Naturalistic Observation** **CHARACTERIZATION** Observing real-life situations, as in classrooms, work settings, or homes **ADVANTAGES** High ecological validity **DISADVANTAGES** Lack of experimental control ### **Example** - IV: Teacher's Emotional Display - DV: Student's Perception of Teacher's Competence, Feelings, and Productivity in Online Small Group Discussions ### **Treatment Conditions:** 1. Positive Feeling Display 2. Neutral Feelings Display 3. Negative Feeling Display *Conduct the experiment in the classroom ### **6. Computer Simulations And Artificial Intelligence** **CHARACTERIZATION** - Simulation: Attempt to make computers simulate human cognitive performance - Al: Attempt to make computers demonstrate intelligent cognitive performance (regardless of its resemblance to human cognitive processing) **ADVANTAGES** Clear testing of theoretical models and predictions **DISADVANTAGES** Limits of hardware and software ### **Example** - IV: Teacher's Emotional Display - DV: Student's Perception of Teacher's Competence, Feelings, and Productivity in Online Small Group Discussions - Treatment Conditions: - Positive Feeling Display - Neutral Feelings Display - Negative Feeling Display *Instead of actual teachers, the subject will be watching videos on computers ## **Cognitive Neuroscience** ### **Physiological Structures** 1. **Receptops (eyes)** Sense Organs Awareness 2. **Effectors (Skin)** Muscles and glands Response 3. **Connectors** Nervous system Integrates the functions of receptors and effectors ### **The Nervous System** - Central NS - Peripheral NS ### **CNS:** Body's master control unit 1. **Spinal Cord** Column of nerves between the brain and peripheral nervous system. 2. **Brain Stem** Connects the brain to the spinal cord 3. **Brain** Divided into 3 major parts; hind, mid, lower ### **PNS:** link to the outside world 1. **Autonomic NS** Regulates involuntary bodily processes without conscious direction. - **Sympathetic NS** : prepares the body for action and stress; fight or flight - **Parasympathetic NS** : calms the body and helps conserve energy 2. **Somatic NS** Carries sensory information from sensory organs to the CNS and relays motor commands to the muscles; controls voluntary movement ### **The Neuron** - **Soma / Cell body** where metabolism and respiration take place - **Dendrite** short fibers branching out from the cells that receive impulses and carry them toward their own body cells - **Axon / nerve fiber** long, slim, and tube-like fibers which carry messages or impulses away from the cell body toward other neurons ### **Myelinated Axon** - covered with Myelin with gaps called the Nodes of Ranvier - Myelin insulates the axon from its environment, and therefore makes electric transmission more efficient and faster ### **Unmyelinated Axon** - Not covered by myelin - Electric transmission is slower ### **Types of Neurons** 1. **Sensory Neurons** collect impulses from sense organs and direct these to the CNS 2. **Motor Neurons** carry impulses from the CNS to the muscles and glands 3. **Interneurons (connect / relay)** connecting neurons between the sensory and motor neurons found in the CNS ### **The Major Parts of the Brain** - **The Hindbrain** involved in motor coordination as it connects the brain to the spinal cord so that messages can be sent from the brain, down the spinal cord, to the rest of the body - **Pons** - relay messages from the medulla further up in the brain - controls sleep and arousal -serves to transmit information between the cerebellum and other parts of the brain - **Medulla** - relays information from and to the spinal cord - in charge of vital autonomic functions such as respiration and swallowing **Cerebellum** - role is to integrate various types of information and is implicated in classical conditioning, motor control, coordination, as well as language production ### **HINDBRAIN STRUCTURES** - **pons** - **medulla** - **spinal cord** - **cerebellum** ### **2. The Midbrain** - also called Mesencephalon - links the forebrain and hindbrain ### **Tegmentum** - **Red nucleus** primarily involved in limb control especially during reaching movements - **Substantia nigra** fulfill important functions in the motor system ### **Reticular Formation** - regulates arousal, attention, and sleep; damage to the reticular formation leads to coma ### **Tectum** - **Superior Colliculi** play a role in reflexive eye movements to sudden visual changes - **Inferior Colliculi** play a role in auditory reflexes ### **MIDBRAIN STRUCTURES** - **forebrain** - **thalamus** - **superior collucus** - **midbrain** - **inferior collucus** - **tectum** - **tegmentum** - **hindbrain** ### **3. The Forebrain** - handles higher cognitive functions - the size and complexity differentiates man from other organisms ### **Cerebrum** - occupies most of the two brain hemispheres - involved in