Ancient & Medieval History Revision Booklet PDF

Ancient and Medieval History Static Revision Simplified A quick revision booklet of History for UPSC Prelims and other competitive exams Study IQ Education Pvt. Ltd. Ancient and Medieval History: Static Revision Simplified 1st Edition by Study IQ Publications Author/Copyright Owner: Study IQ Education Pvt. Ltd. © Copyright is reserved by Study IQ Education Pvt. Ltd. Publisher: Study IQ Publications Printed at: ATOP Printers Noida All rights reserved. No part of the text in general and the figures, diagrams, page layout and cover design, in particular, may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means – electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system–without the prior written permission of the Publisher. 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However, neither Study IQ nor the editorial team guarantees the accuracy of any information given in this publication. It shall not be responsible for anyone damages arising out of the use of this information. Preface Dear Aspirants, CSE Prelims is just around the corner. It is considered to be the iron gate toward your goal to become a civil servant. Prelims is the most competitive part of UPSC CSE, and therefore, reading-revising and testing one’s knowledge is imperative for clearing Prelims. According to the present competition, around 1 in 100 people who attempt UPSC Prelims clear it. Given the growing competition, there is an urgent requirement for content specially curated to crack Prelims. The need of the hour is simplified content that helps in a quick and complete revision of the UPSC syllabus. Taking inspiration from the overwhelmingly positive response to our UPSC CSE books, we are taking another leap towards simplifying Prelims preparation. To fulfill our aspirants’ demand, Study IQ Publications is delighted to present you with the first edition of ‘SIP+ Static Revision Simplified booklets’. The SIP+ booklet series has been strategically divided into 2 parts; SIP+ Static Revision Simplified and SIP+ Current Revision Simplified. The UPSC syllabus is huge, it is further complicated by information overload and increasingly difficult questions. These booklets have been created especially keeping in mind, the concerns and challenges that students face during their Prelims preparation. This is an honest attempt to tackle all of the student’s issues and save their precious time before Prelims. Special Features of This Book: This booklet aims to make your preparation focused and relevant based on UPSC’s current trends and patterns, revision- friendly, and up-to-date. T he requirements of the UPSC Prelims are the exclusive focus of this book. W e have taken great care to ensure that the material is written in a clear; ready revision format so that students can learn and recall key concepts and facts to their advantage. W herever necessary, we’ve incorporated relevant tables, charts and mind-maps to help students grasp and revise key concepts and facts. T he special feature of SIP+ booklet series is the availability of ready revision charts which students can take out and paste on their wall or study table to revise key concepts and facts anytime on their own discretion. With all sincerity and humility, the StudyIQ team wishes you the best in your preparation, and we are hopeful that this book will help you in your journey. Table of Contents Chapter 1 : SOURCES FOR CONSTRUCTION OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY 6 Chapter 2 : PRE- HISTORIC CULTURES 12 Chapter 3 : HARAPPAN CIVILISATION 19 Chapter 4 : VEDIC AGE 31 Chapter 5 : MAHAJANAPADAS AND RISE OF MAGADHAN EMPIRE 45 Chapter 6 : BUDDHISM AND JAINISM 49 Chapter 7 : MAURYAN EMPIRE 62 Chapter 8 : POST-MAURYAN PERIOD 72 Chapter 9 : GUPTA PERIOD 78 Chapter 10 : POST-GUPTA PERIOD 84 Chapter 11 : SANGAM AGE 91 Chapter 12 : EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD 94 Chapter 13 : THE DELHI SULTANATE 109 Chapter 14 : MUGHAL EMPIRE 120 Chapter 15 : BHAKTI AND SUFI MOVEMENTS 134 Chapter 16 : REGIONAL KINGDOMS OF SOUTH INDIA 140 Chapter 17 : THE MARATHA EMPIRE AND OTHER REGIONAL STATES 145 6 Ancient and Medieval History: Static Revision Simplified CHAPTER 1 Sources for Construction of Ancient Indian History INTRODUCTION The English word ‘History’ has been derived from the Greek noun ‘Historia’ which means inquiry, research, exploration, or information. History, thus, is a discipline associated with learning by inquiry or research about the past of mankind. In simple terms, History is the study of past events. Because none of us belong to that period nor do we have eyewitnesses, historians depend on multiple sources for the construction of ancient Indian History. SOURCES FOR THE STUDY OF ANCIENT HISTORY Sources are important for the reconstruction of the past. Any remnant of the past can serve the purpose of a source. The sources for reconstructing the history of ancient India can be broadly classified into two major categories namely- Literary and Non-Literary sources. Literary Sources History is basically based on written material. Although writing was known in India by 2500 BC in the Indus culture, its script has not so far been deciphered. Thus, though the Harappans knew how to write but the historians have not been able to read it. Their culture is placed in the period called proto-historic phase. The first script to be deciphered was Brahmi which was used in the Ashokan inscriptions and it belongs to the third century BC. Literary sources constitutes both religious and secular literature. Religious Literature- These Indian texts contain religious themes and include- Brahmanical Literature- Vedas, Epics, Puranas, Sutras, Upanishads, Brahmanas, Aranyakas etc. Buddhist Literature; and Jain Literature. Secular Literature-These Indian texts do not have religion as their theme and include- Sangam Literature; Foreign Accounts; and Literary works by independent authors. Religious Literature Brahmanical Literature and associated Historical Importance Vedas There are four Vedas namely- Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharvan Veda. Historical importance- Information about processes like the transition from a pastoral, pre-class/caste society in Rigveda to an agrarian, class, caste society and the formations of political territories in the Later Vedic period has been obtained from these texts. © Study IQ Publications Sources for Construction of Ancient Indian History 7 Brahmanical Literature and associated Historical Importance Brahmanas They give information about the expansion of Aryan culture and references to the economic and political life of the respective period. Aranyakas They give information about the philosophy and mysticism of the period. Puranas Puranas contain genealogical records of all ancient dynasties ruled over India from Parikshit of Kuru tribe (the first king of Kali Age) to Guptan rulers, but coupled with mythological stories. Epics There are two Mahakavyas(Epics) namely-Ramayana and Mahabharata-both seem to have been finally compiled by 400 AD. They reflect social, economic and political conditions from the 10th century BC to the 4th century AD. Buddhist Literature and associated Historical Importance Pitakas Provides information about rules and regulations of Buddhist Sangha; sermons of Buddha and his disciples etc. Jatakas Jatakas throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century BC. They also make incidental reference to political events in the age of the Buddha. Srilankan Two SriLankan chronicles -Deepavamsa and the Mahavamsa- deal with the Buddha’s life, the Buddhist Chronicles councils, emperor Ashoka and the kings of Sri Lanka. Other Major Milindapanho -It is a dialogue between Milinda (identical with Indo-Greek ruler Menander) and Buddhist Texts saint Nagasena. Lalitavistara-It describes about life story of the Buddha and socio-religious conditions of that time. Buddhacharita- Written by Ashvaghosha in Sanskrit, it gives the story of Buddha’s life. Jain Literature and associated Historical Importance Siddhanta or The sacred books of the Jainas are collectively known as the Siddhanta or Agama. These texts help us to Agama construct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the age of Mahavira. The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders. Other Major Parishishtaparvan - Written by Hemachandra, it provides descriptions about Chandragupta Maurya. Texts Kalpasutra - Written by Bhadrabahu, it contains the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras. Secular Literature Sangam Literature and associated Historical Importance Sangam Literature The Sangam literature, along with other continuous literature produced post Sangam around 600 AD is our major source for the study of south Indian society, economy and polity during 300 BC–300 AD. The descriptions given in the Sangam and Post-Sangam literatures are confirmed by archaeological finds and accounts of foreign travellers. Sangam Literature include- 1. Ettuttokai-Eight Anthologies of collected poems 2. Pattuppattu- The Ten Long Poems 3. Tolkappiyam -A Tamil Grammar Treatise. The Padinenkikanakku and the Twin epics(Silappathikaram and Manimekalai) are the post Sangam works. Foreign Accounts and their Historical Importance Roman Accounts Justin - His book ‘Epitome’ gives details about campaigns of Alexander the Great in India. Pliny - His book ‘Naturalis Historica’ provides insights into the trade between Italy and India. Marcopolo - He was a Venetian traveller. He visited the Coromandal coast and gives information about Rudramadevi of Kakatiyas, Pandyans. He also mentions ports like Motupalli of Kakatiyas and the flourishing diamond trade. © Study IQ Publications 8 Ancient and Medieval History: Static Revision Simplified Greek Accounts Herodotus - His book ‘The Histories’ describes the Indo-Persian relations. Strabo-His book ‘Geographica’ describes about geography, social, economic and religious conditions of lndia. Ptolemy - His book ‘Geography’ provides information on ancient geography and commerce. Megasthenes - He was a Greek Ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. His book ‘Indika’ provides valuable information not only about the administration but also social classes and economic activities of the Mauryan period. Diodorous - He wrote ‘Bibliotheca Historica’ based on the description from Megasthenes account. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea-This book , written by an anonymous Greek author, describes the Roman trade in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. Cosmas Indicopleustes-His book ‘Christian Topography’ mentions about Christians in India and Srilanka and mentions about the horse trade. Chinese Accounts Fahien - He visited India in the 5thC AD. His book ‘Fo-kwo-ki’ describes the conditions in India in the age of Guptas. Huan Tsang - He visited India in the 7thC AD during the time of king Harshavardhan. He provided insights into the Harshavardhana reign as well as the Nalanda university. Itsing - He visited India during the 7th C AD and provided information about the social and religious conditions of the people. Arab Accounts Sulaiman - He visited India in 9th C AD and wrote about Pala and Pratihara rulers. Al-Masudi - He stayed in India during 941 to 943 A.D and wrote about Rashtrakutas. Alberuni - He came to India with Mahmud Ghazni during his invasions. His book ‘Tahqiq-i-Hind’, describes the social, political, religious and economic condition of the then India. Ibn Batuta - His work ‘Rihala’ provides social and cultural information of India during the rule of Md-bin-Tughlaq. Literature by independent authors Ashtadhyayi by Panini It’s a treatise on Sanskrit grammar. This book gives the conditions of Mauryan period. Note-Patanjali has written commentary named ‘Mahabhashya’ on Panini’s Ashtadhyayi. Arthasastra by Kautilya It’s a law book/treatise on Statecraft and Polity. The earliest portions of this text reflect the state of society and economy of the Mauryan age. Devi Chandra Guptam Its the story of Gupta King Ramagupta who decides to surrender his queen Dhruvadevi to a Shaka by Vishakhadatta invader but his younger brother Chandragupta enters the enemy camp disguised as queen and kills the enemy. It also explains the establishment of Mauryan Dynasty. Malvikagni Mitram by This was the love story of king King Agnimitra and maid Malabika. Kalida It also describes the fight between Yavana and Pushyamitra Sanga. It explains the conditions of society and culture of Gupta period. Mudrarakshasa by It narrates the ascent of the king Chandragupta Maurya to power. Vishakhadatta Gaudvaho by It narrates the victory of king Yashovarman of Kannauj and the subjugation of Gauda. Vakpatiraj Harshacharita by It is a biography of King Harsha. Banabhatta Abhijananashakuntalam, They provide us with glimpses of the social and cultural life of the Guptas. Ritusamhara and Meghadutam by Kalidas Rajataranagini by It provides the political history of Kashmir. Kalhana Vikramadeva Charita by It gives the achievements of the Western Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI. Bilhana © Study IQ Publications Sources for Construction of Ancient Indian History 9 Non-Literary Sources The non-literary sources used for the reconstruction of ancient Indian history include-Archaeology, Inscriptions and Coins. Archaeology Archaeology is a science that enables us to systematically dig the successive layers of old mounds and to form an idea of the material life of the people of the past on the basis of remains found there. Archaeology is very important to study prehistory i.e. the period before the invention of writing. Archaeological Excavations have brought to light the tools of early humans in India going as far back as seven lakh years. For Example, The excavated sites belonging to the Harappan period show the layout of the settlements and the form of the houses in which people lived, the type of pottery, tools and implements they used and the kind of cereals they consumed. In south India some people were buried along with their tools, weapons, pottery and other belongings under big and heavy stones. These graves are known as megaliths. By digging them we learn about the life of people who lived in the Deccan and south India before the third century BC. Do you know? The dates of remains found in archaeological excavactions are fixed by various methods. The most important of them is the Radiocarbon or Carbon 14 (C14) dating method. Carbon 14 is a radioactive carbon present in all living objects. It decays, like all radioactive substances, at a uniform rate when the object is dead. By measuring the loss of C14 content in an ancient object (wood or bone) its age can be determined. Inscriptions and Edicts Inscriptions and edicts are virtually permanent records and are generally regarded as the most reliable source of ancient history. Note: While an edict is a decree or announcement of a law which can be issued in any physical form; Inscriptions are writings engraved on hard surfaces such as stone, metal or pottery. The study of inscriptions is called epigraphy and the study of the old writing used in inscriptions and other old records is called palaeography. Inscriptions usually record the achievements, activities and ideas of those who got them inscribed. Those inscriptions which are composed in praise of kings and patrons are known as Prashastis. Major Inscriptions Facts related to them and Edicts Sohgaura inscription It is one of India’s few pre-Ashoka Brahmi inscriptions. It is the earlies copper plate inscripted that mention famine relief efforts and describe the granary. It has been obtained from the Gorakhpur district of present-day Uttar Pradesh. Ashoka’s Edicts And Ashoka was the first Indian king to speak directly to the people through his inscriptions. These inscriptions Inscriptions throw light not only on the reign of Ashoka, but also reveal his external and domestic policies, his views about dhamma, and the extent of his empire. There are total of 33 inscriptions and are primarily classified into Major Rock Edicts, Minor Rock Edicts, Separate Rock Edicts, Major Pillar Edicts, and Minor Pillar Edicts. Mehrauli Inscription The Mehrauli Iron Pillar was originally located on a hill near the Beas River and was transported to Delhi by a Delhi king. It is now located in Delhi in the Qutub Minar complex. This pillar attributes the victory of the Vanga Countries to Chandragupta, who fought alone against a confederacy of opponents gathered against him. © Study IQ Publications 10 Ancient and Medieval History: Static Revision Simplified Major Inscriptions Facts related to them and Edicts Allahabad Pillar The Allahabad Prasasti was first inscribed on the Ashokan Pillar in Kausambhi, near Allahabad. It was Inscription (Prayag later relocated to the Allahabad fort. Prasasti) It is an Ashokan Stambh, but it has four different inscriptions, The standard Ashokan inscriptions in Brahmi script are found on all pillars. The Queen’s edict lauding Ashoka’s wife Kaurwaki’s charitable deeds. Inscriptions of Samudragupta (335–375 AD) written by Harisena in Sanskrit and Brahmi script. It discusses Samudragupta’s conquests and the boundaries of the Gupta Empire. Jahangir’s Persian inscriptions. Aihole inscription Aihole in Karnataka was the Chalukyas’ first capital. The defeat of Harshavardhana by Pulakeshin II and the victory of the Chalukyas over the Pallavas are mentioned. It also mentions the capital’s relocation from Aihole to Badami. Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakeshi II, who reigned from 610 to 642 CE, wrote this inscription.. Garuda Pillar This is an inscription of 2 BC. inscription This inscription was established in Vidisha by Heliodorus (messenger of Yavana king Antialcidas) in praise of Vasudeva. At this time the ruler here was Bhagabhadra. Bharhut Lekh This is an inscription of 2 BC. It describes the meeting of Buddha and Ajatashatru. Ghosundi inscription This is an inscription of 1st BC. This inscription describes the Bhagavata Dharma. This is the oldest inscription in the Sanskrit language. This inscription describes the worship of Vasudeva and Balarama and the Ashvamedha Yagya. Ayodhya inscription This is the inscription of the Shunga ruler Pushyamitra Shunga. It is written in Sanskrit and Brahmi. There is a description of the Ashvamedha Yagya being performed by Pushyamitra Shunga. Nanaghat inscription This is an inscription of 1st BC. This inscription was engraved by Nayanika, wife of Satavahana ruler Satakarni. In this, Satakarni has been called “Dakshina Pathapati”. There is a description of Satakarni performing Ashvamedha Yagya twice. Hathigumpha This inscription is located in the Udayagiri district of Orissa state. inscription It is related to the Chedi ruler Kharavela. In this inscription, there is a description of the invasion of Kalinga by the Nanda ruler and the construction of a dam there. Junagadh inscription This inscription belongs to the Shaka king Rudradaman. It mentions the reconstruction of Sudarshan Lake. Nashik inscription This inscription was engraved by Gautami Balashri after the death of his son Gautamiputra Satakarni (Satavahana King). This inscription describes the victories of Satakarni and his devotion to religion. In this inscription, Satakarni is said to be equivalent to Parashuram. Mandsaur The writings were found on a pair of pillars near Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh, in a tiny village called Inscription Sondani at the time. It mentions Malwa king Yasodharman’s victory over Hun king Mihirakula. It was authored by Vatsabhatta during Kumaragupta’s reign (5th century). The inscription begins by praising the sun deity and asking for his grace. Kumara Gupta is described as “reigning over the entire planet” in the Mandsaur inscription. According to the article, many silk weavers migrate from Lata (Gujarat) to Dasapura. Rabatak inscription The Rabatak inscription, inscribed on a rock in the Bactrian language and Greek character, was discovered in 1993 near Surkh Kotal in Afghanistan. The inscription refers to the reign of the Kushan emperor Kanishka and contains important information on the Kushan dynasty’s ancestry. The Rabatak inscription suggests that the true scope of Kushan control under Kanishka extended much beyond previously accepted bounds. © Study IQ Publications Sources for Construction of Ancient Indian History 11 Major Inscriptions Facts related to them and Edicts Halmidi inscription The Halmidi inscription is the oldest known Kannada script inscription. It was discovered on a pillar in the village of Halmidi, a few miles from the famed temple town of Belur in Karnataka’s Hassan district, and is dated 450 C.E. The Halmidi inscription has the first indication of Kannada being used as an administrative language. The inscription is written in poetry, demonstrating that the writers had a thorough understanding of the linguistic structure. Panjtar inscription This inscription describes the capture of Kabul valley by the Kushans. NagarjunaKonda This inscription describes the marriage of King Veera Purushadatta of the Ikshvaku dynasty with Rudra inscription Bhattarika. Mora inscription This is an inscription of 1st BC. In this, there is a description of the establishment of the temple of Panch Vrushti heroes by a woman. Nagarjuni Guhalekh This inscription belongs to the Maurya ruler Dasharatha. It describes the events of the reign of the Chedi ruler Kharavela and the Rajasuya Yagya performed by him. Takht-i-Bahi This inscription is located in the Peshawar province of Pakistan. inscription This is the inscription of Gondophernes. It is written in Kharoshthi. Junnar inscription Junnar is a city in the Pune district of the Indian state of Maharashtra. The city has history dating back to the first millennium. Several inscriptions related to donations by Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) have been found at the Shivneri caves. Karle inscription The Karle Caves are a complex of ancient Buddhist Indian rock-cut caves at Karli near Lonavala, Maharashtra. The Great Chaitya at Karle is India’s largest rock-cut chaitya, spanning 45 meters (148 feet) long and rising to a height of 14 meters (46 feet). Many of the pillars in the hall include inscriptions in Brahmi script and Prakrit language that list the names of the contributors and their origins. Sui Vihara Sui Vihara is a Buddhist monastery located about 25 km from Bahawalpur in Pakistan. inscription This inscription describes the marriage of Vasishthiputra Pulumavi to the daughter of Rudradaman. Coins The study of coins is known as numismatics. Numismatics not only includes visual elements such as script and images on the coins but also metallurgical analysis. Coins provide useful information regarding economic history as they were used as a medium of exchange. Coins also portray kings and gods, and contain religious symbols, all to which throw light on the art and religion of the time. Some coins were issued by guilds or associations of the merchants and craftsmen with the permission of the rulers. This shows the influence of craft and commerce. Do You Know? The earliest coins found in India contained certain symbols and were called punch-marked coins. They were made of silver and copper (c. sixth century BC onwards). The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, who established control over the northwestern part of the subcontinent (c. second century BC). The first gold coins were issued by the Kushanas in c. first century AD. Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers. Their earliest issues are remarkable for their purity of gold content. © Study IQ Publications 12 Ancient and Medieval History: Static Revision Simplified CHAPTER 2 Pre- Historic Cultures INTRODUCTION Prehistoric period is that period of our ancient past for which we do not have written records. Prehistoric stage is succeeded by Proto-history which is a transitional stage between Prehistory and History in India. Human cultures had got evolved into Civilization in different phases viz., Stone, Chalcolithic/Bronze and Iron Ages. The Stone Age was followed by the Metal Ages – Bronze Age and Iron Age. Stone Age belongs to Prehistoric period whereas Bronze age and Iron Age belongs to the Protohistoric period in India. Note: These different stages of human culture are of a technological sequence only, but not the chronological one. Do You Know? Australopithecus is the first human like ancestor evolved around 5 million years ago. Fossils of an australopithecine named ‘Lucy’ has been found in African rock deposits. Australopithecines gave rise to Homo habilis, probably around 2 million years ago. Fossils of Homo habilis have been discovered at Omo in Ethiopia and at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The next stage, Homo erectus, is supposed to have existed between 1.5 million years to 200,000 years ago. The earliest fossils of Homo erectus have been found both in Africa and Asia: Koobi Fora and west Turkana, Kenya, Modjokerto and Sangiran, Java. Next to evolve was Neanderthal man and Cromagnon man. They were both Homo sapiens. Modern man is the Homo sapiens -sapiens meaning the wise one evolved about 50,000 years ago. In Indian context, the Pre-historic man first appeared in Bori Caves (Pune region) 1.67 million years ago. This is the beginning of human history in India. STONE AGE The earliest man living during the pre-historic period made tools and implements of stone found in his surroundings- hence, tthis phase of human development is known as the Stone Age. Places where stone was found and where people made tools are known as factory sites. The earliest contributions to the study of the stone age in India were made by Shelby Foote (1916), a geologist. On the basis of the different type of tools and techniques, Stone Age is classified into three periods namely-Palaeolithic , Mesolithic and Neolithic.. The word ‘lithic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘lithos’, meaning stone. Palaeolithic means Old Stone Age, Mesolithic means Middle Stone Age and Neolithic means New Stone Age. Three Phases of Stone Age Stone Age Time Period (Approx.) Characteristic Features Paleolithic/Old 1.6 million-8,000 BC Economy/Subsistence- Palaeolithic man was a hunter-gatherer, hence this stage of Stone Age (during Pleistocene human cultures is known as ‘Food-gathering age’. Period.) Tools- Indian Palaeolithic man had used mainly the crude stone i.e., quartzite tools; hence known as ‘Quartzite man’. Chert, flint, quartz, and basalt were also used for tool-making. Housing- Lived in caves, rock-shelters and on trees. Society- Humans were wanderers and led a band organisation of social life constituting usually the blood relatives. Note: Fire is believed to be discovered at the end of Palaeolithic age. © Study IQ Publications Pre- Historic Cultures 13 Three Phases of Stone Age Stone Age Time Period (Approx.) Characteristic Features Mesolithic/ 10,000-4,000 BC Economy/Subsistence- This is a transitional period between Food gathering and Food Middle Stone (during Holocene production phases. Mesolithic man had continued hunting and gathering; and now Age Period) had taken up fishing, fowling and Pastoralism too. Tools- Man had used tiny stone tools i.e., microliths that were made up of silicates like jasper, chalcedony, chert, agate. Hence they are known as ‘Microlithic cultures’ Housing- Evidence of Artificially constructed houses were found. Society- Community life had begun since they lived in sedentary or semi-permanent settlements. Note: Mesolithic man had started making hand-made clay pottery for the first time. Neolithic/ New 4000-1800 BCE Economy- Palaeolithic man was a hunter-gatherer, hence this stage of human cultures Stone Age is known as ‘Food-gathering age’. Tools- Indian Palaeolithic man had used mainly the crude stone i.e., quartzite tools; hence known as ‘Quartzite man’. Chert, flint, quartz, and basalt were also used for tool-making. Housing- Lived in caves, rock-shelters and on trees. Society- Humans were wanderers and led a band organisation of social life constituting the blood relatives. Palaeolithic /Old Stone Age (1.6 million-8,000 BC) The term