sensing, thinking, learning, emotion, consciousness, and voluntary movement ### **Thalamus** relay center for incoming sensory information ### **Hypothalamus** regulates basic biological needs: hunger, thirst, temperature control ### **FOREBRAIN STRUCTURES** - **cerebral cortex** - **cingulategyrus** - **corpus callosum** - **thalamus** - **system** - **hypothalamus** - **limbic** - **amygdala** - **hippocampus** ### **The Cerebral Cortex (Neocortex)** - cortex means bark in Latin - is divided into four lobes - covers the two hemispheres of the brain #### **Lobes** 1. **Frontal Lobe** - has a similar organization and encodes information related to motor commands - other parts of the frontal cortex are involved in planning, working memory, decision-making and emotions 2. **Broca's area** -plays an important role in speech production -In 1861, Paul Broca published work based on his study of patients who had suffered brain damage due to strokes that caused disruption of the blood supply to the brain. -These strokes caused damage to an area in the frontal lobe that came to be called Broca's area -One of Broca's patients was famously called Tan, because the word tan was the only word he could say. -Patients with this problem-slow, labored, ungrammatical speech caused by damage to Broca's area-are diagnosed as having Broca's aphasia. 3. **Pariental Lobe** processes spatial info and involved in workingmemory and attention - **Somatosensory Cortex** - processes sensory information from the body - diff parts of the body map into specific parts of this cortex, highly sensitive parts (fingers)? occupy much larger region than less sensitive parts (legs) 4. **Occipital Lobe** - involved with vision - specifoc sub-ares are critical for particular visual properties such as shape, color, and motion 5. **Temporal Lobe** contains cortical areas essential in the storage of perceptual informationanx the crwtion of new memories - **Auditory Cortex** - hearing - **Wernicke's Area** - language comprehension ### **Hemispheres** - **Left** - **Right** ## **Brain Disorders** - Eighteen years after Broca reported on his frontal lobe patients, Carl Wernicke (1879) described a number of patients who had damage to an area in their temporal lobe that came to be called Wernicke's area. - Wernicke's patients produced speech that was fluent and grammatically correct but tended to be incoherent or Wernicke's aphasia. ### **Patients:** - are unable to understand other people's speech - cannot match words with their meanings ### **Brain Lesions** - The destruction of an area in the brain, commmonly by strokes, tumors, blows to the head, and accidents. - major advances in brain lesions research came after WWII, when researchers examined the relationship between damages regions of the brain and cognitive deficits. - Results are difficult to interpret. EX: a brain lesion is not limited to just one specific area. ### **Hemispheres** - **Left Hemisphere** - Sensory stimulus from right side of body - Motor control of right side of body - Speech, language and comprehension - Analysis and calculations - Time and sequencing - Recognition of words, letters and numbers - **Right Hemisphere** - Sensory stimulus from left side of body - Motor control of left side of body - Creativity - Spatial ability - Context/perception - Recognition of faces, places and objects ## **Techniques in Studying the Brain** ### **Head Injury** - Damage to the scalp, skull, or brain caused by trauma. When it affects the brain they, re called traumatic brain injury (TBI). - People w/ brain injury may lack self-control and self-awareness, so they may behave inappropriately or impulsively in social situations. - These are considered an acceptable risk when engaging in sports and other activities. But they're dangerous and can lead to permanent disability, mental impairment, and even death. ### **Stroke** - Occurs when the blood supply to part of the brain is interrupted or when a blood vessel in the brain bursts, spilling blood into the spaces surrounding the brain cells. - In 2015, stroke was the 2nd most frequant deaths accounting for 6.3 million deaths. 2/3 of stroke occurs in those over 56 y.o. and half of the peoplewho have had stroke live less than a year. ### **Causes of Stroke** 1. **Ischemic Stroke** - artery blockage. A clot or plaque buildup stops the blood from reaching the brain. - Transient Ischemic Stroke (mini stroke) - caused by blockage but lasts only a few minutes. 2. **Hemorrhagic Stroke (Intracerebral)** - Ruptured/leaking blood vessel will leak blood into the brain. 3. **Hemorrhagic Stroke (Subarchnoid)** - Ruptured/leaking blood vessel, blood surrounds the brain. ### **Brain Tumor** When abnormal cells in the brain grow or form a mass Cancerous brain tumor is malignant while non-cancerous barin tumor is benign. 