Palaeolithic is derived from the Greek word palaeo that means old and lithic means stone. Hence, Palaeolithic age refers to the Old Stone Age. In 1885 AD, the term Palaeolithic was coined by John Lubbock, an archaeologist. In India, this age developed in the Pleistocene period of the Ice Age. The time span of Paleolithic period covers 99% of human history and this long stretch of time is divided into the Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic. Three phases in the Palaeolithic Age Lower Palaeolithic Age Middle Palaeolithic Age Upper Palaeolithic Age (1.6 million- 1,00,000 BC) (1,00,000 - 40,000 B.C.) (40,000 - 8000 B.C) It covers a greater part of the Ice Age. This age was also called the “age of In this period, humans lived as nomadic- The people were wanderers who did Flakes”. hunter gatherers. not know how to grow food and ate There was a slight change in the shape The traces of Homo Sapiens have been fruits, birds and raw animal flesh. of tools made of stones or bones. discovered. The tools were usually made of hard They started using blades, points and Rock paintings and carving have been rock called Quartzite and hence the scrappers made of flakes. found in Bhimbhetka that reflect art and Lower palaeolithic men were also Still they had no house to live in. They rituals of this period. Animals depicted called as “Quartzite Men”. lived under the rocks, in caves and are: Bisons, elephants, tigers, boars, Fossil of “Homo Erectus” from hollow tree trunks. They were afraid of rhinoceros etc. Hathnora (Narmada Basin) of this age wild creatures. Characteristic feature of upper Palaeolithic has been found. Neanderthal Man (early man) dominated art : Red and Green colours This age is represented by Sohan this stage of human evolution. During this period Climate became less Culture, now in Pakistan. Important sites: Bankura and Purulia humid. Important sites: Sohan Valley (Punjab (West Bengal), Nevasa, Nodur, Important sites: Kurnool (A.P.), Meralbhavi in Pakistan), Belan Valley (Mirzapur Madhmeshwar, Suregaon (Maharashtra), (Kamataka), Baghor-1 and Baghor-3 in U.P.), Narmada Valley (Madhya Malaprabha Basin and Ghatprabha Basin (Central M.P.), southern U.P, south Bihar Pradesh), Didwani (Rajasthan), (Karnataka), Didwana and Budha Pushkar plateau, Gujarat, Patne (Maharashtra), Bhimbhetka (Madhya Pradesh), (Rajasthan), Bhimbetka (M.P.), Narmada, Cave shelters at Bhimbetka. Singrauli Basin (Uttar Pradesh), Godavari, Krishna, Yamuna River Valley Tools: Blades and Burins Chhotanagpur Basin (Jharkhand). In Bhimbhetka (M.P.), 200 rock shelters, Harpoon, Blade tools found from Traces of this age are also found in caves and thousands of painting have Renigunta (Andhra Pradesh) Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka been traced which belong to middle Ostrich Egg Shells: The egg shell of this except Sindh and Kerala. palaeolithic age bird had been used as beads. They are Tools: Choppers, hand-axes, cleavers. Tools: blades, points and scrappers made found in Bhimbetka and Patne. Those of flakes from Patne have been dated to 25,000 BC. © Study IQ Publications 14 Ancient and Medieval History: Static Revision Simplified Mesolithic Age (10,000 - 4,000 B.C.) The term Mesolithic is derived from the Greek word Meso, which means middle and lithic means stone. It was a transitional age/ phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic age, also referred to as Late Stone Age or Microlithic Age. This culture belonged to the Holocene era (which succeeded the Pleistocene era around 10,000 years ago). During this age many environmental changes took place. The climate seems to have been wet and warm with heavy rainfall in summers and moderate level of rainfall in winters. Mesolithic Age (10,000 - 4,000 B.C.) Key Features Details related to them Tools Microlithic Tools: Made up of chipped and flaked stones. Length of tools varied from 1 cm to 8 cm. Main tools: Blades Points, Lunate bones, Trapezes, scrappers, arrow heads, geometric and non-geometric tools Tools were capable of being used as combination tools by hafting them in curved wood or bone. The microliths were first discovered by Carlyle in 1867 from Vindhyan Rock shelters. Living Pattern This age reflects a more specialised and efficient food collection. Domestication of Animal: Domestication of animals has been witnessed from M.P. and Rajasthan. First animal to be domesticated was wild ancestor of dog. Introduction of agriculture: Crude form of farming also started. The last phase of this age saw the beginning of the plant cultivation and coincided with Neolithic age. Pottery Pottery was wholly hand-made and usually coarse grey and sometimes comprises of incised and impressed designs. Mesolithic period pottery has been reported from a number of excavated sites like Langhanj (Gujarat), Bagor (Rajasthan), Nagarjunakonda and Chopani Mando (Uttar Pradesh) Art (Painted Rock The Mesolithic era initiated rock art in pre-History. Shelters) In 1867, the first rock paintings in India have been found at Sohagighat (U.P.). Paintings are generally executed in red ochre but sometimes bluish green, yellow or white colours also had been used. Rhinoceros hunting is depicted in the caves of the Adamgarh and no snakes are depicted in paintings. 29 species of animals are depicted, including the cheetah (this occurs most often), tiger, crabs, deer, scorpions, panther and squirrel. The Bhimbetka paintings reflect division of labour based on gender. Men are depicted hunting while women are painted gathering and preparing food. Important Sites Mirzapur district and Murhana Pahar in Uttar Pradesh Bhimbetka caves, Adamgarh, LakhaJuar in Madhya Pradesh Baghore, Nim Bahera, Mandapiya, Tilwada, Hokhara in Rajasthan Langhnaj, Pavagarh, Tarsang, Dhamsura, Pithau in Gujarat Palamu in Jharkhand Sundargarh and Sambalpur in Orissa Kapugallu in Telangana Teri sites of Tirunevalli district in Tamil Nadu (mounds of sand is called ‘Teri’ in local language) Ezhuthu Guha in Kerala Bagor (Rajasthan) on river Kothari is one of the largest and the best documented Mesolithic sites in India. It also provides the earliest evidence for the domestication of animals. Human skeletons have been found in Mahadaha, Damdama and Sarai Nahar Rai in Uttar Pradesh. At Mahadaha, a man and a woman were buried together. One burial had an ivory pendant as the grave good. Neolithic age (4,000 - 1,800 B.C.) The term Neolithic is derived from Greek work Neo which means new and lithic means stone. This term was first coined by Sir John Lubbock in 1865. This age belonged to the Holocene geological age. V. Gorden Childe termed Neolithic phase as Neolithic Revolution because this phase witnessed a number of innovations. © Study IQ Publications Pre- Historic Cultures 15 Neolithic age (4,000 - 1,800 B.C.) Key Features Details related to them Tools Tool making became an important profession. Polished tool culture: During this period a variety of polished tools were manufactured. Important tools: stone celts, adzes, chisels, hammer, morters, discs, sling stones etc. Function of tools: heavy digging stick for digging ground, sickles for harvesting, axes for cutting trees, querns and mortars for grinding. Living Pattern People became food producers instead of food gatherers. Division of labour based on sex and age began. Advent of food production: Cultivated fruits and corn like Ragi and horse gram (kulathi). Domestication of animals: Animals like cattle, sheep and goat were domesticated. Evidence of fire-baked earthen figurines suggest that they kept a large number of cattle. Emergence of self-sufficient village communities: They lived in circular and rectangular houses made of mud and reed. New Innovations Art of producing fire was discovered by the friction of stones. Bows and arrows were invented for hunting. Wheel discovered. Art of spinning and weaving clothes was learnt. Pottery This phase witnessed first hand-made pottery and then foot wheel made pottery. Art of pottery was learnt, pots were well made and decorated with painting. Their pottery included black burnished ware, grey ware and mat impressed ware. Ochre - Coloured Pottery (OCP) was popular among Neolithic people. Pots were used to store surplus grains and to hold liquids. Important Sites Mehargarh in Baluchistan (Pakistan): Evidence of mud brick houses (built of sun-dried bricks) have been found with multiple rooms at Mehargarh. Crops like wheat, barley and cotton were discovered here. Gulfkral (Srinagar): literally means the cave of the potter. It is 41 km south-west of Srinagar and is famous for pit dwelling, polished stone tools and graveyards located within households. Chirand (Bihar): Bone tools made of antlers have been found at Chirand. Burzahom (Kashmir): remarkable for pit-dwelling houses,. Probably dependent upon hunting, fishing and agriculture. Used various tools, weapons made of bone and coarse grey pottery. Domestic dogs buried with their masters in graves. People of Burzahom traded with the Harappan civilisation. Malur, Piveenal, Nagarjunakonda, Brahmagiri, Maski and Sanganakallu (South of the Godavari river in South India): They mainly settled on the top of granite hills or on plateaus found near the river banks Hills of Assam and Garo Hills in Meghalaya (North- east India): Neolithic tools have been found. CHALCOLITHIC/BRONZE AGE (3000 - 500 BC) The end of the neolithic phase saw the use of metals like copper and low grade bronze along with stone tools. Chalcolithic means stone- copper phase. This phase applied to the pre-Harappans. However, in various parts of the country the Chalcolithic culture appears after the end of the bronze Harappan culture. Pre-Harappan phase at Kalibangan in Rajasthan and Banawali in Haryana is distinctly Chalcolithic. Chalcolithic /Bronze Age (3000 - 500 BC) Key Features Details related to them Living pattern This phase witnessed rural community along with social inequalities. Fish and rice was their staple diet. No burnt bricks were used and the houses were constructed of mud and wattle, though these were used in Gilund. Houses were either circular or rectangular. Kept buffaloes and cows; Hunted deer, goats, sheeps and pigs. Remains of camel have also been found. © Study IQ Publications 16 Ancient and Medieval History: Static Revision Simplified Chalcolithic /Bronze Age (3000 - 500 BC) Key Features Details related to them Tool Implements Copper was the first metal to be used by man and Copper smelting was known. Microlithic tools made of siliceous material were very common. People occasionally used low-grade bronze. Stone grinder, millers and hammers were used for processing of food. Agriculture Chalcolithic settlements flourished in the black cotton soil zone. They cultivated both kharif and rabi crops in rotation. Crops: Barley, wheat, lentil, black gram, rice, grass pea Neither plough nor hoe has been attested to chalcolithic sites. Perforated stone discs and digging sticks were found. Religious Beliefs/ Chalcolithic people worshipped Mother Goddess and bull. Practices Mother Goddess was depicted on a huge storage jar of Malwa culture in an applique design. Fiddle shaped figurines resembling srivatsa, the symbol of Lakshmi, represent Mother Goddess. Two figurines from Inamgaon belonging to the Jorwe culture had been identified as Proto-Ganesh. Chalcolithic people worshipped fire as fire altars have been found during the course of excavations. Burials Chalcolithic people believed in life after death. Dead used to be buried in their respective habitations along with pots and other objects. Buried in urn under the floor of their house in the north-south position in Maharashtra. Fractional burials were found in eastern India. Buried in the east-west position in south India. Ornaments Manufactured beads of semi-precious stones like steatite, quartz crystal and carnelian etc. Copper beads, bangles and anklets were common in use. Types of Pottery Ochre coloured pottery (OCP) (2000 BC - 1500 BC) Essentially a red-slipped ware discovered in Bisauli (Badaun) and Rajpur Parsu (Bihar). These wares were found before the early Iron Age. Black and red ware (1000 BC) This was an attractive variety of ceramics prepared by a fringing technique. From the inside and around the rim on the outside these are completely black and the rest of the outer surface is brick red. North Black Polished Ware (NBPW) It is the characteristic of the urban centres of the Ganga Plain. It is developed from high temperature firing techniques used in smelting iron and from the use of local haematite soil. Its extensive distribution as a luxury ware helps in the tracking of exchange and trade in various parts of the subcontinent. Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Post-Harappan period. These wares spread from the Indo-Gangetic watershed to the confluence of Ganga and Yamuna. Important settlements of this ware include Roper (Punjab), Bhagwanpura (Haryana) and Atranji Kheda, Hastinapur, Ahichhatra and Jakhera (Uttar Pradesh). Chalcolithic Cultures at a Glance Culture Period Ware-features Grown crops Sites Ahar Culture 2800-1500 B.C White designed black and red Rice, ragi, gram, jowar, Ahar, Balahal, Gilund (Rajasthan) ware bajra, Kulathi, lentil Kayatha 2450-1700 B.C Chocolate coloured slipped ware, Rice, ragi, gram, jowar, Chambal and its tributaries (M.P.) culture red painted buff ware, combed bajra, kulathi, lentil ware Malwa Culture 1900-1400 B.C The Malwa ware is coarse in Wheat and barley Narmada and its tributaries, fabric with thick buff surface Navada Toli, Eran, Nagada (The largest chalcolithic settlement) in M.P. © Study IQ Publications Pre- Historic Cultures 17 Culture Period Ware-features Grown crops Sites Savalda 2300-200 B.C - - Dhuria (Maharashtra) Culture Jorwe Culture 1500-900 B.C Painted black on red with Rice, ragi, gram, jowar, Maharashtra, Daimabad and matte surface dishes on stand, bajra, kulthi, lentil Inamgaon sprouted vases, stemmed cups, jars, basins etc. Prabhas 2000-1400 B.C Polished Red Ware (Harappan/ - - Culture Indus civilisation) belonged to this culture Rangpur 1700 - 1400 Polished Red Ware (Harappan/ - - Culture B.C Indus civilisation) belonged to this culture IRON AGE(1500-500 BC) Iron age in India began around 1500 B.C and is associated with Painted Grey Ware (PGW). Iron age in India led to irrigated rice cultivation and also the spread of material culture. Iron Age sites in India: Pirak (1000 B.C.), Graves of Gandhara (1000 B.C.), Dharwar in Karnataka (1000 B.C.) etc. From 1000 BC onwards, Southern Neolithic cultures had got transformed into Megalithic cultures using iron that flourished from Vidarbha (MH) to Adichanallur (TN). Megalithic Culture The term megalith is derived from Greek word megas which means great and lithos meaning stone. -hence megaliths refer to monuments built of large stones. Megaliths usually refer to the burials made of large stones in graveyards away from the habitation area. Megalithic graves have yielded enlightening evidence regarding these cultural periods, such as animal bones, iron objects and weapons, pottery, ornaments, beads, and so on. In India, archaeologists trace the majority of the megaliths to the Iron Age (1500 BC to 500 BC), though some sites precede the Iron Age, extending up to 2000 BC. Megaliths are spread across the Indian subcontinent. The majority of megalithic sites are found in Peninsular India, concentrated in the states of Maharashtra (mainly in Vidarbha), Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana. Megalithic people used high-quality Black and Red Ware pottery. Sangam Age can be placed in Megalithic culture phase, thus the dawn of civilization in South India is associated with Megalithic cultures. Important Pre-historic sites and findings Sites Findings Atranjikhera Textile printing Chandoli Evidence of tin and lead alloying Brahmagiri South Indian Neolithic sites Burzahom Pit-dwelling Chirand Serpant cult Bhimbetka Cave of Homo-sapiens, 500 Painted rock shelters Nevasa Evidence of cotton Hastinapur Wild Sugarcane © Study IQ Publications 18 Ancient and Medieval History: Static Revision Simplified Important Pre-historic sites and findings Sites Findings Inamgaon Statue of mother goddess Bagor and Ajamgarh Evidence of domestication of animals Mehargarh Earliest evidence of Agriculture Bhimbetka and Ajamgarh Mesolithic rock and cave paintings Vindhya rock shelters First discovered microliths © Study IQ Publications Harappan Civilisation 19 CHAPTER 3 Harappan Civilisation INTRODUCTION Harappan civilization , also referred to as the Indus Valley civilization, is the first civilization of Indian subcontinent. Harappan civilization belonged to the Proto-historic period, and is a Bronze Age civilisation. It was one of the four earliest civilisations of the world, along with Civilisation of Mesopotamia between Tigris and Euphrates River, Shang/Chinese Civilisation on River Hwang Ho, Egyptian Civilisation on River Nile. Why is it called Harappan Culture? Initially, most of the sites of this civilization like Harappa and Mohenjodaro were discovered in the Indus Valley alone. Hence, historians called this as Indus Valley Civilisation. Later, a large number of sites belonging to this civilization have been found in areas far away from the Indus Valley. For example, Kalibangan and Lothal. Therefore, historians felt that the name Indus Valley Civilization is not appropriate. Further, most of these sites have many similarities to the urbanised culture of the people of Harappa, the first site of this culture to be discovered in 1921. Therefore, this civilization is now called the Harappan Culture DISCOVERY Though excavated in 1921, Harappa had attracted the attention of a British traveller, Charles Merson as early as in 1826. He found old bricks in Harappa in large number. Harappan sites were noticed by Colonel Burns when he went to meet Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1831. Alexander Cunningham , the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of. India (ASI) and often called the father of Indian archaeology,.inspected Harappan site in 1853 and 1857. In 1856, Harappan ruins were excavated to meet the demand for bricks to lay railway line between Karachi and Lahore. It was during this digging process that existence of an old civilisation was unravelled. But unfortunately, no serious efforts were made to bring that civilisation to light. It was in 1921, Daya Ram Sahni got the site excavated at Harappa in the Montgomery district of Punjab (now in Pakistan) on the left bank of River Ravi. In 1922, Rakhal Das Banerji discovered the remains of civilization at Mohenjodaro in the Larkana district of Sindh (now in Pakistan). The two excavations(Harappa and Mohenjedaro) prepared the foundation of a new chapter in the history which is studied under the name of Indus Valley Civilization. John Marshall was the