1. **Primary Brain Tumors** are tumors that begin in the brain 2. **Secondary (Metastatic) Brain Tumors** begin in other parts of the body then spread to the brain. - Treatment: surgical therapy, radiotheraphy, chemotherapy ### **Techniques in Studying the Brain** 1. **Spatial Resolution** The capacity a technique has to tell you exactly which part of the brain is active 2. **Temporal Resolution** A technique's ability to tell you exactly when the activation happened. ### **Computed Tomography (CT)** - Or Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) - Differential absorption of x-rays - X-rays scan the person's head and reveals the structural features of the brain - Bone and hard tissue absorbs x-rays better than soft tissue #### **Advantages** 1. Quick 2. Non-invaisve 3. Better than standard x-rays (records hard tissues, soft tissues, blood vessels) 4. Can be used for people with implanted medical devices. #### **Disadvantages** 1. Involves some level of radiation exposure ### **Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)** - Doesn't involve x-rays - Sam purpose with CAT - produce high resolution #D image of brain structures - The energy released by hydrogen atoms are detected by the scanner because of the presence of magnetic field - Characterized by loud noise - observed in the process of rapidly changing (on/off) the parameters of the magnetic field #### **Advantages** 1. Allows non-exposure to radiation 2. Better resolution; allows detection of abnormalitties in the brain #### **Disadvantages** 1. Cannot be used on individuals with pacemakers or shrapnel (metal will attract to the magnetic field) 2. Can be an issues for claustrophobic patients 3. Longer scan time (40 min for some) 4. Problematic for young children - sedated, pretending it is a pirate ship 5. More expensive than CAT 6. High resolution; picks uo slight abnormalities in the brain that may cause anxiety and unnecessary treatment ### **Brain-imaging techniques measure brain activity indirectly.** By measuring certain properties of the blood in different regions of the brain while people perform a cognitive task, we can determine which brain regions contribute to performance onthat cognitive task. ### **Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)** - Functional: the image obtained in the scan id dynamic - Can also show the ongoing brain processes, aside from the structural features of the brain - Subjects carry out tasks: periods of activity and periods of rest - Studies the flow of oxygenated blood when the brain region is active #### **Advantages** 1. Offers excellent spatial resolution 2. Allows brain processes to be sees #### **Disadvanatages** 1. Well suited for studying the processes that last at least several seconds, butnot for instantaneous processes 2. Should be distinguished from random noise (which may include thoughts and sensations) 3. Head should be motionless for a clear scan, but not realistic 4. Same as MRI: claustrophobia, cost, lengthy procedure, should be without medical implants ### **Positron Emission Tomography (PET)** - Like fMRI, uses blood flow as the indicator of brain activity - Uses radioactive chemical (tracer) that binds with molecules in the brain, like glucose - Tracer is administeres in the person's blood stream, which decays quickly. - Radio frequancies emitted by the decaying tracer are recorded. - Distribution of the tracer in the brain depends on the region that is most active at the time of the scan #### **Advantages** 1. Good spatial resolution 2. Useful for detecting tumors, metastases, brain diseases, and causes of dementia 3. Scanners can be small #### **Disadvantages** 1. Used less often because of fMRI which does not require the use of radioactive chemical ### **Electroencephalography (EEG)** Measures electric potentials generated by neutral circuits - Large group of neurons should fire synchronously to detect electric potentials - Electrodes are attached to the scalp to pick up the changes in electric potential on the scalp - Creates brain waves - Used to diagnose epilepsy and sleep disorders #### **Advantages** 1. Has a perfect temporal resolution 2. Capable of detecting changes in brain activity within milliseconds 3. Low cost technique 4. Measures neuronal activity directly 5. Can be manually transported 6. Silent, responses to auditory stimuli may be studied 7. Completely non-invasive #### **Disadvantages** 1. Extremely low spatial resolution; provides a crude picture of localization 2. Cannot be used to establish the origin location of electrical signal 3. Good for measuring activity in the cortex, but not in subcortical areas 4. Good for measuring brain activity on the whole 5. Takes considerable experience to be able to interpret encephalogram correctly ## **Perception** ### **Sensation** When sensory info is detected by a sensory receptor, sensation has occured ### **Perception** A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. People's behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally important. ### **Sensation VS Perception** | Sensation | Perception | |---|---| | Physical Process | Psychological Process | | Walking into a kitchen and smelling the scent of sinigang | "Mmm, this smells like the sinigang Grandma used to cook when it's raining." | | Scent receptors detecting the odor of sinigang | | Not all sensations result in perception. ### **Sensory Adaptation** Phenomenon in which the body adjusts to external stimuli over time, becoming less sensitive or responsive to that particular stimulus E.g., the smell of a new house, hot or cold bath, eyes adjusting to a darker room ### **Attention** The ability to focus selectively on a selected stimulus, sustaining that focus and shifting it at will. E.g., You get involved in an interesting conversation with a friend, and you tune out all the background noise. ### **Perceptual Constancy** Refers to the tendency to perceive an object you are familiar with as having a constant shape, size, and brightness despite the stimuli changes that occur. Perception of an object remains the same even our sensation of the object changes. #### **a. Size constancy** refers to the fact that our perceptions of the size of objects are relatively constant despite the fact that the size of objects on the retina vary greatly with distance #### **B. Shape Constancy** Is the tendency to perceive an object as having the same shape regardless of its orientation or the angle from which we view it. e.g., when we look at a rectangular picture frame hanging on the wall, it appears as a rectangle. If we walk off of to the side and look at the frame from an angle, we still recognize that it's in the shape of a rectangle, but really, from that angle, the image processed by our retina is that of a trapezoid. Our brain compensates for the distortion of the shape by taking into account visual cues about distance and depth to keep our perception of the frame constant #### **C. Depth Perception** Is the visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions (3-D), coupled with the ability to gauge how near or far away an object is. In order to have depth perception, you must have binocular vision, also known as stereopsis. Having two eyes allows us to have binocular vision. If monocular vision, vision is less accurate. The two eyes are positioned enough apart to provide two kinds of information to your brain ### **Gestalt Psychology** Founders: Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka The whole differs or is greater than the sum of its individual parts Details how our brains create structure by default. Perceptual psychology in which our perceptions are believed to be active and subjective. We do not simply record data; rather, we actively gather and restructure data in order to make sense of it ### **Gestalt Principles of Visual Perception** #### **A. Law of Figure-Ground Discrimination** The tendency to perceive images in the foreground while other images fall in the backdrop The figure-ground principle states that people instinctively perceive objects as either being in the foreground or the background. #### **B. Law of Proximity** Asserts that things that are close to one another tend to be grouped together #### **C. Law of Similarity** Things that are alike tend to be grouped together Tendency to pick up figures with similar characteristics #### **D. Law of Continuity or Good Continuation** We are morelikely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines #### **E. Law of Closure** We organize our perceptions into complete objects rather than a series of parts #### **F. Law of Good Form or Pragnanz** We expect certain patterns so we perceive that expected pattern Stimulus will be organized as good figure as possible Good might refer to symmetry, simplicity, and regularity The human brain is wired to see structure, logic, and patterns. It helps us make sense of the world ### **Theoretical Approaches to Perception** e.g., Typos Why are we not noticing typographical errors? Your brain often simply fills in missing details and corrects errors as you read so that you do not even notice such mistake ### **What is attribution in perception?** ### **Attribution** what happens when a person takes the information they perceived and determines a reason as to what happened. What you attribute depends on your own perception Where do you attribute why one is successful? ### **Attribution Theory** Analyzes how we explain other people's behavior by attributing it either to internal motives or to external situation #### **A. Dispositional attribution (internal causes)** Attributing behaviour to the person's disposition and traits Why are Filipinos poor?/Why do men cheat on their wives? #### **B. Situational attribution (External causes)** Attributing behaviour to the environment Why are Filipinos poor?/Why do men cheat on their wives?