first to use the term Indus Valley Civilisation. Note: Excavations at these sites have been a continuous process and usually involve many excavators at different period of times. For the convenience of students, only main excavators and their year of excavation are mentioned. TIME PERIOD AND PHASES Based on the archaeological findings the Harappan civilization has been dated between 2600 B.C–1900 BC. There were earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan ,in the same area. The Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan civilisation to distinguish it from these cultures. © Study IQ Publications 20 Ancient and Medieval History: Static Revision Simplified Three Phases of Harappan Civilisation Phase Time Period Description Important Sites Early 3500 BC–2600 BC This phase was marked by some town- Amri, Kotdiji, Sothi, Rehman Dheri, Bhirrana, Harappan planning in the form of mud structures, Rakhigarhi and Banwali phase elementary trade, arts, and crafts, etc. Mature 2600 BC–1900 BC This was the period in which we noticed Mohenjadaro, Harappa, Ganeriwala, Harappan well developed towns with burnt brick Chanhudaro, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, phase structures, inland and foreign trade, crafts Lothal, Ropar, Banwali and Surkatoda. of various types, etc. Note: All mature Harappan sites were urban centers. Late 1900 BC–1400 BC This was the phase of decline during which Rangapur, Lothal, Alamgirpur, Hulas, and Harappan many cities were abandoned, and the trade Daimabad. phase disappeared leading to the gradual decay of the significant urban traits. A general time range is specified as there is a great deal of variation in the dates for different phases. A site can belong to more than one phases as the phases of Harappan civilisation existed in the same place in different time periods. ORIGIN OF THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION About the origin of the Harappan Civilisation, many scholars have presented different thoughts: E.J.H. Mackay has considered that the origin of the Harappan Civilisation was due to the migration of people from Sumer (Southern Mesopotamia). D.H. Gordon and Martin Wheeler considered that the Harappan Civilisation was the result of migration from Western Asia. Amalananda Ghosh has considered that pre-Harappan culture matured to Harappan Civilisation. M.F. Rafique Mughal considered that the development of Harappan Civilisation occured in the region of Ravi river around Harappa refuting the earlier belief that Harappan Civilisation was inspired by Mesopotamian Civilisation. EXTENT OF HARAPPAN CIVILISATION Harappan civilisation was spread over a vast area which included not only the present day states of India such as Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Western Uttar Pradesh but also Pakistan and some parts of Afghanistan. Boundaries of Harappan civilisation Westernmost Site: Sutkagen dor ( Makran Coast of Pakistan) Easternmost Site : Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh) Northernmost Site: Manda Akhnoor (Jammu) Southernmost Site: Daimabad (Maharashtra) The area under Harappan civilisation forms a triangle and accounts for about 1299600 square kms, which is larger than Pakistan and certainly larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. No other cultural zone in the third and second millennium B.C. in the world was as large as the Harappan zone. Note: The location of settlements suggests that the Harappa, Kalibangan (On River GhaggarHakra generally associated with the lost river Saraswati), Mohenjodaro axis was the heartland of this civilization and most of the settlements are located in this region. This area had certain uniform features in terms of the soil type, climate and subsistence pattern. The land was flat and depended on the monsoons and the Himalayan rivers for the supply of water. Due to its distinct geographical feature, agro-pastoral economy was the dominant feature in this region. © Study IQ Publications Harappan Civilisation 21 Region/State Major Archaeological Sites Afghanistan Shortughai, Mundigak Baluchistan (Pakistan) Mehargarh, Kili ghul Muhammad, Rana Ghundi, Dabarkot, Balakot, Nindo Bari, Anjira, Sutkagendor Punjab (Pakistan) Harappa, Jalilpur, Sanghanwala, Derawar, Ghaneriwal, Saraikhola Sindh Mohanjodaro, Amari, Kotdizi, Rehman Dheri, Sukur, Alhadino, Chanhudaro, Alimurad, Jbukar, Jhangar Jammu Kashmir Manda Haryana Banawali, Rakhigarhi, Bhagawanpura Rajastan Kalibangan, Ganeshwar. Shishawal, Bara, Hanumangarh, Mithal, Chhupas Uttar Pradesh Alamghirpur, Manpur, Bargaon, Hulas, Sanauli Gujarat Dholavira, Lothal, Surkotda, Bhagatrao, Rangpur, Rozdi, Desalpur, Prabhashpattan Maharashtra Daimabad KEY FEATURES OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION Town Planning and structures The most interesting urban feature of Harappan civilization is its town-planning. It is marked by considerable uniformity, though one can notice some regional variations as well. The uniformity is noticed in the lay-out of the towns, streets, structures, brick size, drains etc. City-Layout Each city was divided into two parts viz., acropolis (upper town/Citadel) on higher mound on the western side and town proper (lower town) on the eastern side of the settlement. The citadel contain large structures which might have functioned as administrative or ritual centres. The Citadel owes its height to the fact that buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms. It was walled, which meant that it was physically separated from the Lower Town. The residential buildings are built in the lower town. The remarkable thing about the arrangement of the houses in the cities is that they followed the grid system. This is true of almost all Indus settlements regardless of size. Roads cross one another almost at right angles and the city was divided into so many blocks. Exceptions and Deviations from basic City-Layout Lothal: The citadel was not walled off , but was built at a height. No clear internal division of the town into citadel and lower towns was present in Lothal. Rather, a quadrangular fortified lay-out i.e., town dividing into six sections, each built on wide platform of mud bricks separated by roads was excavated. Dholavira:It was divided into three divisions viz., upper, middle and lower towns. Chanhudaro:No citadel was found in Chanhudaro. Kalibangan and Surkatoda:Lower towns were also fortified in these sites. Banawali: This site lacked grid pattern of planning and systematic drainage system. Here roads are neither always straight nor do they cut each other at right angles. Note:The entire settlement was fortified in Dholavira and Lothal and sections with the town were separated by walls. Drainage System The drainage system of the Harappans was elaborate and well laid out. Every house had drains, which opened into the street drains. These drains were covered with manholes; bricks or stone slabs (which could be removed for cleaning). Houses The houses were largely built of burnt bricks. © Study IQ Publications 22 Ancient and Medieval History: Static Revision Simplified Do you Know? Harappans’ bricks, whether sun-dried or baked, were of a standardised ratio, where the length and breadth were four times and twice the height respectively (1:2:4 ratio). Such bricks were used at all Harappan settlements. The houses differed in size from a single-room house in Harappa to bigger structures. The bigger houses had many rooms surrounding a square courtyard and were provided with private wells, kitchens and bathing platforms. What is also interesting is an apparent concern for privacy: there are no windows in the walls along the ground level. Besides, the main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard. Some houses had staircases to reach a second storey or the roof. The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro The most important public place of Mohenjodaro seems to be the great bath, comprising the tank which is situated in the citadel mound. It is an example of beautiful brickwork which measures 11.88 *7.01 mts and 2.43 mts deep. The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides. There were two flights of steps on the north and south leading into the tank, which was made watertight by setting bricks on edge and using a mortar of gypsum. There were rooms on three sides, in one of which was a large well. Water from the tank flowed into a huge drain. Across a lane to the north lay a smaller building with eight bathrooms, four on each side of a corridor, with drains from each bathroom connecting to a drain that ran along the corridor. The uniqueness of the structure, as well as the context in which it was found (the Citadel, with several distinctive buildings), has led scholars to suggest that it was meant for some kind of a special ritual bath. Granaries It appears that granaries constituted an important part of the Harappan cities. In Mohenjodaro the largest building is a granary, which is 45.71 mts long and 15.23 mts wide. In the citadel of Harappa as many as two rows of six granaries are found. Each granary measured 15.23 mts * 6.09 mts and lay within a few meters of the river’s bank. The combined floor space of the twelve units would be about 8381025 square metres. Approximately it had the same area as the Great Granary at Mohenjodaro. At Kalibangan , brick platforms are noticed in the southern part , which may have been used for granaries. Economy The prosperity of the Harappan civilization was based on its flourishing economic activities such as agriculture, arts and crafts, and trade. The availability of fertile Indus alluvium contributed to the surplus in agricultural production along with pastoralism. It helped the Harappan people to indulge in exchange, both internal and external, with others and also develop crafts and industries. Agriculture Crops Grown-Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame. High quality of barley was produced at Banawali. Millets are found from sites in Gujarat. Finds of rice are relatively rare. The evidence for rice has come from Lothal and Rangpur in the form of husks embedded in pottery. Harappans were the earliest people to produce cotton. The Greeks called it Sindon (derived from Sindh). A piece of woven cloth has been found at Mohenjodaro. Technology-Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing. Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana). Evidence of a ploughed field is found at Kalibangan (Rajasthan). The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together. Irrigation-Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for agriculture. © Study IQ Publications Harappan Civilisation 23 Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not in Punjab or Sind. Water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water for agriculture. Storage of grains- Food grains were stored in huge granaries like that are found at Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Lothal and Kalibangan. Domestication of Animals Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig. Studies done by archaeo- zoologists indicate that these animals were domesticated. Bones of wild species such as boar, deer and gharial are also found. We do not know whether the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or obtained meat from other hunting communities. Bones of fish and fowl are also found. Horse was possibly known only in the late Harappan phases, but extremely rare. Evidences of horse were found from sites like Surkatoda (complete remains of horse), Lothal and Dholavira. No evidence of cow had yet found, but bull/humped bull was present. Bones of camels, which were probably used as beasts of burden, were found at Kalibangan. Bones of marine catfish at Harappa was discovered which suggests that coastal communities may have traded in dried fish in inland cities. At coastal sites in Gujarat, molluscs provided protein-rich diet to the people. Cats and dogs were domesticated as evident from the marks of their feet. Asses and Camels were used as beasts of burden. Rabits, Wild fowl, Pigeons etc. have been found at pottery paintings. Elephants were domesticated in Gujarat. A single instance of Indian rhinoceros has been reported at Amri. Crafts and Industry A number of specialized crafts and profession-based industries viz., bead-making, metallurgical, ship-building, textiles, brick laying, carpentry, shell-cutting, seal-making, weights-making, stone masonry, pottery and terracotta art had flourished in Harappan Civilization. Bead-making factories- These were found at sites like Lothal, Chanhudaro and Dholavira. Materials used for making beads include copper, bronze, silver, gold, carnelian (red color stone), steatite, jasper, faience (gem), quartz, shell, ivory, terracotta etc. Metallurgical industries-Workshops of copper, bronze-smiths producing utensils, tools, weapons and figurines were excavated at sites like Lothal, Dholavira. Copper, bronze weapons production on massive scale is evident from Sukkur. Antimony rod that was found at Harappa indicates their higher metallurgical knowledge. Do You Know? Harappans had no knowledge of iron and had used only copper, bronze tools and weapons which are defensive in character. Textile industries-These were developed at Mohenjadaro, Harappa, Chanhudaro. Fragments of woven cloth, spindle whorls, needles were found at Mohenjadaro. Seals- Making of seals was the greatest artistic creation of Harappans. An animal with a short inscription, sometimes only inscription, were carved in detail on steatite seals. More than 2500 seals were found so far, large number of them were from Mohenjadaro and Harappa. Boat-making industry -It was located at Lothal. A huge tank found at Lothal may have been a dockyard, where boats and ships came in from the sea and through the river channel. Goods were probably loaded and unloaded here. Shell-cutting industry-It was found at Mohenjadaro, Lothal, Balakot etc. Ivory-cutting industry -It was found at Mohenjadaro. © Study IQ Publications 24 Ancient and Medieval History: Static Revision Simplified Do you Know? The Harappans procured materials for craft production from different regions.. Shell -Nageshwar and Balakot. Lapis lazuli -Shortughai( Afghanistan). Carnelian- Bharuch in Gujarat). Steatite -South Rajasthan and north Gujarat. Copper-Khetri region of Rajasthan, Oman and Baluchistan. Gold -Afghanistan, Iran, Kolar in South India. Silver-Afghanistan, Iran Tin -Afghanistan, Iran Agates & Chalcedony-Saurashtra in Gujarat Lead-South India Lapis Lazuli-Afghanistan Turquoise-Khorasan Amethyst-Maharashtra Jade-Pamir in Central Asia), Carnelian ( Bharuch in Gujarat). Trade Harappan cities had a flourishing internal trade between the cities. The river Indus served as the high waterway through which most of this trade was carried out. They also traded with Mesopotamia, Persia and Arabia. Major exports were - cotton textiles, food grains, ornaments, luxury goods, timber, ivory products, lapis lazuli etc. Imports included precious metals like silver, tin, copper, gold and woolen textiles. Harappans did not use metallic money. Most probably they carried on all exchanges through barter exchange. Evidences of Contacts with Distant Lands Oman: Both the Omani copper and Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel, suggesting a common origin. A distinctive type of vessel, a large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay has been found at Omani sites. Mesopotamian texts datable to the third millennium BCE refer to copper coming from a region called Magan, perhaps a name for Oman, and interestingly enough copper found at Mesopotamian sites also contains traces of nickel. Mesopotamia: Mesopotamian texts mention contact with regions named Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha(possibly the Harappan region). They mention the products from Meluhha: carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood. It is likely that communication with Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia was by sea. Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers. Besides, we find depictions of ships and boats on seals. Many Harappan seals have been discovered in Mesopotamia. Bahrain: The round “Persian Gulf” seal found in Bahrain sometimes carries Harappan motifs. Interestingly, local “Dilmun” weights followed the Harappan standard. Political Organisation Due to undeciphered Indus script and the failure of archaeological evidences in explaining political aspects, there has been an ambiguity about political and administrative structure of Harappan Civilization. A number of hypotheses were sprung up viz., rule of priestly class or mercantile community or local governments. Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, and that everybody enjoyed equal status. Others feel there was no single ruler but several, that Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth. Yet others argue that there was a single state, given the similarity in artefacts, the evidence for planned settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements near sources of raw However, it is clear that uniform town-planning, well-maintained drain-age system, sanitation and sullage facilities, granaries, uniform weights and measures, standardized bricks etc were possible only by a centralized administration. © Study IQ Publications Harappan Civilisation 25 Social Organisation People-Harappan people were hetero-geneous , majority of them being Mediterraneans who are linguistically Dravidians. Other racial groups included Proto-Austroloids (dancing girl), Mongoloids (priest- head) and Alpinoids (skeletal remains). Division-The fact that there were different types of houses indicates that there were different social classes. Dress and Ornaments-Both men and women wore two pieces of cloth, mostly cotton or woolen. Hair-dresses were also found. They were beauty-conscious; used to wear a variety of jewelery, ornaments viz., bangles, bracelets, ear- rings, finger-rings, collyrium, lipsticks, mirrors. Food Habits- They ate both vegetarian and non-vegetarian food.They even had dairy knowledge. Recreation-The seem to have had a great liking for dance and music. They were also familiar with indoor games like dice. A large number of terracotta toys were found in Mohenjodaro. Religious beliefs and Practises We do not have any specific information about the religious beliefs of the Harappan people. However, on the basis of archaeological finds we can come to certain conclusions like: No temples have been found from any of the Harappan sites. Figurines resembling a female deity have been found. They suggest worship of Mother Goddess. A seal with a male figure(Pashupati Mahadeva) sitting in a yogic posture with a trident-like headgear, surrounded by animals, has been found. This has a lot of similarities with Shiva. From this it is figured.that the Harappans might be worshipping “proto-Shiva”, that is, an early form of one of the major deities of Hinduism. Phallus worship is evident from stone lingam that was found at Mohenjadaro. Animal and Tree worship i.e., of unicorn, humped bull and Pipal tree is evident from their seals. Snake cult is evident from terracotta figurine of snake Goddess found at Gumla. Fire worship and rituals -Fire altars with cattle bones were found at sites like Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhigarhi and Bijnor. Amulets, showing their belief in evil spirits, were found in large numbers. For example, a terracotta amulet having a ship symbol was found at Mohenjadaro. Shamanistic practice may also be present, hints being from copper tablets of Mohenjadaro. Do You Know ? Shamans are men and women who claim magical and healing powers, as well as an ability to communicate with the other world. Burial practices and grave-goods indicate their belief in life after death. Burial Practices of Harappans The dead of Harappan civilization were buried with a varying number of earthen pots. In some graves the dead were buried along with goods such as bangles, beads, copper mirrors. This may indicate that the Harappans believed in life after death. Harappans practiced majorly three forms of burial methods viz., 1. Complete burial -Burial of dead in north-south direction along with grave-goods. 2. Fractional burial-Burial of bones after exposing the dead body to birds and wild beasts. 3. Post-cremation burial-Cremation followed by burial of ashes. These different practices in different regions of Harappan civilization may reflect diversity in religious beliefs. Do You Know? At Lothal three joint or double burials with male and female bodies together were discovered. Kalibangan has yielded evidence of a symbolic burial i.e., a burial which contains pots but no bones or skeleton. Largest cemetery of 70 burials was unearthed at Farmana (Haryana). Four skeletal remains of mature-Harappan phase were found at Rakhigarhi (Haryana). A skeleton probably of a woman was found at Bijnor (Rajasthan) A skeleton having a copper crown on its skull was found at Chandayan(U.P.) A coffin burial has been found at Harappa. A dog buried with human oval pit burials was discovered in Ropar(Punjab). Pot-burials were found in Surkotada(Gujarat). © Study IQ Publications 26 Ancient and Medieval History: Static Revision Simplified Seals Seals are considered ‘the outstanding contribution of the Indus Civilization’ to ancient craftsmanship. More than 2000 seals have been found from the Harappan settlements. The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2×2 square inches, usually made from the soft river stone, steatite. Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script which is yet to be deciphered. Some seals have also been found in gold and ivory. Seals were generally square in shape and made of steatite but some round seals have also been found. The designs on the seals include a wide range of animals associated with groups of signs in a semi-pictographic script. Some seals have only scripts carved on them and some others bear trees, human and semi-human forms. Some seals show the use of various kinds of geometric patterns. The animal motifs used in seals are the Indian bison, bull, rhinoceros, tiger and elephant. Some animals – such as the one-horned animal, often called the “unicorn” – depicted on seals seem to be mythical, composite creatures. These kinds of seals might have been used for religious purpose. The purpose of producing seals was mainly commercial-Seals could have been used for exchange of goods between distant cities. Pashupati Seal The most remarkable Harappan seal is the one depicted with a figure in the centre and animals around, generally identified as the Pashupati Seal. This seal depicts a human figure seated cross-legged. An elephant and a tiger are depicted to the right side of the seated figure, while on the left a rhinoceros and a buffalo are seen. In addition to these animals two antelopes are shown below the seat. Harappan Script The Harappan script has not been deciphered so far. The inscriptions discovered so far are short, usually engraved on seals. Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs. This makes the task of decipherment all the more; difficult. The Harappan script is not alphabetical but mainly pictographic. Altogether 250 to 400 pictographs have been found and in the form of a picture each letter stands for some sound, idea or object. The script was written from right to left. Do You Know? One of the longest Indus inscriptions known is found at Dholavira in Gujarat. There are 10 symbols in the panel, each one is about 37 centimetres high and the board on which the letters were inscribed appears to have been about 3 meters long. One of the symbols is repeated 4 times. Based on its location near the entrance to the citadel, this large inscription has been called a “sign board.” Weights and Measures Exchanges of Harappans were regulated by a precise and uniform system of weights, usually made of a stone called chert and generally cubical , with no markings. The lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. up to 12,800), while the higher denominations followed the decimal system. The smaller weights were probably used for weighing jewellery and beads. Metal scale-pans have also been found. A bronze measurement rod and a stick inscribed with measuring marks were found at Harappa. Pottery The Harappan pottery consists chiefly of very fine wheelmade wares, very few being hand-made. Plain pottery is more common than painted ware. © Study IQ Publications Harappan Civilisation 27 Plain pottery is generally of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip. The black painted ware has a fine coating of red slip on which geometric and animal designs are executed in glossy black paint. Polychrome pottery is rare and mainly comprises small vases decorated with geometric patterns in red, black, and green, rarely white and yellow. Harappan pots were generally decorated with the designs of trees and circles. The images of men are also found on some pottery fragments. Art Harappans produced statues/images made up of stone, terracotta and bronze. Terracotta-They made terracotta images include mother goddess, figurines of bearded males, Toy carts with wheels, whistles, rattles, birds and animals, gamesmen and discs etc. Stone- The most famous examples are two male figures— one is a torso in red sandstone and the other is a bust of a bearded man in steatite. Bronze-Their bronze statues were made using the ‘lost wax’ technique.One famous example is the four-inch-high copper figure of a dancing girl found in Mohenjo Daro. DECLINE AND DISAPPEARANCE OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION The Harappan culture flourished until about 1900 BC; afterwards the culture began to decline. By the 19th century BC, the two important sites Harappa and Mohenjo-daro disappeared, but the Harappan culture at other sites faded out gradually and continued in its degenerate phase in the outlying fringes in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Harayana and western Uttar Pradesh. Harappan civilisation was followed by Jhooker culture (Jhooker was the first site where evidence of the existence of this culture was found). This culture developed in West Punjab and Bahawalpur is known as Graveyard-H culture. Important theories and their propounder regarding decline of the Indus culture are as follows: Opinions of Scholars about Decline of Indus Valley Civilization Causes of decline Scholars External aggression Gorden Childe, Stuart Piggot Unstable river system H.T. Lambrick, M.S. Vatsa Natural Calamities K.A.R. Kennedy Climate Change Orell Stein and A.N. Ghosh Aryan invasion R. Mortimer Wheeler, Gordon Earthquake Robert Raikes and Dales Dryness of river Sood and D.P. Aggarwal Ecological imbalance Fairchild Decline of trade with Mesopotamia Sheeren Ratnagar Floods S.R. Rao and Mackay There is no single cause that can explain the decline of civilization in totality. At the maximum these can explain the decay of certain sites or areas only. Hence, each of the theory has met with criticism. Nevertheless, the archaeological evidence indicates that the Harappan civilization did not collapse all of a sudden but declined gradually and ultimately merged with other local cultures. © Study IQ Publications 28 Ancient and Medieval History: Static Revision Simplified HARAPPAN SITES: AT A GLANCE Name of site Year of excavati-on Excavator River/Region Major Archaeological Findings Harappa 1921 Daya Ram Montgomery It is a planned city with grid pattern. Sahni district of Punjab Major Findings: (Now in Pakistan) 6 granaries covering an area of 275 square metres. on the bank of Coffin burial. Ravi river Cemetery-H of alien people. Virgin-Goddess. Stone symbols of Lingam and Yoni. Pear-shaped 16 firepits- ash and tar-coal found in these pits indicate that the Harappan people had the knowledge of making tar-coal. More than 891 Seals. Wheat and Barley in wooden mortar. Copper scale, Dice, Vanity box, Copper made mirror, workmen’s quarter. Mohenjo- 1922 RD Larkana district in It is Grid planned city. Daro Banerjee Sindh on the bank Major Findings: of Indus River Great Granary

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